Introduction to Experimental Psychology

Psychology
Psychology can be defined as the scientific study of behaviour and the mind. The term
behaviour refers to actions and responses that we can directly observe, whereas the term mind
refers to internal states and processes — such as thoughts and feelings — that cannot be seen
directly and that must be inferred from observable, measurable responses.

Goals of Psychology
Every science has the common goal of learning how things work. The goals specifically
aimed at uncovering the mysteries of human and animal behavior are description,
explanation, prediction, and control. These are explained below:

a. Description – The first step in understanding anything is to describe it. Description

involves observing a behaviour and noting everything about it: what is happening,
where it happens, to whom it happens, and under what circumstances it seems to
happen.
b. Explanation – Finding explanations for behaviour is a very important step in the
process of forming theories of behaviour. A theory is a general explanation of a set of
observations or facts. The goal of description provides the observations, and the goal
of explanation helps to build the theory.
c. Prediction – Determining what will happen in the future is a prediction. Based on the
information made available during description and explanation, psychologists become
capable of predicting future outcomes.
d. Control – The principles of behaviour that are derived from careful observation and
experimentation are applied to real life situations with an intention of changing
people’s life for the better. Thus, the focus of control is to change a behavior from an
undesirable one to a desirable one.

Nature of Psychology
A number of scholars have posited varied views on the nature of psychology as a discipline.
Since the inception of the discipline, the debate surrounding the nature of psychology as an
art or science has received prominent coverage.
Psychology has been defined by the application of scientific methods. Psychologists conduct
valuable research and have developed some key insights into behavior, cognition,
consciousness, and more generally, the human condition. Science is an approach involving
the use of several systematic methods for gathering information plus adherence to several key
values or standards. The values and standards that are essential for scientific research are
accuracy, open-mindedness, objectivity, falsifiability and scepticism. Thus, adopting the
scientific method entails imbibing these values and methods to systematically uncover truths
pertaining to how people function. This adoption of the scientific method makes psychology
a science—and that makes the information it acquires so valuable.

In many fields of Psychology, psychologists put into practical use, the knowledge about
human behaviour. Social psychologists employ the principles of psychology to solve
problems like intergroup conflict and group decision making. Organisational psychologists
solve the problems at a workplace and apply their knowledge for the betterment of an
organisation.

However, the knowledge they put into use isn’t just a mechanical implementation of proven
scientific techniques. Instead, the psychologist’s behavioural and emotional repertoire as
having a significant bearing on the work that they do. It requires the psychologist’s use of
professional experience, manner of delivery, empathic intuition, and judgment. So, the
professional practice of psychology is also an art.

Experimental Psychology
Experimental psychology is a study of psychological issues that uses experimental
procedures. The concern of experimental psychology is discovering the processes underlying
behaviour and cognition. Raymond Corsini (1999) defines experimental psychology as, “the
scientific study of behaviour, motives or cognition, normally in a laboratory setting for the
purpose of predicting, explaining, or controlling behavior.”

An experiment provides the strongest tests of hypotheses about cause and effect. The
investigator carefully controls conditions – often in a laboratory – and takes measurements
in order to discover the causal relationships among variables. An experiment has three
essential characteristics:
1. The researcher manipulates (i.e., controls) one or more variables. In the simplest possible
experiment, the researcher manipulates one variable by creating two different conditions to
which participants are exposed.
2. The researcher measures whether this manipulation influences other variables (i.e.,
variables that represent the participants’ responses).
3. The researcher attempts to control extraneous factors that might influence the outcome of
the experiment.

Terms and Symbols Used in an Experiment

S – Stimulus, O – Organism, R – Response, A – Antecedent, Experimenter

A psychological experiment can be symbolized as a S-O-R relationship, wherein the E

applies a certain stimulus to O’s receptors and observes O’s responses. Here, E’s aim is to
discover what goes on in the organism between the stimulus & the response. In another class
of experiments, E does not attempt to observe directly what goes on in O but hopes to find
out indirectly by varying the conditions & noting the resulting variations in the response. The
response depends on the stimuli acting at that moment & on factors present in the organism at
that moment. This general statement can be put into the following equation:

R = f (S, O) where response is a function of S factors and O factors.

Difference between a Test and an Experiment

Tests and experiments differ from each other along a number of dimensions, as presented
below:
Experiments are aimed at establishing a cause and effect relationship between variables,
while tests help develop an understanding of individuals with respect to certain attributes.
Experiments involve manipulation of a variable (known as the independent variable) to see
how it would impact another variable (known as the dependent variable), while controlling
the impact of other variables. No such manipulation is carried out in psychological testing.
Furthermore, the conduction of experiments in a controlled condition often creates artificial
situations which may not be like real world contexts. Thus, on many occasions the
applications of results obtained in experiments to real life settings is controversial. This is
distinct from testing, where the focus is mainly on how people typically think and behave.
Lastly, experiments follow a nomothetic approach wherein the focus is on general principles,
while in testing, the approach is idiographic where the emphasis is on the uniqueness of the
person.

Historical background of Experimental Psychology

As is known, the physical sciences were the first to develop followed by biological and
finally the social sciences. Since psychology was essentially a part of Philosophy, some of the
first attempts towards scientific enquiries in the area came from contributions of ancient
philosophers like Plato and Aristotle. Later, Saint Augustine became interested in
psychological events and children's behaviour. Descartes posited that animals could be
studied in the same way as humans. He also studied the pineal gland and reflex actions. In the
17th and 18th century, some medieval philosophers like Hobbes, Locke, Hume & Berkeley
contributed to the development of experimental Psychology in different ways.

However, it was Wilhelm Wundt (1832 – 1920) who founded the first psychology laboratory
in the University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879. William James authored the first widely
used psychological textbook titled ‘Principles of Psychology’ in 1890. Other major
contributions include:

JB Watson studied observable behaviour. Bell & Muller (1811) developed the doctrine of
specific nerve energies & worked in the area of sensations. The psychophysicists – Weber,
Fechner, and Volkman worked in the area of sensation and explored sensory boundaries.
Around late 19th century, Ebbinghaus discovered non-sense syllables and contributed to the
areas of learning and memory. The 1930’s and 1940’s saw behaviourists like Hull, Skinner
etc. studying learning and related topics. In the 1950’s, the scope of psychology expanded
further covering the area of functioning of human brain. The next two decades brought an
emergence of many new interests & in 1970’s and 80’s, psychology came into existence as an
active and valuable branch of science.

The last few decades have witnessed a lot of improvement in the methodology, techniques
and equipment used. Advancements in technology led to the discovery of mechanisms like
the EEG, EEC which allowed information about sensory as well as nerve processes and have
enlarged the scope of experimental psychology. Modern experimental psychology is
becoming aware of the dynamic nature of human behaviour and its complexities. The
experimental method today is used in all fields of psychology to discover new knowledge and
variegated advancements across domains continue to bring about refinement in the method.

Scope of Experimental Psychology

Experimental psychology studies external behavior as well as the internal processes of
various stages of human and animal development under controlled conditions. The scope of
experimental psychology has widened with the invention of new tools and instruments.
Experimenters are now able to conduct experiments in a wide range of areas, such as
psychology of individual differences, psychophysics, child psychology, educational
psychology, animal psychology, learning psychology, clinical psychology, industrial
psychology and so on.

With the widening of the scope of experimental psychology, there is an ever-increasing

application of this field, in places such as offices, hospitals, schools, sports, etc.

Today experimental psychologists have shifted their focus from laboratory experiments to
real life situations or filed experiments. They depend less on animal experimentation and
focus their research on human subjects, so that their findings have a direct relevance in
improving human behaviour.

Problem
A research problem is an interrogative, testable statement which expresses the relationship
between two or more variables. It is a crucial beginning to the research as it provides
direction and coherence to the research. It defines boundaries and keeps the researcher
focused on the data to be collected. Furthermore, it also provides a framework for writing. It
is important to note that a problem statement should avoid moral/ethical judgments and it
should be of sufficient importance. It emerges out of – (a) clear gaps in literature; (b)
contradictions in literature and (c) certain facts are unaccounted for.

After identifying a problem, the next step lies in clearly stating the problem. Once a problem
is clearly stated it becomes very easy to go about finding a solution or answer for it.
According to Kerlinger (1973), the three criteria of a clearly stated experimental problem are
– the problem expresses the expresses the relation between two or more variables; it is stated
unambiguously in a question form; and the stated problem should be such that it implies the
possibility of empirical testing.
Hypothesis
After having formulated a problem, the next step would be to translate it into a testable
hypothesis. A hypothesis offers a tentative solution to the problem in the form of a testable
proposition. It can be defined as “a conjectural statement of the relationship between two or
more variables. Hypothesis are always in declarative sentence form, and they relate, either
generally or specifically, variables to variables” (Kerlinger, 1973). They are usually
expressed in terms of an “If… then…” relationship.

A good hypothesis should be a general principle that holds across space and time. It should
be conceptually clear, and laid out simply and specifically. It should agree with available
observations and provide an adequate answer to the problem. It should be testable and
falsifiable.

Variables
A variable, quite simply, is any characteristic or factor that can vary. Within research, it
refers to attributes of objects, events, things and beings, which can be measured. It involves
the characteristics or conditions that are manipulated, controlled or observed by the
experimenter. The major types of variables involved in experimental research are explained
below:
1. Dependent variable (DV) – Also called response variable, it is the anything about
which the experimenter makes a prediction. The DV is expected to change when the
IV is manipulated, provided the experimenter’s hypothesis is correct.
2. Independent Variable (IV) – Also called stimulus variable, it refers to anything that
is manipulated, measured or selected by the experimenter for the purpose of
producing observable changes in the dependent variable.
3. Control Variables (CV) – a variable which is held constant and unchanged
throughout the course of the investigation.
4. Extraneous Variables (EV) – these variables are controlled by the experimenter
because they are not of direct interest but are likely to produce changes in the
behavioral measures. They can be classified as follows:
 Sequence relevant • Characteristics of the behavioral task presented to the subject.
Variables • e.g., apparatus, task procedure, etc.

• Characteristics of the environmental factors around the

Environmental
subject. examples include noise, temperature, illumination,
Variables
etc.

• Characteristics of the subject themselves. examples include

Subject Variables
sex, age, weight, anxiety, intelligence, etc.

Qualitative and Quantitative Variables

Qualitative variables are categorical in nature; they cannot be ordered in magnitude. They
comprise categories, which do not have a quantitative relationship among themselves. Since
they cannot be ordered in magnitude, precise and accurate measurements are not possible.
Thus, such variables are not usually preferred in scientific studies. Examples include: gender,
religion, etc. On the other hand, quantitative variables allow precise and accurate
measurements. Examples include - Intelligence, age, levels of illumination, intensity of sound
etc.

Continuous and Discrete Variables

Quantitative variables are further divided into two categories, namely, continuous variables
and discrete variables. A continuous variable is the one which is capable of being measured
in any arbitrary degree of fineness and exactness. Of course, the measurement is subject to
limitations of available tools. Age, height, intelligence, reaction time, etc., are some of the
examples of continuous variables.

Discrete variables (also known as categorical variables) are those variables which are not
capable of being measured in any arbitrary degree of fineness and exactness because the
variables contain a clear gap. For example, the number of members in a family constitutes the
example of discrete variable.

Experimental Design
A research design includes the structure of a study and the strategies for conducting that
study (Kerlinger, 1973). It spells out the variables that will be studied, and their anticipated
relationship to each other (Spector, 1981). Experimental designs are often touted as the most
rigorous of all research designs.

The Control Group Design

In the control group design, to test any hypothesis two groups are taken – the experimental
group and the control group. An experimental group is the group that receives a treatment or
an active level of the independent variable. A control group is not exposed to the treatment or
receives a zero-level of the independent variable. The purpose of the control group is to
provide a standard of behavior to which the experimental group can be compared.

Thus, both groups are given the same behavioral task to perform but only the experimental
group is exposed to the independent variable. Ideally when a control group design is used, the
groups should be equivalent in every way except for the independent variable. This allows
the experimenter to be certain that any behavioral difference that arises between the two
groups would be due to the presence or the absence of the independent variable.

In practice, it is very difficult to match subjects in the control and experimental groups on all
the factors that might conceivably affect their performance. To address this issue, researchers
typically use random assignment, a procedure in which each participant has an equal
likelihood of being assigned to any one group within an experiment. It is hoped that this will
approximately equalize any extraneous factors in the control and experimental group that
might affect the experimental outcome.
Baseline Method/Before-After Design

A second way to design experiments is to expose each participant to all the conditions of an
independent variable. In baseline method or before – after design, the subjects serves as their
own control. A baseline (normal level) of behaviour is established on a set of subjects before
the introduction of the independent variable. Then the independent variable is introduced to
the same group of subjects and the behaviour is recorded again. The behaviour after the
introduction of the independent variable can be compared with the baseline behaviour.

By using this method, a good control over individual differences that are present before and
after the introduction of independent variable is possible. When the individual differences are
held constant, then the changes in behaviour are considered to be due to the independent
variable.
A-B-A Within-Subject Design

This design is an extension of the baseline method. To make sure that the change in
behaviour has been produced due to the independent variable, the independent variable
should be removed after being introduced. This is based on the assumption that if the
independent variable is responsible for change in behaviour, then the behavior should go back
to baseline levels upon the removal of the independent variable.

This process is called the ABA (within subject) experimental design where – ‘A’ is the
baseline behaviour/condition, ‘B’ is the condition on introduction of independent variable and
the second ‘A’ refers to the final test of behaviour without the independent variable. This
design is helpful when the independent variable does not have a long lasting effect.

Threats to the Validity of Experiments

There are two types of validity that are important when considering an experiment. Internal
validity represents the degree to which an experiment supports clear causal conclusions. If an
experiment is designed and conducted properly, one can be confident that it was the
independent variable that caused the differences in the dependent variable. This would
indicate high internal validity. However, if an experiment contains important flaws, it will
have low internal validity because it would be difficult to ascertain what caused the
differences in the dependent variable. At this level, the following can threaten the validity of
the experiment:

a. Confounding of variables – means that two variables are intertwined in such a way that one
cannot determine which one has influenced a dependent variable.
b. Placebo effects – People receiving a treatment show a change in behavior because of their
expectations, not because the treatment itself had any specific benefit. Placebo effects
decrease internal validity by providing an alternative explanation for why responses change
after exposure to a treatment.
c. Experimenter expectancy effects – refers to the subtle and unintentional ways researchers
influence their participants to respond in a manner that is consistent with the researcher’s
hypothesis. However, it can be prevented. For example, researchers who interact with
participants in a study or who record participants’ responses are often kept blind to (i.e., not
told about) the hypothesis or the specific condition to which a participant has been assigned.
This makes it less likely that these researchers will develop expectations about how
participants “should” behave.

The double-blind procedure, in which both the participant and experimenter are kept blind as
to which experimental condition the participant is in, simultaneously minimizes participant
placebo effects and experimenter expectancy effects.

External validity, which is the degree to which the results of a study can be generalized to
other populations, settings, and conditions. To determine external validity, the experiment
shall be replicated by the current researcher or others. Replication is the process of repeating
a study to determine whether the original findings can be duplicated. Increasingly,
psychologists are paying more attention to cross-cultural replication.

Techniques for Controlling Variables

Technique of Elimination – this is the simplest and most direct method of control is
eliminating those conditions which would distort the results. It involves completely
eliminating the extraneous variables that could impact the link between the IV and the DV.
For example – noise can be eliminated altogether to prevent the subjects from being
distracted. However, elimination is not practical in case of many extraneous variables.
Constancy of Conditions – Many variables in psychology are intrinsic in nature and cannot
always be eliminated, controlled or removed externally. In such conditions, the researcher
needs to ensure that all participants are subjected to similar conditions. Thus, this technique
involves holding the extraneous variables constant for all participants in all conditions. For
example – this could include giving the same instructions to all the participants, maintaining
lighting conditions, using the same apparatus, having a homogeneous sample (age, sex,
intelligence, etc.).

Balancing – involves allowing the extraneous variables to influence the control group and the
experimental group in the same way.

Counterbalancing – Studies involving 2 or more different experimental conditions often lead

to change in participants’ performance, either due to practice or fatigue. These are known as
order effects. To avoid this problem, researchers use counterbalancing, a procedure in which
the order of conditions is varied so that no condition has an overall advantage relative to the
others.

Randomization – entails that each unit of the population has an equal and independent chance
of being selected. This procedure does not eliminate the fact that participants differ from one
another, but it is used to balance these differences across the various conditions of the
experiment. It increases our confidence that, at the start of an experiment, participants in the
various conditions are equivalent overall.

Ethical Issues
Ethical considerations are critical in experimental research, just as they are in other types of
research. Ethics are the norms or standards for conduct that distinguish between right and
wrong. They help to determine the difference between acceptable and unacceptable behaviors
on the part of the researcher. The integrity, reliability and validity of the research findings
rely heavily on adherence to ethical principles.

In experimental research, ethical standards prevent against such things as the fabrication or
falsifying of data and therefore, promote the pursuit of knowledge and truth which is the
primary goal of research. It is also important to protect research participants and follow the
guiding foundation of “do no harm” if human subjects are utilized in the study. Major ethical
issues include:

Voluntary Participation – it should be guaranteed that all human subjects are choosing to
participate of their own free will. Potential participants must be competent to make a decision
regarding participation and must be free from any coercion.

Informed Consent – the potential participants should be fully informed regarding the
procedures of the research project and any potential risks. All pieces of information that
could impact their decision to participate should be given to them in a transparent manner so
that they can make an informed choice. The consent may be given in a written or oral form
depending on the nature of the research.

Deception – This is where participants are misled or wrongly informed about the aims of the
research. Types of deception include (i) deliberate misleading, e.g. using confederates, staged
manipulations in field settings, deceptive instructions; (ii) deception by omission, e.g., failure
to disclose full information about the study, or creating ambiguity. The researcher should
avoid deceiving participants about the nature of the research unless there is no alternative –
and even then this would need to be judged acceptable by an independent expert. However,
there are some types of research that cannot be carried out without at least some element of
deception.

However, participants must be deceived as little as possible, and any deception must not
cause distress.

Debriefing – After the research is over the participant should be able to discuss the procedure
and the findings with the psychologist. They must be given a general idea of what the
researcher was investigating and why, and their part in the research should be explained.
Participants must be told if they have been deceived and given reasons why. They must be
asked if they have any questions and those questions should be answered honestly and as
fully as possible.

Protection of Participants – Researchers must ensure that those taking part in research will
not be caused distress. They must be protected from physical and mental harm. This means
you must not embarrass, frighten, offend or harm participants.
Confidentiality – Participants, and the data gained from them must be kept anonymous
unless they give their full consent. No names must be used in the research report.

Withdrawal from an Investigation – Participants should be able to leave a study at any time
if they feel uncomfortable. They should also be allowed to withdraw their data. They should
be told at the start of the study that they have the right to withdraw. They should not have
pressure placed upon them to continue if they do not want to.

Merits and Demerits

Merits of Experimental Research:

1. Experimental research offers an objective, unbiased and systematic way of conducting

research.
2. It allows the establishment of cause and effect relationships between variables.
3. It provides a high degree of control to the researchers, thus enhancing the internal validity
of the findings. This is largely due to the emphasis on controlling extraneous variables. If
other variables are controlled, the researcher can say with confidence that manipulation of
the independent variable caused a change in the dependent variable. The method enables
greater generalisation of findings.
4. Experiments can be easily duplicated, thus findings from one study can be verified by
other researchers.
5. Experiments can be carried out in laboratory, field and naturalistic settings.
6. Experiments are often less time consuming since the researchers do not have to wait for
particular phenomena to take place. The experimental manipulation allows the behaviours
of interest to easily emerge.

Demerits of Experimental Research:

1. It cannot be used for all kinds of research problems.

2. The method is restricted in its application. The conclusions derived from an experiment
may be limited to the artificial experimental situation and may not be applied in natural
settings. Thus, external validity of findings might be limited.
3. It might not be possible to control for all types of variables. The health, mood, and life
experiences of the test subjects may influence their reactions and some such variables
may not even be known to the researcher.
4. Demand characteristics and experimenter effects can effect the validity of results.

References

Will send separately.