Ms. T.

Grant Environmental Science Notes 12/13 grade

Sustainable Agriculture
Sustainable agriculture is a type of agriculture that focuses on producing long-term crops and
livestock while having minimal effects on the environment. This type of agriculture tries to find a
good balance between the need for food production and the preservation of the ecological system
within the environment.

Features of Sustainable Agriculture

1. Ecological Integrity refers to the ability of an ecosystem to support and maintain
ecological processes and a diverse community of organisms. Ecological Integrity is
measured as the degree to which a diverse community of native organisms is
maintained, and is used as a proxy for ecological resilience, intended as the
capacity of an ecosystem to adapt in the face of stressors, while maintaining the
functions of interest.
2. Economic viability: means economic feasibility i.e. it should be able to secure
financing – whether from public, commercial, or concessional sources – while having a
positive impact on society and the environment. Avoiding the wasteful consumption of
material resources

 Funding sources and profits earned must be legitimate and transparent.

 Projects should cover operating costs over their lifetime and generate an acceptable
rate of return.
 Integration of the project into the wider economic framework of local, regional, and
global monetary flows.
 Demonstrate flexibility to adapt to future changes of user needs, ownership, laws,
regulations, and economic fluctuations.
 Robust economic models are sought that take unpriced external costs into
consideration from the outset.
 Full utilisation of resources ( optimization)
3. Social equity: In the context of sustainability, the term equity has to do with fairness --
whether all people have similar rights, opportunities and access to all forms of
community capital.
4. Adoptability: an ability or willingness to change in order to suit different
conditions: Adaptability is a necessary quality in an ever-changing work environment.
Many countries depend on natural resources for many aspects of their sustenance and
subsistence. These include food, fibre, firewood and water. Agriculture, while contributing to the
livelihood of communities, may reduce the availability or value of natural resources to
communities. This may occur, for example through the pollution of water bodies such as rivers,
decreasing their usefulness to communities. Agriculture can therefore pose a potential threat to
the sustainable livelihood of these communities.
It is important that consideration is always given to ecological values when decisions about
agricultural practices are being made, to avoid consequences that are, at best unintended and, at
Ms. T. Grant Environmental Science Notes 12/13 grade

worst, destructive or dangerous. A basis for such decision making is to look at the four categories
of justification.
Utilitarian justification: deems some aspects of the environment as valuable because they provide
individuals with economic benefit or are directly necessary to their survival; for example, the sea
is valuable to fishermen.
Ecological justification: is based on the value of some factor that is essential to the support of life
on a larger scale, even though it may not benefit an individual directly, for example mangrove.
Aesthetic justification: has to do with the appreciation of the beauty of nature.
Moral justification: implies that various aspects of the environment have a right to exist and that
it is moral obligation to allow them to continue or help them to persist.
Within the various system of, a different wide range technologies are being applied. Some are
traditional and therefore tried and tested. Others are much more experimental and may prove to
be useful, or may ultimately be abandoned. Some technologies are only appropriate when
applied in particular locations or under specific conditions.
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1. No Tillage or Conservation farming

In no-tillage farming, the land is not ploughed and the remains of the previous crop such as the
root system, bind the soil together. Special machines are used for planting. These inject seeds
and fertilisers into slits made in the soil and apply herbicides.
Advantages:
 It reduces levels of soil compaction and erosion.
 It increases the amount of organic matter in the soil.
 It improves the water-holding capacity of the soil.
 It increases the number of crops per season and the yields from those crops.
 It is less expensive than conventional tillage because it requires less labour, fuel and
equipment.
Disadvantage of conservation tillage
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 The lack of tillage can decrease soil aeration and promote pest infestation.

2. Contour ploughing
Contour ploughing is a system in which land is ploughed along topographic contours, so that the
furrows are as a horizontal as possible.
The purpose of the contour ploughing is to reduce surface water run-off and so reduce soil
erosion.
Contour ploughing is normally combined with strip farming.
Strip cropping is a method of farming which involves cultivating a field partitioned into long,
narrow strips which are alternated in a crop rotation system. It is used when a slope is too
steep or when there is no alternative method of preventing soil erosion. The most common
crop choices for strip cropping are closely sown crops such as hay, wheat, or
other forages which are alternated with strips of row crops, such as corn, soybeans, cotton,
or sugar beets.[1] The forages serve primarily as cover crops. In certain systems, strips in
particularly eroded areas are used to grow permanent protective vegetation; in most systems,
however, all strips are alternated on an annual basis.
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In traditional ploughing, the ploughed furrows may run downhill and form channels for water to
flow off the land. Ploughing along the contours can greatly reduce erosion.

Contour ploughing images

3. Crop Rotation
This is the term applied when several different crops are planted successively in the same field,
with the field occasionally left fallow or planted with a cover crop.
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Crop rotation is effective because different types of crops remove different nutrients from the
soil. By a careful choice of crops, nutrients levels can be maintained or improved. In some
rotation systems, a farrow field is ploughed under, to add soil fertility. Leguminous plants are
often used as crop cover because their roots fix nitrogen from the atmosphere. This reduces the
requirement to use expensive nitrogenous fertilizers.
As the successive crops in the rotation system are of different species, the pest and diseases
associated with the species do not get a chance to build up, so pesticide use can be reduced.
Advantages of Crop Rotation:
 It improves soil fertility
 It controls pests and diseases
 It controls weeds
 It occupies farm labour throughout the year.
 It maintains income throughout the year.
Disadvantages of Crop Rotation:
 Farm equipment available and used to cultivate one crop might not be the same as is
required for production of another, so more equipment is needed and machinery can stand
idle.
 It can be difficult to find another crop that will provide the same economic returns,
especially in commercial farming.
All agriculture suffers from pests. From an ecological point of view, pests are undesirable
competitors, parasites or predators. The major agricultural pests are insects (feeding mainly on
the live parts of plants, especially leaves and stems); nematodes, which affects tomatoes (very
small worms that live mainly in soil and feed on roots and other plant tissues); bacteria and viral
diseases; weeds (flowering plants that compete with the crop) and vertebrates (mainly rodents
and birds that feed on grains or fruit).
Pre-harvest losses are due to competition from weeds, diseases and herbivores. Post-harvest
losses are largely due to herbivores.
Ms. T. Grant Environmental Science Notes 12/13 grade

Image illustrating crop rotation

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
The aim of integrated pest management is to contain pests through the minimum use of artificial
chemicals and with the minimum disruption of natural ecological processes. Typically, IPM uses
biological control to augment or replace artificial pesticides. The system integrates various
control techniques, including:
 The use of natural enemies of pests, including predators, parasites and diseases specific
to the pests.
 The planting of a greater diversity of crops to reduce the chance that a pest will find a
host plant.
 No-till or till-agriculture, which helps the natural enemies of some pests to build up in
the soil.
 The application of a set of highly specific chemicals, used much more sparingly than in
earlier approaches.
Integrated pest management takes account of ecological communities and ecosystems,
including the effects of one species on others. A decrease in one species, for instance, may
lead to an increase in another. Four principle govern IPM.
 A certain level of pest is tolerable. The method is considered a success if pests are kept at
these levels.
 The use of control agents should be minimized.
 The ecosystem should be the management unit (instead of single species).
 Active oversight should be exercised, as any control action can have unexpected and
unwanted effects.
The methods used in IPM include chemicals, he development of genetically resistant stock,
biological control and land culture.
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Biological control involves a set of methods to control pests by using natural, ecological
interactions, including predation, parasitism and competition. It includes the intentional
introduction of predator, disease or other parasites of a pest. For example, ladybirds are common
predators of many plant-eating pests.
The term ‘land culture’ refers to how the land is physically managed, including whether and how
it is ploughed, what kind of crop rotation is used, the dates of planting and the method of
harvesting, to reduce the presence of pests in the product sold or in crop residues.
Advantages of IPM
 This method of controlling pests is much cheaper than using agrochemicals.
 IPM reduces pests to an economically harmless level. They are not totally eradicated,
thus preserving biodiversity in ecosystems.
 It minimizes the use of agricultural chemicals and so decreases the environment impacts
associated with their misuse.
Disadvantages of IPM
 The system allows a low level of pest infestation, so a certain amount of economic
damage must be accepted.
 It is time-consuming, as it requires a thorough knowledge of the life cycle of the pests,
their host and their interactions.
 Farmers have to be educated so that they can adopt the strategies that will work best in
their particular situations.
Advantages of Biological control
 Use of natural predators is effective and only the target pest is affected.
 Biological control is much cheaper than costly chemical control methods and is simple to
apply.
 Biological control methods are natural and no synthetic materials or gene modifications
are required, so the food consumer is protected from harm and no chemical residues are
left in the environment.
 This is a long-term method of control and can be economically and environmentally
worthwhile.
Disadvantages of biological control
 Biological control may involve the introduction of a new species, which may also
attack unintended, non-target species when the target pest population is limited.
 The method is time-consuming and a great deal of work has to be done in order to
determine the effectiveness of the biological control agent and its effect on the
environment. The possibility exists that the introduced species may not become
successfully established in the new environment and so may be effective only in the
short term.
Genetic Control
Ms. T. Grant Environmental Science Notes 12/13 grade

Genetic pest control, using genetic engineering techniques, is another non-chemical method of
controlling pests. Particular genes that give an organism desirable characteristics, such as pest
resistance, are identified and isolated. These desirable genes are then inserted into the genetic
structure of the target crop or animal. These new organisms then carry the desirable gene and
have the desired characteristic, such as pest or disease resistance.
Advantage of genetic control:
 The method is specific and has no direct impact on non-target species.
 It does not use chemicals to kill pests and so leaves no residue in the environment.
 It is very effective in eliminating pests in low density infestations.
Disadvantages:
 It is very time-consuming to produce desired varieties.
 It is very costly to produce such varieties, due to the intensive technical effort required.
 Genetic resistance can be overcome when pests adopt through natural selection, leading
to superbugs’.
Developing disease or pest-resistant crop varieties
Pest-resistant crops can be developed by selective breeding. These are usually derived from
plants that are naturally resistant to a particular pest. If these plants are identified and crossed
with standard varieties, the off spring of this cross will inherit the pest-resistance genes. The
pest resistance variety is then cross-bred with other resistance varieties to produce a strongly
pest-resistant plant that can be developed commercially.
Advantages of developing resistant crop varieties
 Costs associated with selective breeding methods are much lower than other
methods such as genetic control.
 This method of controlling pest is natural and no artificial species are created.
 There is no harmful effect on the environment or ecosystems.
 There is little or no use of pesticides, so there are no harmful effect on the
environment or ecosystems.
Disadvantages of developing resistant crop varieties
 Resistance genes may not all be transferred to offspring and selective breeding has
to be repeated again until the new offspring contain all the desirable genes. Tis can
be time consuming, and may delay production.
Pest Control, using pheromones and hormones
Pheromones are chemicals produced by insects and other animals to stimulate a response or to
identify other members of the same species. They are important in finding mates and marking
territories. Once insect pest pheromones are identified, they can be synthetically produced and
used to lure insects to traps where they are killed. They can also be released into the atmosphere
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to confuse insects so that they cannot locate potential mates. This reduces productive potential
and decreases the size of their population.
In cabbage crops in the USA, female pheromones are used to trap male butterflies. These
males are dosed with fungi that will slowly kill them. The infested male butterflies are released
into the cabbage crop, where they mate with and infest females, who then lay their eggs. Infested
females and their eggs will slowly die before they can harm the cabbage crop. Even if the eggs
hatch into young caterpillars that feed on the crop, these will die before they can cause too much
harm.
Hormones are chemicals produced by insects and other animals to regulate their own growth
and metamorphosis. Different hormones are produced at each stage of development. If the
hormones are present at too low a level, or are of the wrong type, the insect develops abnormally
and dies. Once they are identified, the hormones can be produced synthetically and used to
promote abnormal development and death of the pest. This approach can reduce the size of the
insect pest population.
Advantage of Using Pheromones and Hormones
 They are easy to apply and a large number of insects can be treated at the same time.
 They are species specific and have little or no effect on non-target species.
 They have no toxic chemical residues in the environment.
Disadvantages of using pheromones and hormones
 Beneficial insects can be affected. Similar species may produce similar pheromones
or hormones that may confused or misguide beneficial insects needed for
pollination.
 Synthetic hormones and pheromones are costly to produce as their chemical
composition may be quite complex, thus it is time-consuming to synthesize them.
Post harvest Crop-handling methods
Farmers are faced with the challenge of delivering high quality produce to the consumer. To
achieve this, they must maintain high quality from the field to the market place, to extend the
shelf-life of the produce. The focus must be on good post-harvest management and simple food
preservation techniques.
http://www.fao.org/3/y4358e/y4358e05.htm

Post harvest management is the application of various methods and techniques that delay the
process of senescence (biological aging) and maintain the highest possible quality in the product.
The aims of post harvest treatment are:
 The preservation of the integrity of the product by avoiding damage.
 The maintenance of quality, size, shape, taste, odour and nutrients.
 The prevention of post-harvest diseases
 The preservation of weight loss due to excessive respiration and dehydration.
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 The prolonging of storage life by treatment or processing.

Hydroponics
This is the practice of growing plants in a fertilized water solution, on a completely artificial
substrate, in an artificial environment such as a greenhouse. As the best land for agriculture is
already used, more and more marginal land will be farmed. These lands are considered marginal
because they lack water, have poor soil quality or lie on slopes so steep that the soil readily
erodes. Some people suggest that in the future, we will rely increasingly on artificial agriculture
such as hydroponics. The technique is, however extremely expensive and capital intensive and is
unlikely to be effective in developing countries where hunger is the greatest.
As hydroponics is technology-dependent and capital intensive, it might appear to be an
unsustainable agricultural method. However, this is not necessarily the case as can be seen from
the arguments below.
 Soil-borne pests, diseases and weeds are eliminated, decreasing the need for pesticides
and their environmental consequences.
 More plants can be grown in limited space, decreasing the need to clear more forest areas
and thereby causing habitat destruction.
 Since fertilizers solution are recirculated, the quality of fertilizers entering water bodies
and the possibility of eutrophication will be reduced.
Advantages of hydroponics
 Crops can be cultivated throughout the year.
 Crops will always have a steady supply of water and nutrients.
 Crops will also be free from pests associated with soil (bacteria, fungi and insects)
 Crops are easy to harvest.
 With the use of artificial lighting, food crops can be grown faster than under natural
conditions.
 Marginal and waste lands (land with poor nutrients, water content or a steep slope) can
be used for hydroponics.
Disadvantages:
 It is expensive to start up and run.
 Most farmers (peasant farmers) are not sufficiently educated to understand the
requirements of the system. A lot of time and resources have to be spent in educating
them about hydroponics.
 Large crops that have extensive root systems are difficult to cultivate where there is no
soil (yams , potatoes, sugarcane, wheat).
Terracing
In agriculture, a terrace is a piece of sloped plane that has been cut into a series of successively
receding flat surfaces or platforms, which resemble steps, for the purposes of more effective
farming. This type of landscaping is therefore called terracing.
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Graduated terrace steps are commonly used to farm on hilly or mountainous terrain. Terraced
fields decrease both erosion and surface runoff, and may be used to support growing crops that
require irrigation, such as rice.
Terracing is a soil conservation practice applied to prevent rainfall runoff on sloping
land from accumulating and causing serious erosion. Terraces consist of ridges and
channels constructed across-the-slope.

Agroforestry and its Benefits

Agroforestry is the management and integration of trees, crops and/or livestock on the same plot of
land and can be an integral component of productive agriculture. It may include existing native forests
and forests established by landholders. It is a flexible concept, involving both small and large-sized land
holdings.

According to the Agroforestry Research Trust, agroforestry systems can include the following
benefits:
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 They can control runoff and soil erosion, thereby reducing losses of water, soil material,
organic matter and nutrients.
 They can maintain soil organic matter and biological activity at levels satisfactory for soil
fertility. This depends on an adequate proportion of trees in the system- normally at least
20% crown cover of trees to maintain organic matter over systems as a whole.
 They can maintain more favourable soil physical properties than agriculture, through
organic matter maintenance and the effects of tree roots.
 They can lead to more closed nutrient cycling than agriculture and hence to more
efficient use of nutrients. This is true to an impressive degree for forest garden/farming
systems.
 They can check the development of soil toxicities, or reduce exiting toxicities-both soil
acidification and salinization can be checked and trees can be employed in the
reclamation of polluted soils.
 They utilize solar energy more efficiently than monocultural systems different height
plants, leaf shapes and alignments all contribute.
 They can lead to reduced insect pests and associated diseases.
 They can be employed to reclaim eroded and degraded land.
 Agro forestry can augment soil water availability to land use systems. In dry regions,
though, competition between trees and crops is a major problem.
 Nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs can substantially increase nitrogen inputs to agro
forestry systems.
Trees can probably increase nutrient inputs to agro forestry systems by retrieval from lower soil
horizons and weathering rock.
The decomposition of tree and pruning can substantially contribute to maintenance of soil
fertility. The addition of high-quality tree prunings leads to large increase in crop yields.
The release of nutrients from the decomposition of tree residues can be synchronized with the
requirements for nutrient uptake of associated crops. While different trees and crops will all have
different requirement, and there will always be some imbalance, the addition of high quality
prunings to the soil at the time of crop planting usually leads to a good degree of synchrony
between nutrient release and demand.
In the maintenance of soil fertility under agro forestry, the role of roots is at least as important as
that of above-ground biomass.
Agro forestry can provide a more diverse farm economy and stimulate the whole rural economy,
leading to more stable farms and communities. Economics risks are reduced when systems
produce multiple products.
As well as building on practices used in forestry and agriculture, agroforestry also works towards
land protection and conservation through more effective protection of stock, control of soil
erosion, salinity and water tables and a higher quality control of timber.
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A denser, more-dependable tree covering can provide shelter to livestock during the warmer
months allowing the animals can conserve energy. That same tree covering helps block out wind,
helping to boost water retention levels that can help produce a more robust crop yield.
According to the Central Queensland Forest Association (based in rainforest-rich Northern
Australia), agroforestry can improve land protection in the following areas:
Salinity and water table control:
Salinity is mainly caused by rising water tables. Trees help to lower water tables, acting as
pumps to take up water from the soil and then evaporating it to the atmosphere.
Soil erosion control:
Soil erosion or loss results from the action of wind and water on unprotected soils. The forest
canopy, roots and leaf litter all have a role in controlling soil erosion.
Water logging:
Through water removal, established trees can substantially reduce water logging in their
immediate area, which may result in improved land uses, e.g. pasture or crop.
Agroforestry can have immense benefits for the environment and the farmer (a detailed
breakdown of agroforestry's main benefits can be found on AgriInfo's site). For farmers, the
ability to maintain some sort of control over land and production in the face of climate change
means agrofrestry could hold huge promise for the agricultural sector.
On an environmental level, agroforestry's ability to help prevent soil erosion while
simultaneously aiding water retention and promoting soil fertility could help provide a solution
for areas where rainfal is irregular or might become irregular due to climate change while dense
plantations of trees would also help absorb CO2 and regulate local temperature.

What are the disadvantages of agroforestry?

Agroforestry systems can be as diverse as natural ecosystems are. What works on one farm,
may not work on another farm. The combination of crops, animals and tree species interacts
in complex ways that can be difficult to predict.

Before getting all excited about the numerous advantages of this farming method, it is good to
learn about disadvantages of agroforestry as well. Being well informed is the most effective
tool in preventing unwanted consequences.
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#1 Labor intensive system

A successful agroforestry system requires adequate knowledge, planning and periodic tree
maintenance. Having trees or shrubs among the crops doesn’t allow complete

mechanization of the farm’s production, which can be a nuisance for some farmers.

Growing healthy trees for profit requires regular maintenance work that takes years of
commitment and is highly specialized.

Spaces between the trees have to be individually maintained to control weed growth and to
make sure that each tree has enough space to develop according to its purpose. For example,
trees grown for timber can be grown closer together because this will encourage the
development of a straight trunk. On the other hand, fruit or nut trees should have larger
spacing to allow full crown formation.

This requires regular monitoring and systematic work that differs during tree growth stages.
Small trees may require fertilization and irrigation in their first years. When they grow bigger,
regular pruning and thinning is needed to ensure their healthy development and good yield.
Individual trees should also be checked for pests and diseases throughout the season.

#2 Long waiting time for payback

There are very few downsides to agroforestry. However, the main disadvantage for those
trying to grow trees and shrubs for profit is time. Agroforestry is never a quick “fix” because
trees, unlike crops, take a long time to mature before they can really fulfill their purpose in the
system.

Take for example a pecan tree. The tree usually reaches its full production when ten years old.
This is a long time for a single farmer to wait for the potential profit. But if farmers plant trees
with a greater vision, for future generations, agroforestry is definitely worth the effort and
investment. A single pecan tree can keep producing nuts for more than 100 years, not even
mentioning other services it will perform for the soil and adjacent crops [28].

In some situations, such a long waiting time is a serious obstacle. This is often the case of
small farmers from developing countries whose livelihood depends on their annual harvest.
Due to the lack of money, these farmers have to plan their activities carefully. They cannot
afford to spend time caring for trees, which will not earn money for the season. They rather
spend their time cultivating cash crops or performing other crafts that will bring them money
instantly.
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Additional limitation for subsistence farmers is the uncertainty of market prices. The price for
agroforestry products may be high at the moment, but since it involves a few years waiting
time, farmers cannot be certain that the price will not drop when they want to sell their
products, which would render their hard work disappointing [29].

#3 Limited possibilities to sell products

Agroforestry is seriously underestimated and overlooked from many perspectives.

Unfortunately, one reason why farmers are reluctant to switch to agroforestry are poorly
structured markets for many tree products. A part of the problem is that many agroforestry
products are not commonly traded goods. They are rare and it is difficult for farmers to
market them or to access information about the market development. This results in a lot of
uncertainty.

Farmers have to face price fluctuations, or a refusal of their products and an inability to find
promptly a new buyer. For example, a buyer may refuse the products if they do not look
according to expectations or if the harvest was lower that year and a farmer cannot supply
agreed amount.

Additional problem arises from the diverse nature of agroforestry products. As a study of
marketing limitations in agroforestry in India mentions, farmers do not have a problem to
access market for crops, fruits and vegetables. Even the information about prices is
transparent in case of these products [30].

But when it comes to wood products, the situation is different. Wood product sales fall under
the forest and environmental laws that do not fully recognize agroforestry as one of its
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branches. When agroforestry farmers want to market their wood products, they need to go
through a lengthy and difficult process of obtaining special permits [30].

Similar issue happens in Philippines. Tree farming is more profitable in the long term than
crop production, but uncertain marketing conditions discourage small farmers from taking the
risk of tree planting for their livelihoods.

#4 Lack of legal support for agroforestry farmers

After the Second World War, intensive agriculture quickly replaced other forms of farming.
Monocultures prevailed because they were seen as the most productive systems, allowing for
mechanization and efficiency of farming operations. That is when agricultural policies and
incentives started to favor these farming methods. And this also marked the time when many
trees on farms were removed to make space for subsidized cash crops [31].

Despite the research on the numerous benefits of agroforestry for sustainable agricultural
production, supportive policies for this farming method are still insufficient. Since this form
of land management combines forestry and agriculture, it often fails to qualify for subsidies of
either sector. Agroforestry doesn’t have characteristics of a typical forest or agricultural land,
it is a complex combination of both land use systems.

Due to its specific character, agroforestry needs policies that are specifically targeted on the
functioning of this system. Policies that will coordinate and define various elements involved
in agroforestry development. There is also a need to simplify regulations to allow easier
access of farmers to the market. Unfortunately, this is not an easy task and the whole process
may take time, hindering some farmers from adopting this agricultural method.

While this may sound disappointing, some countries have made the first steps towards
creating a favorable environment. The first country that adopted an agroforestry policy was
India in 2014. India’s National Agroforestry Policy addresses problems and risks of
agroforestry farmers and aims to encourage integration of trees into rural landscapes.

#5 Knowledge and technology intensive method

Successful agroforestry systems require proper knowledge and evaluation of the complexities
of such a multi-dimensional production. Farmers need to master the methods of combining
different plants, considering their compatibility and long-term effects on each other. They also
need to think of their main objective. What is the main purpose of tree integration into their
farming system–is it products or services such as erosion control?
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Agroforestry may fail miserably when applied to the wrong situation (see the disadvantages
below to learn more). It is, therefore, recommended to seek expert advise or do a thorough
research that will take into consideration local conditions, market situation and government
regulations for land management. In some cases, this can be rather difficult since agroforestry
is a new concept and some of this important information is missing.

Another barrier to the process of determining the right system for the desired purpose is the
long time scale. Many farmers are able to harvest trees only once in their lifetime. This means
that they lack the experience and knowledge of the best management practices, which leaves
many of them working on the basis of trial and error.

Due to the lack of information combined with poor understanding of how agroforestry could
improve production on small farms, poorer subsistence farmers, who could have benefited
from this practice the most, are often reluctant to trying [32]. More research and awareness
raising is needed if we want to see more trees on farms.

#6 Competition for resources

When not selected to complement each other, trees may compete with crops or livestock for
resources. If farmers plant trees in narrow alleys, it is likely that when they will grow bigger,
their crowns will shade most of the land below. In this situation, farmers need to switch to
shade tolerant crops, otherwise they will experience poor harvest and will be forc ed to cut the
trees down without getting full benefits from them.

In semiarid regions, trees can compete with crops for water, making soils drier and
exacerbating problems with available water content in soils. This is usually a result of having
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too many trees in an area that cannot support rich vegetation or from planting unsuitable tree
species that require larger amounts of water than native species.

Similar problem arises when trees are grown on soils with low nutrient content. In areas
where tree roots and crop roots overlap, trees could compete with crops for available
nutrients. To minimize this competition, experts recommend adding fertilizer to crops grown
closest to the trees and planting of deep-rooted trees rather than shallow rooted varieties with
lateral root branching [33].

On the other hand, nutrient content in soils increases farther away from tree roots. It is thanks
to the decomposition of tree litter. When maintained properly, suitable tree species do support
better crop growth, but they have to be chosen wisely.

#7 Invasive species and alternate hosts of pests

The choice of the right tree species determines the success of the whole system. Trees impact
their surrounding environment and their impact doesn’t have to be only a positive one. In
some cases, trees can harbor pests of crops or provide nesting habitats to birds and rodents
that damage crops.

For example, in Côte d’Ivoire, scientists observed that maize harvest was reduced by 25
percent in the closest distance to hedgerows due to the damage caused by rodents which live
in them [34].

There have also been cases when introduced trees turn into invasive species, causing more
harm than benefit.
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In fact, 25 tree species used commonly in agroforestry are listed as invasive species [34].

One such example is Leucaena leucocephala, a tree that is very versatile as a source of
firewood, animal fodder and even for human consumption of its pods. At the same time, this
tree is one of the worst invasive species, spreading quickly and forming dens e thickets that
destroy other vegetation when not controlled [35].

#8 Allelopathy

Some trees produce chemicals that inhibit growth of other plants. This effect is called
allelopathy and can be very profound in some tree species. For example, Eucalyptus tre es, that
were once favored in agroforestry, suppress vegetation (including crops) up to a distance of
36 feet (11 meters) away from trees.

Eucalyptus releases highly toxic volatile terpenes that inhibit germination of other seeds [36].
For this reason, it is not recommended to use these trees in agroforestry anymore.

Another example is neem. A tree used in cosmetics, medicine, or pest control. The tree
releases chemicals that affect root growth of common crops such as oats, wheat, maize or
soybean. Nearly one quarter of oats harvest has been lost in the presence of neem trees on the
field boundary [36].

What makes the situation even more tricky is that the interaction between trees and different
crops is not yet fully understood. More research has to be done to determine how to eliminate
negative influences and encourage positive effects of trees on crop plants.

Organic farming is a technique, which involves cultivation of plants and rearing of animals in
natural ways. This process involves the use of biological materials, avoiding synthetic substances
to maintain soil fertility and ecological balance thereby minimizing pollution and wastage. In
other words, organic farming is a farming method that involves growing and nurturing crops
without the use of synthetic based fertilizers and pesticides. Also, no genetically modified
organisms are permitted.

It relies on ecologically balanced agricultural principles like crop rotation, green manure, organic
waste, biological pest control, mineral and rock additives. Organic farming make use of
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pesticides and fertilizers if they are considered natural and avoids the use of various
petrochemical fertilizers and pesticides.

Differences Between Organic and Conventional Farming Methods

In conventional farming method, before seeds are sown, the farmer will have to treat or fumigate
his farm using harsh chemicals to exterminate any naturally existing fungicides. He will fertilize
the soil using petroleum based fertilizers. On the flip side, the organic farmer will prepare and
enrich his land before sowing by sprinkling natural based fertilizers such as manure, bone meal
or shellfish fertilizer.

Before planting seeds, the organic farmer will soak the seeds in fungicides and pesticides to keep
insects and pests at bay. Chemical are also incorporated in the irrigation water to prevent insects
from stealing the planted seeds. On the other hand, the organic farmer will not soak his seeds in
any chemical solution nor irrigate the newly planted seeds using water with added chemicals. In
fact, he will not even irrigate with council water, which is normally chlorinated to kill any
bacteria. He will depend on natural rain or harvest and stored rainwater to use during dry months.

When the seeds have sprung up, and it’s time to get rid of weeds, the conventional farmer will
use weedicide to exterminate weeds. The organic farmer will not use such chemicals to get rid of
the weed problem. Instead, he will physically weed out the farm, although it’s very labor
intensive. Better still, the organic farmer can use a flame weeder to exterminate weeds or use
animals to eat away the weeds.

When it comes to consumption, it’s a no-brainer that anyone consuming products from the
conventional farmer will absorb the pesticide and weedicide residues into the body, which could
lead to developing dangerous diseases like cancer. People understand that health is important to
them and that’s why they are going organic in record numbers today.
Ms. T. Grant Environmental Science Notes 12/13 grade

Reasons For Organic Farming

The population of the planet is skyrocketing and providing food for the world is becoming
extremely difficult. The need of the hour is sustainable cultivation and production of food for all.
The Green Revolution and its chemical based technology are losing its appeal as dividends are
falling and returns are unsustainable. Pollution and climate change are other negative
externalities caused by use of fossil fuel based chemicals.

In spite of our diet choices, organic food is the best choice you’ll ever make, and this means
embracing organic farming methods. Here are the reasons why we need to take up organic
farming methods:

1. To accrue the benefits of nutrients

Foods from organic farms are loaded with nutrients such as vitamins, enzymes, minerals and
other micro-nutrients compared to those from conventional farms. This is because organic farms
are managed and nourished using sustainable practices. In fact, some past researchers collected
and tested vegetables, fruits, and grains from both organic farms and conventional farms.

The conclusion was that food items from organic farms had way more nutrients than those
sourced from commercial or conventional farms. The study went further to substantiate that five
servings of these fruits and vegetables from organic farms offered sufficient allowance of
vitamin C. However, the same quantity of fruits and vegetable did not offer the same sufficient
allowance.

2. Stay away from GMOs

Statistics show that genetically modified foods (GMOs) are contaminating natural foods sources
at real scary pace, manifesting grave effects beyond our comprehension. What makes them a
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great threat is they are not even labeled. So, sticking to organic foods sourced from veritable
sources is the only way to mitigate these grave effects of GMOs.

3. Natural and better taste

Those that have tasted organically farmed foods would attest to the fact that they have a natural
and better taste. The natural and superior taste stems from the well balanced and nourished soil.
Organic farmers always prioritize quality over quantity.

4. Direct support to farming

Purchasing foods items from organic farmers is a surefire investment in a cost-effective future.
Conventional farming methods have enjoyed great subsidies and tax cuts from most governments
over the past years. This has led to the proliferation of commercially produced foods that have
increased dangerous diseases like cancer. It’s time governments invested in organic farming
technologies to mitigates these problems and secure the future. It all starts with you buying food
items from known organic sources.

5. To conserve agricultural diversity

These days, it normal to hear news about extinct species and this should be a major concern. In
the last century alone, it is approximated that 75 percent of agricultural diversity of crops has
been wiped out. Slanting towards one form of farming is a recipe for disaster in the future. A
classic example is a potato. There were different varieties available in the marketplace. Today,
only one species of potato dominate.

This is a dangerous situation because if pests knock out the remaining potato specie available
today, we will not have potatoes anymore. This is why we need organic farming methods that
produce disease and pest resistant crops to guarantee a sustainable future.
Ms. T. Grant Environmental Science Notes 12/13 grade

6. To prevent antibiotics, drugs, and hormones in animal products

Commercial dairy and meat are highly susceptible to contamination by dangerous substances. A
statistic in an American journal revealed that over 90% of chemicals the population consumes
emanate from meat tissue and dairy products. According to a report by Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), a vast majority of pesticides are consumed by the population stem from poultry,
meat, eggs, fish and dairy product since animals and birds that produce these products sit on top
of the food chain.

This means they are fed foods loaded with chemicals and toxins. Drugs, antibiotics, and growth
hormones are also injected into these animals and so, are directly transferred to meat and dairy
products. Hormone supplementation fed to farmed fish, beef and dairy products contribute
mightily to ingestion of chemicals. These chemicals only come with a lot of complications like
genetic problems, cancer risks, growth of tumor and other complications at the outset of puberty.

Key Features of Organic Farming

 Protecting soil quality using organic material and encouraging biological activity
 Indirect provision of crop nutrients using soil microorganisms
 Nitrogen fixation in soils using legumes
 Weed and pest control based on methods like crop rotation, biological diversity,
natural predators, organic manures and suitable chemical, thermal and biological
intervention
 Rearing of livestock, taking care of housing, nutrition, health, rearing and breeding
 Care for the larger environment and conservation of natural habitats and wildlife

Four Principles of Organic Farming

 Principle of Health: Organic agriculture must contribute to the health and well being
of soil, plants, animals, humans and the earth. It is the sustenance of mental, physical,
ecological and social well being. For instance, it provides pollution and chemical free,
nutritious food items for humans.
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 Principle of Fairness: Fairness is evident in maintaining equity and justice of the

shared planet both among humans and other living beings. Organic farming provides
good quality of life and helps in reducing poverty. Natural resources must be
judiciously used and preserved for future generations.

 Principle of Ecological Balance: Organic farming must be modeled on living

ecological systems. Organic farming methods must fit the ecological balances and
cycles in nature.

 Principle of Care: Organic agriculture should be practiced in a careful and

responsible manner to benefit the present and future generations and the environment.

As opposed to modern and conventional agricultural methods, organic farming does not depend
on synthetic chemicals. It utilizes natural, biological methods to build up soil fertility such as
microbial activity boosting plant nutrition.

Secondly, multiple cropping practiced in organic farming boosts biodiversity which enhances
productivity and resilience and contributes to a healthy farming system. Conventional farming
systems use mono cropping that destroys the soil fertility.
Ms. T. Grant Environmental Science Notes 12/13 grade

Why is modern farming unsustainable?

1. Loss of soil fertility due to excessive use of chemical fertilizers and lack of crop
rotation.
2. Nitrate run off during rains contaminates water resources.
3. Soil erosion due to deep ploughing and heavy rains.
4. More requirement of fuel for cultivation.
5. Use of poisonous bio-cide sprays to curb pest and weeds.
6. Cruelty to animals in their housing, feeding, breeding and slaughtering.
7. Loss of biodiversity due to mono culture.
8. Native animals and plants lose space to exotic species and hybrids.
Ms. T. Grant Environmental Science Notes 12/13 grade

Benefits of Organically Grown Food Items and Agricultural Produce

 Better Nutrition: As compared to a longer time conventionally grown food, organic

food is much richer in nutrients. Nutritional value of a food item is determined by its
mineral and vitamin content. Organic farming enhances the nutrients of the soil which
is passed on to the plants and animals.

 Helps us stay healthy: Organic foods do not contain any chemical. This is because
organic farmers don’t use chemicals at any stage of the food-growing process like
their commercial counterparts. Organic farmers use natural farming techniques that
don’t harm humans and environment. These foods keep dangerous diseases like
cancer and diabetes at bay.

 Free of poison: Organic farming does not make use of poisonous chemicals,
pesticides and weedicides. Studies reveal that a large section of the population fed
on toxic substances used in conventional agriculture have fallen prey to diseases like
cancer. As organic farming avoids these toxins, it reduces the sickness and diseases
due to them.

 Organic foods are highly authenticated: For any produce to qualify as organic food,
it must undergo quality checks and the creation process rigorously investigated. The
same rule applies to international markets. This is a great victory for consumers
because they are getting the real organic foods. These quality checks and
investigations weed out quacks who want to benefit from the organic food label by
delivering commercially produced foods instead.

 Lower prices: There is a big misconception that organic foods are relatively
expensive. The truth is they are actually cheaper because they don’t require
application of expensive pesticides, insecticides, and weedicides. In fact, you can get
organic foods direct from the source at really reasonable prices.

 Enhanced Taste: The quality of food is also determined by its taste. Organic food
often tastes better than other food. The sugar content in organically grown fruits and
Ms. T. Grant Environmental Science Notes 12/13 grade

vegetables provides them with extra taste. The quality of fruits and vegetables can be
measured using Brix analysis.

 Organic farming methods are eco-friendly: In commercial farms, the chemicals

applied infiltrate into the soil and severely contaminate it and nearby water sources.
Plant life, animals, and humans are all impacted by this phenomenon. Organic farming
does not utilize these harsh chemicals so; the environment remains protected.

 Longer shelf–life: Organic plants have greater metabolic and structural integrity in
their cellular structure than conventional crops. This enables storage of organic food
for a longer time.

Organic farming is preferred as it battles pests and weeds in a non-toxic manner, involves less
input costs for cultivation and preserves the ecological balance while promoting biological
diversity and protection of the environment.

Disadvantages of organic farming

 Organic food is more expensive because farmers do not get as much out of their land
as conventional farmers do. Organic products may cost up to 40% more.
 Production costs are higher because farmers need more workers.
 Marketing and distribution is not efficient because organic food is produced in
smaller amounts.
 Food illnesses may happen more often.
 Organic farming cannot produce enough food that the world’s population needs to survive.
This could lead to starvation in countries that produce enough food today.

Waste Utilization and Minimization

Agricultural wastes are defined as the residues from the growing and processing of raw
agricultural products such as fruits, vegetables, meat, poultry, dairy products, and crops. They
are the non-product outputs of production and processing of agricultural products that may
contain material that can benefit man but whose economic values are less than the cost of
collection, transportation, and processing for beneficial use. Their composition will depend on
Ms. T. Grant Environmental Science Notes 12/13 grade

the system and type of agricultural activities and they can be in the form of liquids, slurries, or
solids. Agricultural waste otherwise called agro-waste is comprised of animal waste (manure,
animal carcasses), food processing waste (only 20% of maize is canned and 80% is waste), crop
waste (corn stalks, sugarcane bagasse, drops and culls from fruits and vegetables, prunings) and
hazardous and toxic agricultural waste (pesticides, insecticides and herbicides, etc).

The target should be to make agricultural wastes a resource that can be utilized and not just
discarded. Agricultural wastes can be used to enhance food security mainly through their use as
bio-fertilizer and soil amendment, use as animal feed, and energy production. They contain large
amounts of organic matter, and many of them can be directly added to the soil without any risk.
Turning these agricultural wastes (crop residues and animal manures) into organic fertilizers
(through composting) is one of the waste treatment technologies that make it possible to use
organic waste as a fertilizer even in populated areas. Technology plays a key role in soil fertility
improvement, and hence crop productivity [15, 16]. The use of organic fertilizers is particularly
important in most parts of Africa, where low availability of nutrients is a serious constraint for
food production [17]. Composting also reduces the volume of the waste, hence solving serious
environmental problems concerning disposal of large quantities of waste, kills pathogens that
may be present, decreases the germination of weeds in agricultural fields, and reduces odour
[18]. The compost can be sold for additional revenue or used on the same farm. Besides, the
production of composts for agricultural use is gaining popularity as a result of the rising interest
in organic products such as goat meats and maize)(Fig. 3). Figure 3: The wastes are eaten by
goats for production of meat while compost applied on soil increases maize production. Both
crop residues and animal waste can be used as animal feed. However, the nutrient content of
animal waste depends on the animal species, type of feed, and bedding material used [11]. The
use of broiler litter in cattle feeding is a widely applied practice. It is worth noting that animals,
especially ruminants are useful in converting crop residues into food, hence contributing
substantially to reducing potential pollutants. The rumen contains the microbial enzyme
cellulase, which is the only enzyme to digest the most abundant plant product, cellulose [19].
Ms. T. Grant Environmental Science Notes 12/13 grade

With ruminants, nutrients in by-products are utilized and do not become a waste-disposal
problem [20]. The production of energy from agricultural waste has been utilized to varying
degrees in different parts of the world [4]. According to [11], besides generating revenue from
the energy produced, waste-to-energy schemes offer an alternative and environmentally
acceptable means of waste disposal. Additionally, the schemes also provide a valuable by-
product: a good quality, agricultural fertilizer that is nearly odourless. With the concern over
future energy shortages and increasing costs of conventional fuels and electricity derived from
them, there is increasing interest in using anaerobic digestion as a source of renewable energy
while providing acceptable waste management. For instance, in Uganda, the basic source of fuel
is wood used in the form of charcoal or firewood for heating and cooking. This dependence on
traditional charcoal and firewood is responsible for the prevailing deforestation and soil
degradation, the effects of which have manifested in irregular rainfall, floods and violent storms.
Agricultural wastes can be a valuable resource for improving food security, however, if not
treated, kept or disposed off properly, agricultural wastes are likely to cause pollution to the
environment or even harm to human health. This calls for increased public awareness on the
benefits and potential hazards of agricultural wastes, especially in developing countries.

Farm Waste
The first goal of any waste management system is to maximize the economic benefit from the
waste resource and maintain acceptable environmental standards. To be practical, the system
must also be affordable and suitable to the operation. If wastes are not properly handled they can
pollute surface and groundwater and contribute to air pollution. Most people think of manure
first when they think of farm waste. While manure is an important component, farm waste in a
livestock operation can also include waste forage, dead stock, silage effluent and milkhouse
waste. In horticultural operations, culls, diseased product, wash line sediment and processing
plant wastes are common by-products. In addition to these, all farm operations generate plastic
waste material ranging from silage wrap to pesticide or drug containers. Management that puts
into practice the principles of the four Rs of Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Recover is the best first
option:
• Reduce the amount of waste product generated;
• Reuse the waste product on the farm or provide it for others to use; and
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• After reducing and reusing as much of the waste product as possible, recycle the product either
on-farm, such as with land application of manure, or off-farm, such as with plastic recycling
programs.
• Recover methane gas from manure waste.
Waste minimisation:
• Helps you to comply with waste legislation. Farmers and growers are now faced with the
responsibility of managing their waste according to the Waste Management (England and Wales)
Regulations 2006, commonly known as Agricultural Waste Regulations. A number of previous
practices undertaken on the holding will no longer be allowed. This manual will help your
business comply with these Regulations.
• Reduces the quantity of raw materials you buy. Reducing the amount of waste means making
better, more efficient use of the raw materials you have bought. If these are expensive, you will
soon begin to save a lot of money.
• Saves time and money involved in managing and handling waste. By creating less waste, your
farm will be tidier and the time saved can be spent on more worthwhile tasks.
• Reduces your ‘disposal’ costs. You may already be paying directly to have someone take waste
away. Reducing such waste will help you to contain these costs.
• Increases the value of crops, animals or produce for sale. A production system that creates
waste can often result in lower quality products. For example, poor control of grain drying will
result in spoilt grain and lower prices.
• Reduces harmful effects on the environment. Minimising the quantity of waste reduces the risk
of causing water, air or soil pollution.
Ms. T. Grant Environmental Science Notes 12/13 grade

THE THREE R’s

Reducing Resource Use
Reducing resource use means just what it says — using fewer resources. There are lots of ways
to reduce our use of resources.
• Buy durable goods. Choose items that are well made so they will last longer. You’ll buy fewer
items in the long run, so you’ll save money as well as resources. That’s a win-win!
• Repair rather than replace. Fix your bike rather than buying a new one. Sew on a button instead
of buying a new shirt. You’ll use fewer resources and save money.
• Buy only what you need. Don’t buy a gallon of milk if you can only drink half of it before it
spoils. Instead, buy a half gallon and drink all of it. You won’t be wasting resources (or money!).
• Buy local. For example, buy local produce at a farmer’s market. A lot of resources are saved by
not shipping goods long distances. Products bought at farmer’s markets use less packaging, too!
About a third of what we throw out is packaging. Try to buy items with the least amount of
packaging.
For example, buy bulk items instead of those that are individually wrapped. Also, try to select
items with packaging that can be reused or recycled. This is called precycling. Pop cans and
plastic water bottles, for example, are fairly easy to recycle. Some types of packaging are harder
to recycle. If it can’t be reused or recycled, it’s a waste of resources.
• Many plastics: The recycling symbol on the bottom of plastic containers shows the type of
plastic they contain. Numbers 1 and 2 are easier to recycle than higher numbers.
Ms. T. Grant Environmental Science Notes 12/13 grade

• Mixed materials: Packaging that contains more than one material may be hard to recycle. For
example a carton made mostly of cardboard but it has plastic around the opening.
Reusing Resources
Reusing resources means using items again instead of throwing them away. A reused item can be
used in the same way by someone else. Or it can be used in a new way. For example, Shana has a
pair of jeans she has outgrown. She might give them to her younger sister to wear. Or she might
use them to make something different for herself, say, a denim shoulder bag.
Recycling Resources
Many things can be recycled. The materials in them can be reused in new products. For example,
plastic water bottles can be recycled. The recycled material can be made into t-shirts! Old phone
books can also be recycled and made into textbooks. When you shop for new products, look for
those that are made of recycled materials. Even food scraps and lawn waste can be recycled.
They can be composted and turned into humus for the garden.
Plant and Animal Breeding
The present century is characterized by a growing world population and a higher need for food
and natural resources such as water, arable land, fuel and minerals as well as by growing
emissions of greenhouse gas. Agriculture contribute to a certain degree to resource needs and
pollution. Therefore this article shows the potentials of plant and animal breeding for the most
efficient use of non-renewable resources and consequences for emissions. The efficient
production and use of phytogenic biomass is a challenge for sustainable agriculture. Plant
breeding in the traditional way and green biotechnology are the starting point for the whole food
chain and many other processes based on phytogenic biomass. High and stable plant yields with
low external inputs of limited resources such as water, fuel, land and minerals are major
objectives of plant breeding. Plants must be more resistant against biotic and abiotic stressors.
Plants should use very efficiently unlimited natural resources such as sun energy, nitrogen and
carbon dioxide from the air. For animal nutrition a lower concentration of toxic substances in
plants is more important than higher yields of components of nutritive value. Enough high
quality phytogenic biomass for animal feeding and animal breeding can also contribute to a more
efficient conversion of feed into food of animal origin and lower emissions. One of the main
objectives of animal breeding is a high dry matter intake in order to have more energy for animal
yields and to reduce the portion for maintenance of animals.