Acceleration of gravity and Newton's Second Law - SI and Imperial

units
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Acceleration of Gravity is one of the most used physical constants - known from
Newton's Second Law
"Change of motion is proportional to the force applied, and take place along the straight line the
force acts."
Newton's second law for the gravity force - weight - can be expressed as
W = Fg
= m ag
=mg (1)
where
W, Fg = weight, gravity force (N, lbf)
m = mass (kg, slugs)
ag = g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2, 32.17405 ft/s2)
The force caused by gravity - ag - is called weight.
Note!
 mass is a property - a quantity with magnitude
 force is a vector - a quantity with magnitude and direction
The acceleration of gravity can be observed by measuring the change of velocity related
to change of time for a free falling object:
ag = dv / dt (2)
where
dv = change in velocity (m/s, ft/s)
dt = change in time (s)
An object dropped in free air accelerates to speed 9.81 m/s (32.174 ft/s) in one - 1 - second.
 a heavy and a light body near the earth will fall to the earth with the same acceleration
(when neglecting the air resistance)
Acceleration of Gravity in SI Units
1 ag = 1 g = 9.81 m/s2 = 35.30394 (km/h)/s
Acceleration of Gravity in Imperial Units
1 ag = 1 g = 32.174 ft/s2 = 386.1 in/s2 = 22 mph/s
Velocity and Distance Traveled by a Free Falling Object
The velocity for a free falling object after some time can be calculated as:
v = ag t (3)
where
v = velocity (m/s)
The distance traveled by a free falling object after some time can be expressed as:
s = 1/2 ag t2 (4)
where
s = distance traveled by the object (m)
The velocity and distance traveled by a free falling object:
Time Velocity Distance
(s) m/s km/h ft/s mph m ft
1 9.8 35.3 32.2 21.9 4.9 16.1
2 19.6 70.6 64.3 43.8 19.6 64.3
3 29.4 106 96.5 65.8 44.1 144.8
4 39.2 141 128.7 87.7 78.5 257.4
5 49.1 177 160.9 110 122.6 402.2
 Time Velocity Distance
(s) m/s km/h ft/s mph m ft
6 58.9 212 193.0 132 176.6 579.1
7 68.7 247 225.2 154 240.3 788.3
8 78.5 283 257.4 176 313.9 1,029.6
9 88.3 318 289.6 198 397.3 1,303.0
10 98.1 353 321.7 219 490.5 1,608.7
Note! Velocities and distances are achieved without aerodynamic resistance
(vacuum conditions). The air resistance - or drag force - for objects at higher velocities can be
significant - depending on shape and surface area.

 Acceleration of gravity on the North and South Pole - and on Equator

Example - Free Falling Stone
A stone is dropped from 1470 ft (448 m) - approximately the height of Empire State Building.
The time it takes to reach the ground (without air resistance) can be calculated by
rearranging (4):
t = (2 s / ag)1/2
= (2 (1470 ft) / (32.174 ft/s2 ))1/2
= 9.6 s
The velocity of the stone when it hits the ground can be calculated with (3):
v = (32.174 ft/s2) (9.6 s)
= 308 ft/s
= 210 mph
= 94 m/s
= 338 km/h
Example - A Ball Thrown Straight Up
A ball is thrown straight up with an initial velocity of 25 m/s. The time before the ball stops and
start falling down can be calculated by modifying (3) to
t = v / ag
= (25 m/s) / (9.81 m/s2)
= 2.55 s
The distance traveled by the ball before it turns and start falling down can be calculated by
using (4) as
s = 1/2 (9.81 m/s2) (2.55 s)2
= 31.8 m
Newton's First Law
"Every body continues in a state of rest or in a uniform motion in a straight line, until it is
compelled by a force to change its state of rest or motion."
Newton's Third Law
"To every action there is always an equal reaction - if a force acts to change the state of motion
of a body, the body offers a resistance equal and directly opposite to the force."
Common Expressions
 superimposed loads: kN/m2
 mass loads: kg/m2 or kg/m3
 stress: N/mm2
 bending moment: kNm
 shear: kN
 1 N/mm = 1 kN/m
 1 N/mm2 = 103 kN/m2
  1 kNm = 106 Nmm

British system unit

A principal system of units
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English units forms the basic for the Imperial system formerly used in the Commonwealth
countries and the Customary system used in the US.
The basic difference between dimensional systems are not the units employed but the primary
dimensions.
 The SI-system use mass, length and time as primary quantities (mechanics). Other units
quantities are secondary. The SI-system is a MLT (mass-length-time) system
 The English system use force, mass, length and time as primary quantities. Other units
are secondary. The British Imperial System is a FMLT (force-mass-length-time) system
Note that the use of four, three, two or even one(!) primary quantities is a human choice and not
necessary basic nature.
Imperial Primary Quantities
Imperial primary quantities are expressed in the table below:
Primary Quantity Dimensions Common Units
Force F pound-force
Mass M ounce, pound, slug, ton
inch, foot, yard
Length L
rod, chain, furlong, mile
second, minute
Time T
hour, day
Imperial Secondary Quantities
Some common imperial secondary quantities are expressed in the table below
Primary Quantity Dimensions Common Units
2
Acceleration L/T foot per second squared
square foot, square yard
Area L2
acre, square mile
Density M / L3 pounds per cubic foot
Frequency 1/T cycle per second
Impulse FT pound-force second
Momentum ML / T pound foot per second
foot pound-force per second
Power LF / T
horsepower
Pressure F / L2 pound-force per square inch
foot per second
Velocity L/T
mile per hour, knot
pint, quart, gallon
Volume L3
cubic foot, cubic yard
Work LF foot pound-force

Buffer solutions
Definitions, explanations and examples of how to make buffer
solutions
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A buffer solution is a solution that resists a change in pH when small quantities of either
H+ ions (an acid) or OH-ions (a base) are added. By choosing the right components, a solution
can be buffered to almost any pH.
A buffered solution may contain a weak acid and its salt (HA + MA, where M is the salt kation)
or a weak base and its salt (B + BHN), where N is the salt anion)
 Buffer solutions achieve their resistance to pH change because of the presence of an
equilibrium between the acid HA and its conjugate base A−.
HA ⇌ H+ + A− (Eq. I)
 Buffered solutions contain relatively large concentrations of a weak acid and its
corresponding weak base. They can involve a weak acid HA and a conjugate base A- or
a weak base B and the conjugate acid BH+.
 When H+ is added to a buffered solution, it reacts essentially to completion with the
weak base present:
H+ + A- → HA or H+ + B → BH+
 When OH- is added to a buffered solution, it reacts essentially to completion with the
weak acid present:
OH- + HA → A- + H2O or OH- + BH+ → B + H2O
 The pH of the buffered solution is determined by the ratio of the concentrations of the
weak base and weak acid. As long as this ratio remains virtually constant, the pH will
remain constant. This will be the case as long as the concentrations of the buffering
material (HA and A-) or (B and BH+) are large compared with the amounts of H+ or
OH- added.
For an acidic solution (without salt) we have an equilibrium constant, Ka:
Ka = [H+] [A-]/[HA]
and we can assume that the concentrations [H+] and [A-] are the same, and much smaller than
[HA] if the acid is weak. We can assume that so little of the acid has ionised that the
concentration of the acid [HA] at equilibrium is the same as the concentration of the acid we
used.
This is not true anymore when we add the corresponding salt (MA), containing A- and M+ ions.
Then Eq. I will be pushed further to the left according to Le Chatelier's Principle for solutions at
equilibrium. Then we can assume that the number of [A-] present in the solution is the same as
coming from the salt MA. The concentration of the acid [HA], can still be assumed to be the
same as the concentration of the acid we used, now that the equilibrium has been moved even
further to the left. (Due to lack of H+ ions it will not be higher than what we started with).
The buffer capasity of a buffered solution is defined in terms of the amount of protons or
hydroxide ions it can adsorb without a significant change in pH. Thus, a solution with a high
concentration of the buffering compounds, will have a high buffer capasity.
 The pH of a buffering solution is determined by the [A-]/[HA] ratio
 The buffer capasity is depenent on the magnitude of [A-] and [HA].
For solutions with known concentrations of the acid and the conjugate base, you can calculate
the pH by use of the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, which is on the log form:
pH = pKa + log ([A-]/[HA]) = pKa + log ([base]/[acid])
 The best buffering effect is achieved when the [A-]/[HA] ratio is 1. Then the acid have a
pKa equal to pH. This means that we should aim for a buffering acid or base with a
pKa value closest possible to the wanted pH.
Examples given for better understanding and help in calculations:
1. To calculate the pH of a given buffer solution
2. To make a buffer solution with a wanted pH
3. To make a buffer solution with pH above 7
4. How to make 1.4 liter 1 M (mol/l solution) ammonium chloride water solution
 5. How to make 1.0 liter 1 M ammonia water solution
6. Differences in buffer capacity
7. To choose the best buffer solution
See also pKa of phenols, alcohols and carboxylic acids, pKa of amines, diamines and cyclic
organic nitrogen compounds and pKa of inorganic acids and bases as well as Strong and weak
acids and bases.

Example 1: To calculate the pH of a given buffer solution

A buffer solution is made from equal amounts of 0.40 M CH3COOH (ethanoic acid) and 0.25 M
NaCH3COO (sodium ethanoate). What will be the pH of this solution?
(M = mol/ liter solution)
pKa for ethanoic acid is 4.76, which gives Ka = 10(-4.76) = 1.74*10-5
Ka = [H+] [CH3COO-]/[CH3COOH] and [H+] = Ka [CH3COOH]/[CH3COO-]
[H+] = 1.74*10-5 *0.40/0.25 = 2.78*10-5
pH = -log[H+] = -log (2.78*10-5) = 4.56 = 4.6 (only two significant figures due to the numbers of
significant figures in the input values)
Or by use of Henderson-Hasselbalch equation: pH = 4.76 + log(0.25/0.40) = 4.76 -0.20 = 4.56
= 4.6
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Example 2: To make a buffer solution with a wanted pH
How much of CH3COOH (ethanoic acid) and NaCH3COO (sodium ethanoate) do we need to
make a buffer solution with pH of 3.95?
The acid equilibrium equation:
CH3COOH(aq) ↔ H+(aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
Ka = [H+] [CH3COO-]/[CH3COOH] and [CH3COO-]/[CH3COOH] = Ka/[H+]
pH = 3.95 corresponds to a concentration [H+] = 10(-3.95) = 1.12*10-4
pKa for ethanoic acid is 4.76, which gives Ka = 10(-4.76) = 1.74*10-5
Then, [CH3COO-]/[CH3COOH] = 1.74*10-5/1.12*10-4 = 0.16
This means that the concentration of the sodium salt should be 0.16 times of the concentration
of the ethanoic acid.
If you start with 1.0 liter of 1 M ethanoic acid, you can add 1 liter of 0.16 M sodium
ethanoate. (M = mol/ liter solution)
The figure shows the changes in pH for the buffer solution with addition of HCl:
Note 1: This can be solved with a number of different concentrations of the two solutions.
However, the amounts must be adjusted so that the ratio between the added CH3COO- and
CH3COOH remains 0.16 in the blend.
Note 2: When the amount of CH3COO- is relatively small compared to the amount of
CH3COOH, as in this case, the buffering effect will be smaller than when the amounts of the
two are more equal. To compensate for this, you can increase the concentration of both (still
with the same ratio between them) or find another pair of acid and salt with a pKa closer to the
pH you want. (E.g. formic acid (HCOOH) with pKa = 3.74 and the salt sodium formate
(HCOONa))
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Example 3: To make a buffer solution with pH above 7

How can we make an alkalic buffer solution, e.g. with pH = 9.1?
With a pH of 9.1 we will be on the basic side, with OH- ions dominating over H+ ions. Then, you
should find a base and its salt to produce the buffer from, e.g. the base ammonia (NH3) and its
salt ammonium chloride (NH4Cl).
The equilibrium equation will be:
 NH3 (aq) + H2O(l) ↔ NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
Kb = [OH-] [NH4+]/[NH3] and [NH4+]/[NH3] = Kb/[OH-]
For ammonia, the pKa = 9.24. Then, pKb = 14 - pKa = 14 -9.24 = 4.76 and Kb = 10(-4.76) =
1.74*10-5
We also have: pH +pOH = 14 and pOH = 14 - pH = 14 - 9.1 = 4.9 [OH-] = 10(-4.9) = 1.26* 10-
5

We fill in the equation for Kb and [OH-]: [NH4+]/[NH3] = Kb/[OH-] = 1.74*10-5/1.26* 10-5 = 1.38
To make a buffer with pH = 9.1 you may start with 1.4 liter of 1 M ammonium chloride
water solution and add 1.0 liter of 1 M ammonia water solution. (M = mol/ liter solution)
Note : This can be solved with a number of different concentrations of the two solutions.
However, the amounts must be adjusted so that the [NH4+]/[NH3] ratio for added chemicals
remains 1.38.

Exemple 4: How to make 1.4 liter 1 M (mol/l solution) ammonium chloride water
solution?
Molweight of ammonium chloride, NH4Cl:
1 mol N: 14.01 g/mol, 1 mol H: 1.01 g/mol, 1 mol Cl: 35.45 g/mol
1 mol NH4Cl: (14.01 + 4*1.01 + 35.45) g/mol = 53.50 g NH4Cl/mol
For 1.4 liter we need: 1 mol/l *53.5 g NH4Cl/mol * 1.4 l = 74.9 g NH4Cl
So: Add 74,9 g NH4Cl to a bottle and add approximately 1 liter of water. Stirr untill all the
salt is solved. Add more water to accurate 1.4 liter solution.

Example 5: How to make 1.0 liter 1 M ammonia water solution?

Ammonia is a gas at room temperature, however it is also available as liquid solved in water,
typically 30 % by weight ammonia in water.
For 1.0 liter of a 1 M solution we need 1 mol NH3. 1 mol NH3: (14.01 + 3*1.01) g/mol = 17.04 g
NH3/mol
100 g of 30 weight% ammonia solution contains 30 g ammonia. We need: (100g solution/30g
ammonia)* 17.04 g ammonia = 56.80 g 30weight% solution.
So: Add 56.8 g 30 weight% NH3-solution to a bottle and add water to a total of 1 liter.

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Example 6: Differences in buffer capacity
What will the change in pH be when 0.20 mol gaseous HCl is added to 0.5 liter of each of the
two solutions given below?
1. 7.00 M CH3COOH and 7.00 M CH3COONa
2. 0.070 M CH3COOH and 0.070 M CH3COONa
(M = mol/liter solution)
pKa for ethanoic acid, (CH3COOH), is 4.76, which gives Ka = 10(-4.76) = 1.74*10-5
From the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation: pH = pKa + log ([A-]/[HA])
Solution 1: pH = 4.76 + log ([7.00]/[7.00]) = 4.76 + log (1) = 4.76 + 0 = 4.76
Solution 2: pH = 4.76 + log ([0.070]/[0.070]) = 4.76 + log (1) = 4.76 + 0 = 4.76
The species present in the solutions after addition of HCl gas:
H2O CH3COOH CH3COO- Na+ H+ Cl-
The Na and Cl ions will not be part of any reaction, but when HCl is added, the amount of H+ is
+ -

increased, and the equlibrium

CH3COOH(aq) ↔ H+(aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
is driven to the left. All the added H+ (0.01 mol) will be reacted with CH3COO- to CH3COOH.
The concentrations of the acid compounds in Solution 1 before and after reaction will be:
 [H+] [CH3COO-] [CH3COOH]
Before reaction 0.010 mol/0.5 l = 0.020 M 7.00 M 7.00 M
After reaction 0 6.98 M 7.02 M
Then, the pH after reaction can be calculated:
pH of solution 1 after addition of HCl = 4.76 + log ([6.98]/[7.02]) = 4.76 - 0.0025 = 4.76, no
significant change in pH
The concentrations of the acid compounds in Solution 2 before and after reaction will be:
[H+] [CH3COO-] [CH3COOH]
Before reaction 0.010 mol/0.5 l = 0.020 M 0.070 M 0.070 M
After reaction 0 0.050 M 0.090 M

Then, the pH after reaction can be calculated:

pH of solution 2 after addition of HCl = 4.76 + log ([0.050]/[0.090]) = 4.76 - 0.26 =4.50, a
small, but significant, change in pH.
Solution 1 has a much higher buffer capacity than Solution 2.
The figure shows the differences in buffer capacity for the two solutions:
Example 7: To choose the best buffer solution
You need a buffer with pH 4.5 and have four acids and their sodium salt availible. Which acid
should you use to get the best buffer solution?
Your acids:
 Chloroacetic acid
 Benzoic acid
 Propanoic acid
 Hypochlorous acid
We know that the best buffering effect is achieved when the buffering weak acid or base have a
pKa value close to the wanted pH.
So, we need to compare the acids pKas to the wanted pH of 4.5. If we take a look at pKa of
inorganic acids and pkaof phenols, alcohols and carboxylic acids we find the pKas of the acids:
Chloroacetic acid: 2.87
Benzoic acid: 4.20
Propanoic acid: 4.87
Hypochlorous acid: 7.54
Both benzoic and propanoic acids could be used, but the pKa of benzoic acid (4.20) is closest
to the pH of 4.5, so benzoic acid and the salt sodiumbenzoate will give the most efficient buffer
solution.
Then, the acid equilibrium equation:
C6H5COOH(aq) ↔ H+(aq) + C6H5COO- (aq)
Ka = [H ] [C6H5COO-]/[C6H5COOH] and [C6H5COO-]/[C6H5COOH] = Ka/[H+]
+

pH = 4.50 corresponds to a concentration [H+] = 10(-4.50) = 3.16*10-5

pKa for benzoic acid is 4.20, which gives Ka = 10(-4.20) = 6.31*10-5
Then, [C6H5COO-]/[C6H5COOH] = 6.31*10-5/3.16*10-5 = 2.0
This means that the concentration of the sodium salt must be 2 times of the concentration of the
benzoic acid.
If you start with 1.0 liter of 1.0 M bencoic acid, you can add 1.0 liter of 2.0 M sodium
benzoate. (M = mol/ liter solution)
Conversion of units of concentration
Calculator and formulas for conversion between different units of
concentration: Molarity, molality, mole fraction, weight percent of
solute and grams of solute per liter of solution
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Online Units Concentration Calculator
The calculator below can be used to convert between common concentration units. The mole
weight of the solvent and solute and the density of the solution must be filled in:
Mole weight solvent, g/mol
Mole weight solute, g/mol
Density solution, g/ml (not needed for conversons between wt%, mole fraction
and molality or between molarity and g solute/l solution)
Concentration value (choose the unit you have below)
wt% solute mol/kg solvent (molality) mol/l solution (molarity) mol solute/mol
total (mole fraction) g solute/l solution

Density of water solutions of: organic acids, organic substances as sugars and alcohols, inorganic
chlorides, inorganic sodium salts, inorganic potassium salts and some other inorganic substances.
See also Solutions, molarity and dilution, Mixtures, Solutions and Suspensions and Solubility product
constants.
The fomulas used by the calculater is given in the table below:
Desired unit - as
Wt% Molality Molarity Mole fraction g solute/l solution
function of
100*E*B F*B 100*G*B H
Wt% of solute
1000 + E*B 10*C G*B + (1 - G)*A 10*C
1000*D 1000*F 1000*G 1000*H
Molality, mol/kg solvent
B*(100 - D) 1000*C - F*B A - G*A B*(1000*C - H)
Molarity, mol/liter 10*C*D 1000*C*E 1000*C*G H
solution B 1000 + B*E G*B + (1 - G)*A B
D/B A*F A*H
Mole fraction, A*E
D/B + (100 - F*(A - B) + H*(A - B) +
molsolute/moltotal A*E + 1000
D)/A 1000*C 1000*C*B
Gram of solute/liter 1000*C*E*B 1000*C*G*B
10*D*C F*B
solution 1000 + E*B G*B + (1-G)*A
where
A = mole weight of solvent, g/mol
B = mole weight of solute, g/mol
C = density of solution*, g/ml
D = wt% of solute
E = molality, mol/kg solvent
F = molarity, mol/liter solution
G = mole fraction, molsolute/moltotal
H = gram of solute/liter solution
* Density is not needed for conversons between wt%, mole fraction and molality or between
molarity and grams of solute per liter solution.

Density of low viscous liquids can be measured by exact weighing of a well-defined volume of
the liquid. Then, the density is calculated by using the formula

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Circles - Circumferences and Areas
Area and circumferences of circles with diameters in inches
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Circle diameter, circumference and area:
Diameter Circumference Area
(in) (in) (in2)
1/64 0.049 0.00019
1/32 0.098 0.00077
3/64 0.147 0.0017
1/16 0.196 0.0031
3/32 0.295 0.0069
1/8 0.393 0.012
5/32 0.491 0.019
3/16 0.589 0.028
7/32 0.687 0.038
1/4 0.785 0.049
9/32 0.884 0.062
5/16 0.982 0.077
11/32 1.08 0.093
3/8 1.18 0.11
13/32 1.28 0.13
7/16 1.37 0.15
15/32 1.47 0.17
1/2 1.57 0.20
17/32 1.67 0.22
9/16 1.77 0.25
19/32 1.87 0.28
5/8 1.96 0.31
21/32 2.06 0.34
11/16 2.16 0.37
23/32 2.26 0.41
3/4 2.36 0.44
25/32 2.45 0.48
13/16 2.55 0.52
27/32 2.65 0.56
7/8 2.75 0.60
29/32 2.85 0.65
Diameter Circumference Area
(in) (in) (in2)
15/16 2.95 0.69
31/32 3.04 0.74
1 1/16 3.34 0.89
1 1/8 3.53 0.99
1 3/16 3.73 1.11
1 1/4 3.93 1.23
1 5/16 4.12 1.35
1 3/8 4.32 1.48
1 7/16 4.52 1.62
1 1/2 4.71 1.77
1 9/16 4.91 1.92
1 5/8 5.11 2.07
1 11/16 5.30 2.24
1 3/4 5.50 2.41
1 13/16 5.69 2.58
1 7/8 5.89 2.76
1 15/16 6.09 2.95
2 1/16 6.48 3.34
2 1/8 6.68 3.55
2 3/16 6.87 3.76
2 1/4 7.07 3.98
2 5/16 7.26 4.20
2 3/8 7.46 4.43
2 7/16 7.66 4.67
2 1/2 7.85 4.91
2 9/16 8.05 5.16
2 5/8 8.25 5.41
2 11/16 8.44 5.67
2 3/4 8.64 5.94
2 13/16 8.84 6.21
2 7/8 9.03 6.49
2 15/16 9.23 6.78
3 1/16 9.62 7.37
3 1/8 9.82 7.67
3 3/16 10.01 7.98
3 1/4 10.21 8.30
3 5/16 10.41 8.62
3 3/8 10.60 8.95
3 7/16 10.80 9.28
3 1/2 11.00 9.62
3 9/16 11.19 9.97
3 5/8 11.39 10.32
Diameter Circumference Area
(in) (in) (in2)
3 11/16 11.58 10.68
3 3/4 11.78 11.04
3 13/16 11.98 11.42
3 7/8 12.17 11.79
3 15/16 12.37 12.18
4 1/8 12.96 13.36
4 3/16 13.16 13.77
4 1/4 13.35 14.19
4 5/16 13.55 14.61
4 3/8 13.74 15.03
4 7/16 13.94 15.47
4 1/2 14.14 15.90
4 9/16 14.33 16.35
4 5/8 14.53 16.80
4 11/16 14.73 17.26
4 3/4 14.92 17.72
4 13/16 15.12 18.19
4 7/8 15.32 18.67
4 15/16 15.51 19.15
5 1/8 16.10 20.63
5 3/16 16.30 21.14
5 1/4 16.49 21.65
5 5/16 16.69 22.17
5 3/8 16.89 22.69
5 7/16 17.08 23.22
5 1/2 17.28 23.76
5 9/16 17.48 24.30
5 5/8 17.67 24.85
5 11/16 17.87 25.41
5 3/4 18.06 25.97
5 13/16 18.26 26.53
5 7/8 18.46 27.11
5 15/16 18.65 27.69
6 1/8 19.24 29.46
6 1/4 19.63 30.68
6 3/8 20.03 31.92
6 1/2 20.42 33.18
6 5/8 20.81 34.47
6 3/4 21.21 35.78
6 7/8 21.60 37.12
7 1/8 22.38 39.87
7 1/4 22.78 41.28
 Diameter Circumference Area
(in) (in) (in2)
7 3/8 23.17 42.72
7 1/2 23.56 44.18
7 5/8 23.95 45.66
7 3/4 24.35 47.17
7 7/8 24.74 48.71
8 1/8 25.53 51.85
8 1/4 25.92 53.46
8 3/8 26.31 55.09
8 1/2 26.70 56.75
8 5/8 27.10 58.43
8 3/4 27.49 60.13
8 7/8 27.88 61.86
9 1/8 28.67 65.40
9 1/4 29.06 67.20
9 3/8 29.45 69.03
9 1/2 29.85 70.88
9 5/8 30.24 72.76
9 3/4 30.63 74.66
9 7/8 31.02 76.59
10 1/8 31.81 80.52
10 1/4 32.20 82.52
10 3/8 32.59 84.54
10 1/2 32.99 86.59
10 5/8 33.38 88.66
10 3/4 33.77 90.76
10 7/8 34.16 92.89

 1 in (inch) = 25.4 mm
 1 in2 = 645.2 mm2 = 6.452 cm2 = 6.452x10-4 m2

Convert Gallons of Water to Pounds

and vice versa
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Convert Gallons of Water to Pounds
w = 8.33 q (1)
where
w = weight of water (lb)
q = volume of water (US gallons)
The equation is based on water with temperature 68oF (20oC) and specific weight 8.33 lb/US
gal.
 Water - Density and Specific Weight
Example - Converting Gallons of Water to Pounds
50 gallons of water can be converted to pounds as
w = 8.33 (50 gallons)
= 416.5 lb
Convert Pounds of Water into Gallons
q = w / 8.33 (1b)

- the most efficient way to navigate the Engineering ToolBox!

Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity
An introduction to density, specific gravity and specific weight - formulas
with examples
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Density is defined as mass per unit volume. Mass is a property and the SI unit for density is
[kg/m3].
Density can be expressed as
ρ=m/V =1/ν [1]
where
ρ = density [kg/m3], [slugs/ft3]
m = mass [kg], [slugs]
V = volume [m3], [ft3]
ν = specific volume [m3/kg], [ft3/slug]
 What is weight and what is mass? - the difference between weight and mass
The Imperial (U.S.) units for density are slugs/ft3 but pound-mass per cubic foot - lbm/ft3 - is often
used. Note that there is a difference between pound-force (lbf) and pound-mass (lbm). Slugs can
be multiplied with 32.2 for a rough value in pound-mass (lbm).
 1 slug = 32.174 lbm = 14.594 kg
 1 kg = 2.2046 lbm = 6.8521x10-2 slugs
 density of water: 1000 kg/m3, 1.938 slugs/ft3
See also Unit converter - mass and Unit converter - density
On atomic level - particles are packed tighter inside a substance with higher density. Density is
a physical property - constant at a given temperature and pressure - and may be helpful for
identification of substances.
Below on this page: Specific gravity (relative density), Specific gravity for gases, Specific
weight, Calculation examples
Se also: Densities for some common materials
Water - Density, Specific Weight and Thermal Expantion Coefficient - variation with temperature
at 1, 68 and 680 atm, SI and Imperial units
Air - Density, Specific Weight and Thermal Expantion Coefficient - variation with temperature and
pressure, SI and Imperial units
How to measure density of liquid petroleum products
Example 1: Density of a Golf ball
Example 2: Using Density to Identify a Material
Example 3: Density to Calculate Volume Mass
Specific Gravity (Relative Density) - SG - is a dimensionless unit defined as the ratio
of the density of a substance to the density of water - at a specified temperature and can be
expressed as
SG = ρsubstance / ρH2O [2]
where
SG = Specific Gravity of the substance
ρsubstance = density of the fluid or substance [kg/m3]
ρH2O = density of water - normally at temperature 4 oC [kg/m3]
It is common to use the density of water at 4 oC (39oF) as a reference since water at this point
has its highest density of 1000 kg/m3 or 1.940 slugs/ft3.
Since Specific Gravity - SG - is dimensionless, it has the same value in the SI system and the
imperial English system (BG). SG of a fluid has the same numerical value as its density
expressed in g/mL or Mg/m3. Water is normally also used as reference when calculating the
specific gravity for solids.
See also Thermophysical Properties of Water - Density, Freezing temperature, Boiling temperature,
Latent heat of melting, Latent heat of evaporation, Critical temperature ...
Example 4: Specific Gravity of Iron
Specific Gravity for some common Materials
Specific Gravity
Substance
- SG -
Acetylene 0.0017
Air, dry 0.0013
Alcohol 0.82
Aluminum 2.72
Brass 8.48
Cadmium 8.57
Chromium 7.03
Copper 8.79
Carbon dioxide 0.00198
Carbon monoxide 0.00126
Cast iron 7.20
Hydrogen 0.00009
Lead 11.35
Mercury 13.59
Nickel 8.73
Nitrogen 0.00125
Nylon 1.12
Oxygen 0.00143
Paraffin 0.80
Petrol 0.72
PVC 1.36
Rubber 0.96
Steel 7.82
Tin 7.28
Zinc 7.12
Water (4oC) 1.00
Water, sea 1.027
Wood, Oak 0.77
Back to top
Specific Gravity of gases is normally calculated with reference to air - and defined
as the ratio of the density of the gas to the density of the air - at a specified temperature and
pressure.
The Specific Gravity can be calculated as
SG = ρgas / ρair [3]
where
SG = specific gravity of gas
ρgas = density of gas [kg/m3]
ρair = density of air (normally at NTP - 1.204 [kg/m3])
 NTP - Normal Temperature and Pressure - defined as 20oC (293.15 K, 68oF) and 1 atm (
101.325 kN/m2, 101.325 kPa, 14.7 psia, 0 psig, 30 in Hg, 760 torr)
Molecular weights can be used to calculate Specific Gravity if the densities of the gas and the
air are evaluated at the same pressure and temperature.
See also Thermophysical Properties of Air - density, viscosity, critical temperature and pressure, triple
point, enthalpi and entropi, thermal conductivity and diffusicity,......
Back to top
Specific Weight is defined as weight per unit volume. Weight is a force. The SI unit for
specific weight is [N/m3]. The imperial unit is [lb/ft3].
Specific Weight (or force per unit volume) can be expressed as
γ = ρ ag [4]
where
γ = specific weight (N/m3], [lb/ft3]
ρ = density [kg/m3], [slugs/ft3]
ag = acceleration of gravity (9.807 [m/s2], 32.174 [ft/s2] under normal conditions)
 What is weight and what is mass? - the difference between weight and mass
Example 5: Specific Weight of Water
Specific Weight for Some common Materials
Specific Weight
-γ-
Product
Imperial Units SI Units
(lb/ft3) (kN/m3)
Aluminum 172 27
Brass 540 84.5
Carbon tetrachloride 99.4 15.6
Copper 570 89
Ethyl Alcohol 49.3 7.74
Gasoline 42.5 6.67
Glycerin 78.6 12.4
Kerosene 50 7.9
Mercury 847 133.7
SAE 20 Motor Oil 57 8.95
Seawater 63.9 10.03
Stainless Steel 499 - 512 78 - 80
Water 62.4 9.81
Wrought Iron 474 - 499 74 - 78
 Material Properties
Back to top
Examples
Example 1: Density of a Golf ball
A golf ball has a diameter of 42 mm and a mass of 45 g. The volume of the golf ball can be
calculated as
V = (4/3) π (42 [mm] * 0.001 [m/mm]/2)3 = 3.8 10-5 [m3]
The density of the golf ball can then be calculated as
ρ = 45 [g] * 0.001 [kg/g] / 3.8 10-5 [m3] = 1184 [kg/m3]
Back to top
Example 2: Using Density to Identify a Material
An unknown liquid substance has a mass of 18.5 g and occupies a volume of 23.4 ml (milliliter).
The density of the substance can be calculated as
ρ = (18.5 [g] /1000 [g/kg]) / (23.4 [ml] /(1000 [ml/l] * 1000[l/m3]))
= 18.5 10-3 [kg] /23.4 10-6 [m3] = 790 [kg/m3]
If we look up the densities of some common liquids we find that ethyl alcohol - or ethanol - has a
density of 789 kg/m3. The liquid may be ethyl alcohol!
Example 3: Density to Calculate Volume Mass
The density of titanium is 4507 kg/m3. The mass of 0.17 m3 volume titanium can be calculated
as
m = 0.17 [m3] * 4507 [kg/m3] = 766.2 [kg]
Note! - be aware that there is a difference between "bulk density" and actual "solid or material
density". This may not be clear in the description of products. Always double check values with
other sources before important calculations.
Back to top
Example 4: Specific Gravity of Iron
The density of iron is 7850 kg/m3. The specific gravity of iron related to water with density 1000
kg/m3 is
SG(iron) = 7850 [kg/m3] / 1000 [kg/m3] = 7.85
Example 5: Specific Weight of Water
The density of water is 1000 kg/m3 at 4 °C (39 °F).
The specific weight in SI units is
γ = 1000 [kg/m3] * 9.81 [m/s2] = 9810 [N/m3] = 9.81 [kN/m3]
The density of water is 1.940 slugs/ft3 at 39 °F (4 °C).
The specific weight in Imperial units is
γ = 1.940 [slugs/ft3] * 32.174 [ft/s2] = 62.4 [lb/ft3]

Drawing Scales
Commonly used scales for blueprint drawings
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Blueprint drawings are typically drawn in

 1:20, 1:50 or 1:100 (SI-units)

or

 1/4" or 1/8" (Imperial units, US)

scales.

SI-Units
To scale a SI-drawing

 multiply the measurement on the drawing with the denominator

where the denominator is the number after the colon.

Example - Blueprint Drawing Scale 1:50

An actual length of 1 cm is measured on a 1:50 blueprint floor plan. The physical length can be
calculated as

(1 cm) 50 = 50 cm

Imperial Units - US

A 1/4" scale means that each 1/4" (inch) on the plan counts for 1' (feet) of actual physical length.

To scale a blueprint in imperial units to actual feet

 multiply the measurement on the drawing (in inches decimal equivalent) with the
denominator
where the denominator is the bottom number.

Example - Blueprint Drawing Scale 1/4"

An actual length is measured to 1-3/8" on a 1/4" blueprint floor plan. The physical length can be
calculated as

(1-3/8 inch) 4 = (1.375 inch) 4

= 5.5 feet

= 5' 6"

Commonly Used Drawing Scales

Details

 1:1
 1:5
 1:10
 1:20
Component Drawings, Assembly

 1:20
 1:10
  1:5
Floor Plans, General Arrangement (GA)

 1:40
 1:50
Location Plot Plans

 1:80
 1:100
 1:200
Location Plat Plans

 1:500
Block Plan, City Maps and larger

 1:1000
 1:1250
 1:2500
Ordnance Survey Maps

 1:100000
 1:50000
 1:25000
 1:10000

Efficiency
Usefulnes of a process
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Efficiency is the measure of "usefulness" of an operation, process or machine - and can be

expressed on the generic form

μ = W o / Wi (1)

where

μ = efficiency

Wo = output from the operation - can be work, power, produced products ...

Wi = input to the operation - can work, power, input products ...

Efficiency can be expressed as a percentage or as a per-unit decimal fraction of 1.

Example - Efficiency of an Electric Motor

The input power to an electric motor is 2000 W. The output power to the shaft is 1800 W. The
efficiency of the motor can be calculated as

μ = (1800 W) / (2000 W)

= 0.9

= 90%

Example - Efficiency of a Wind Mill

The teoretical energy potential for a wind mill is 300 kWh at given conditions. The power
produced is 70 kWh. The efficiency of the wind mill can be calculated as

μ = (70 kWh) / (300 kWh)

= 0.23

= 23%