2.
2 DEFINITIONS
AGE HARDENING – precipitation hardening
- occurs because of the precipitation
of the constituent from supersaturated solid
soln
-increased strength & hardness,
decreased ductility
 ARTIFICIAL AGING – aging at
moderately elevated temperature
ALLOY – substance w/ metallic properties,
composed of 2 or more elements of w/c at
1 is a metal
ALLOYING ELEMENTS – usually considered to
be the metallic elements added for the
purpose of modifying the properties
ANISTROPY – characteristic of exhibiting
different properties when tested in different
directions (tensile strength “w/ the grain” or
“across the grain”)
BRITTLENESS – tendency to fracture w/o
appreciable deformation
CHARPY TEST – specimen, supported at both
ends as simple beam is broken by the
impact of a falling pendulum
COLD SHORTNESS – brittleness of materials at
low temperature
COLD WORKING – deforming a metal
plastically at a temperature below
recrystallization temperature at a rate to
produce strain hardening, metal cold
worked in this manner becomes stronger
and more brittle
DAMPING CAPACITY – ability of a material
to absorb vibration, w/c is a process of
absorbing K.E. of vibration owing to
hysteresis
DECARBURIZATION – loss of carbon from the
surface of steel occurring during hot rolling,
forging and heat, when the surrounding
medium reacts w/ the carbon
DUCTILITY – permits permanent deformation
before fracture in tension; opposite of
brittleness
ELASTICITY – ability of a material to be
deformed and return to its original shape
EMBRITTLEMENT – loss of ductility because of
a physical or chemical change of material
FREE CARBON – part of the carbon content
of steel or iron that is in the form of graphite
or temper carbon
HARD DRAWN – temper produced in a wire,
rod or tube by cold drawing
HOMOGENEOUS MATERIALS – have the
same structure at all points (STEEL is not
homogeneous)
ISOTROPIC – have the same properties in all
directions
IZOD TEST – test in w/c a specimen,
supported at one end as a cantilever
beam, is broken by the impact of a falling
pendulum
KILLED STEEL – steel that has been
deoxidized w/ a strong deoxidizing agent
such as silicon or aluminum, in order to
eliminate a reaction between carbon and
oxygen during solidification
MACHINABILITY – indefinite property that
refers to the relative ease w/ w/c a material
can be cut
MALLEABILITY – material’s susceptibility to
extreme deformation in rolling or
hammering
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES – properties w/c
have to do w/ stress & strain
PERCANTAGE ELONGATION – extension in
the vicinity of the fracture of a tensile
specimen, expressed as a percentage of
the original gage length as 20% in 2 in
PERCENTAGE REDUCTION OF AREA – smallest
area at the point of rupture of a tensile
specimen divided by the original area
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES – density,
conductivity, coefficient of thermal
expansion
PLASTICITY – ability of a metal to be
deformed considerably w/o rupture
POISSON’S RATIO – ratio of lateral strain
(contraction) to the longitudinal strain
(extension) when the element is loaded w/
a longitudinal tensile force
PRECIPITATION HEAT TREATMENT – brings
about the precipitation of a constituent
from a supersaturated solid solution by
holding the body at an elevated
temperature; also called ARTIFICIAL AGING
PROOF STRESS – stress w/c causes a
specified permanent deformation of a
material
RED SHORTNESS – brittleness in steel when it
is red hot
RELAXATION – decreasing stress at a
constant strain
RESIDUAL STRESSES – those not due to
applied loads or temperature gradients,
exist for various reasons, as unequal cooling
rates, cold, working etc
RIMMED STEEL – incompletely deoxidized
steel
SOLUTION HEAT TREATMENT – process of
holding an alloy at a suitably high
temperature long enough to permit one or
more constituents to pass into solid solution
and then cooling fast enough to hold
constituents as a supersaturated solution
STIFFNESS – ability to resist deformation
STRAIN HARDENING – increasing the
hardness and strength by plastic
deformation at temperatures lower than
the recrystallization range
TEMPER – condition produced in a non-
ferrous metal by mechanical or thermal
treatment
TOUGHNESS – capacity of a material to
withstand a shock load w/o breaking
TRANSVERSE STRENGTH – results of a
transverse bed test, the specimen being
mounted as a simple beam; also called
RUPTURE MODULUS
WORK HARDENING – same as STRAIN
HARDENING
WROUGHT STEEL – steel that has been
hammered, rolled or drawn in the process
of manufacture, may be plain carbon or
alloy steel
2.3 HEAT-TREATMENT – operation or
combination of operations involving
heating and cooling of metal or an alloy in
the solid state for the purpose of altering the
properties of the material
AGING (& AGE HARDENING) – change in
metal by w/c its structure recovers from an
unstable or metastable condition that has
been produced by quenching or cold
working
ANNEALING – heating and slow cooling of a
solid metal, usually done to soften it
CRITICAL RANGE – same as
TRANSFORMATION RANGE
DRAWING – tempering
GRAPHITIZING (& ANNEALING PROCESS) –
causes the combined carbon to transform
wholly or in part into graphitic or free
carbon
HARDENING – heating of certain steels
above the transformation range & then
quenching; any process of increasing the
hardness of a metal
MALLEABILIZING – annealing process
whereby combined carbon in white cast
iron is transformed wholly or in part to
temper carbon (free graphitic carbon in the
form of rounded nodules)
NORMALIZING – heating of an iron-based
alloy to some 100°F above the
transformation range w/ subsequent
cooling to below that range in still air at
room temperature
SPHEROIDIZING – any heating and cooling
of steel that produces a roundedor globular
form of carbide
STRESS RELIEVING – heating of metal body
to a suitable temperature and holding it at
that temperature for a suitable time for the
purpose of reducing internal stress
TEMPERING – reheating of hardened or
normalized steel to a temperature below
the transformation range, followed by any
desired rate of cooling
TRANSFORMATION RANGE – temperature
interval during austenite is formed during
heating, also the temp interval w/c
austenite disappears during cooling
2.4 HARDNESS – measure of its resistance to
indentation
BRINELL, ROCKWELL, VICKERS & SHORE
SCLEROSCOPE – most common instruments
used to measure hardness
BRINELL HARDNESS NUMBER (BHN) –
determined by a standard pressure applied
to a 10mm ball w/c presses for 10 sec or
more on the surface of the material being
tested
ROCKWELL TESTER – faster than Brinell and
widely used commercially, utilizes several
different indenters, measures the depth of
the penetration by the indenter
VICKERS TESTER – has a square-base,
diamond pyramid indenter and the Vickers
number is the load in kg/by the impressed
area in sq mm
SHORE SCLEROSCOPE – number obtained CARBON 20-30 PTS – used for forged and
by letting a freely falling hammer w/ a machined parts, screws, for boiler plate and
diamond point strike the object to be tested structural steel
& measuring the height of rebound
CARBON 30-55 PTS – used for miscellaneous
forged and machined parts, shafts
2.5 AISI AND SAE SPECIFICATION NUMBERS CARBON 60-95 PTS – used for tools, springs,
high strength, low ductility
ASTM – American Society for Testing
Materials
SAE – Society of Automotive Engineers 2.6 ALLOY STEEL – WROUGHT ALLOY STEEL
contains significant quantities of recognized
AISI – American Iron and Steel Institute
alloying metals to reduce distortion from
 B – acid Bessemer steel heat treatment, to increase toughness,
 C – basic open-hearth carbon steel ductility & tensile strength & to improve low-
 D – acid open-hearth carbon steel temp or high-temp properties
 E – electric-furnace steel
a) LOW-ALLOY STRUCTURAL STEEL(not
* B or L in the middle of a no indicate that heat treated) – developed for
boron or lead has been added structural uses
* H at the end indicates that the material b) LOW-CARBON ALLOY STEELS – used
can be bought to hardenability chiefly for carburizing
specification c) MEDIUM-CARBON ALLOY STEELS –
usually quenched and tempered to
STEEL SAE STEEL SAE
hardness between 250 and 400 Brinell
Plain 1XX Molybdenum- 46X
d) HIGH-CARBON ALLOY STEELS –
Carbon X Nickel X
ordinarily heat treated to hardness
Free 11X Molybdenum- 47X
Cutting X Chromium- X between 375 and 500 Brinell, use as
Nickel springs wear resisting parts etc
Mangane 13X Molybdenum- 48X e) HIGH-ALLOY STEELS – stainless steels
se X Nickel X ALUMINUM (Al) – efficient deoxidizer
Boron 14X Chromium 5XX
X X BORON (B) – economical hardenability
Nickel 2XX Heat and 514 agent in low or medium-carbon deoxidized
X Corrosion XX steels
Nickel- 3XX Resistant 515
Chromium X XX CHROMIUM (Cr) – improves hardenability
Heat and 303 Chrmium- 6XX economically, resistance to corrosion,
Corrosion XX Vanadium X strength at high temp & wearing properties
Resistant
COBALT (Co) – improves red hardness
Molybden 4XX Nickel- 8XX
um X Chromium- X COLUMBIUM (Cb) – used to stabilize tainless
Molybdenum steel
Molybden 41X Silicon- 92X
um- X Manganese X COPPER (Cu) – improves steel’s resistance to
Chromium atmospheric corrosion, increases fluidity of
Molybden 43X Nickel- 9XX the melt & improves tensile strength & yield
um- X Chromium- X ratio in normal condition
Chromium Molybdenum(ex
LEAD (Pb) – improves machinability
-Nickel cept 92XX)
MANGANESE (Mn) – improves strength and
increases hardenability moderately,
 Strength of steel ↑ w/ carbon content,
counteracts brittleness from sulfur
while ductility ↓
MOLYBDENUM (Mo) – increases
10XX – used for tubing, forgings, pressed-
hardenability markedly and economically,
steel parts, screws, rivets & carburized case-
hardened parts tends to counteract temper brittleness,
improving creep strength and red hardness
11XX – free-cutting, used in automatic
NICKEL (Ni) – strengthens unquenched and
screw machines, can be carburized
annealed steels, toughens steel and
simplifies heat treatment by lessening
distortion’ most effective element for
reducing the brittleness at very low temp
PHOSPORUS (P) – increases hardenability,
strengthens low-carbon steels, improves
machinability of free-cutting steels, and
improves resistance to corrosion
SELENIUM (Se) – improves machinability of
stainless steel
SILICON (Si) – strengthens low-alloy steels
and improves resistance to high temp
oxidation
TANTALUM (Ta) – stabilizer
TITANIUM (Ti) – used for deoxidation and for
stabilizing austenitic stainless steels
TUNGSTEN (W) – increases hardenability
markedly in small amounts and improves
hardness and strength at high temp
VANADIUM (V) –promotes fine-grain
structure, improves the ratio of endurance
strength to ultimate strength of medium-
carbon steels, increases hardenability
strongly when dissolved
2.7 HARDENABILITY – capacity of steel to
through-harden when cooled from above
its transformation range
BORON, VANADIUM, MANGANESE,
CHROMIUM, MOLYBDENUM, PHOSPORUS,
TUNGSTEN, NICKEL & SILICON – most
effective alloys in improving hardenability
c) NITRIDING – surface hardening w/c
the machined & heat-treated part is
placed in a nitrogenous environment,
commonly ammonia gas
d) CARBONITRIDING – process of case
hardening steel by the simultaneous
absorption of carbon and nitrogen
from a surrounding hot gaseous
atmosphere, followed by either
quenching or slow cooling as reqd
e) INDUCTION HARDENING – consist of
heating a thin surface layer,
preferably of annealed or normalized
steel above the transformation range
by elec induction & then cooling
f) FLAME HARDENING – process of
heating the surface of an iron-based
alloy w/c is preferably annealed or
normalized & then quenching it
2.9 WORK HARDENING – result of a metal
being stressed at some point into plastic
range usually ordinary temp, metal cold
worked material becomes stronger & more
brittle
 COLD-FINISHED – materials has had its
cross section significantly reduced by
cold rolling or cold drawing through
die
2.10 WROUGHT IRON – made by burning the
carbon from molten iron & then putting the
product through hammering & rolling
operations

2.11 CAST IRON

2.8 CASE HARDENING – process of surface
hardening whereby the surface or case is a) WHITE CAST IRON – most of the
substantially harder than the core or inside carbon is combined chemically w/
metal iron & as a result, metal is very hard
b) CHILLED IRON – when an extremely
a) CARBURIZING – adding carbon to
hard surface is desired
the surface of the steel by exposing it
to hot carbonaceous solids, liquids or
gas above transformation temp 2.12 MALLEABLE IRON – heat-treated white
 PACK CARBURIZING – part is heated cast iron
in contact w/ solid carburizing
MALLEABILIZING – heat treatment of the
compounds of various constituents
white cast iron in w/c substantially all of the
 GAS CARBURIZING – part is heated in
carbon is combined in the form of iron
carburizing gases
carbide
 LIQUID CARBURIZING - part is
immersed in a molten salt bath
b) CYANIDING – accomplished by
2.13 NODULAR CAST IRON – also called as
immersing the part in a hot (about
DUCTILE IRON, has the castability,
1550°F) liquid salt bath, sodium
machinability & wearability of gray iron, but
cyanide being common medium in
higher strength & ductility
both processes
2.14 CAST STEEL – combination of highest
strength & highest ductility in a cast ferrous
metal is obtained in cast steel, steel casting
may be plain carbon or alloy steels
2.15 STAINLESS STEEL – relatively expensive
but when the environment is significantly
corrosive or at high or quite low temp, it
provides economical ans for many probs
a) COLD WORKING – usual way of
hardening austenitic types because
of their potent response to this
treatment
b) AGE HARDENING – also called
PRECIPITATION HARDENING
c) QUENCHING & TEMPERING – as for
usual steels, except that
transformations are so slow that the
quenching is by air cooling for max
hardness, common way of hardening
the martensitic types
AUSTENITIC STEEL – best stainless steel for
high temp service
MARTENSITIC STEEL – usually w/ no nickel
lock washers, bushings, springs, wire,
welding rod, chem hardware, wire
brushes
 SILICON BRONZE – hydraulic pressure
lines, hardware, bolts, nuts, rivets,
screws, elec conduits, heat-
exchanger tubes, welding rod
 YELLOW BRASS – elec fixtures,
plumbing, wire, pins, rivets screws,
springs, arch grillwork, radiation cores
2.17 ALUMINUM ALLOYS – lighter alloys are
esp adapted for use where it is desired to
reduce the inertia forces of moving parts &
where in gen reduced weight in an inherent
advantage
2.18 MAGNESIUM ALLOYS – alloys that are
about 2/3s as heavy as Al & lightness is one
of the most significant char of this metal
2.19 TITANIUM ALLOYS –it is not used except
where its properties are important in
particular in extreme temp situations where
strength is needed, esp for aeronautical
purposes

FERRITIC STEEL – no nickel, do not harden by

quenching & tempering 2.20 LEAD, TIN & MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS

2.16 COPPER ALLOYS – one of the oldest  BABBITT B23-46T – has a lead base & is
know metals, it has been the base of a suitable bearing material for light &
many alloys as well as being used in a moderate service in various
relatively pure form machines
 BABBITT B23-49 – has a tin base & is a
 ADMIRALTY METAL – condenser &
gen purpose bearing material, used
other heat-exchanger tubes & plates
for die castings
 ALUMINUM BRONZE – corrosion
 HASTELLOY B – expensive alloy of
resistant parts, marine pumps, shafts,
nickel, molybdenum & iron that is very
valves, bearings, gears, worm wheels,
useful in chem industry because it
cam rollers
can resist certain corrosion
 BERYLLIUM COPPER – also called
 MONEL – primarily an alloy of nickel &
BERYLLIUM BRONZE, parts where high
copper and also used on
formability, high yield, fatigue &
nonmagnetic aircraft parts
creep strengths & also a good
 ZINC ALLOY – ZEMAK-5 used for either
corrosion resistance are
die castings or sand castings
advantageous, springs, bolts &
screws, firing pins, dies, surgical inst,
spark resistant tools 2.21 HIGH-TEMPERATURE SERVICE
 CARTRIDGE BRASS – elec parts,
SUPERALLOYS – most advanced alloys, also
automotive radiator cores, pins,
called SUPERSTRENGTH ALLOYS,
rivets, springs, ammunition comp
combination of nickel, cobalt, chromium,
 MANGANESE BRONZE – clutch disks,
iron, molybdenum, tungsten, columbium,
pump rods, shafts, valve stems,
titanium and aluminum, but never
welding rod
containing all of these
 NAVAL BRASS –condenser plates,
marine hardware, propeller shafts, CREEP STRENGTH/RUPTURE STRESS – when
piston rods, valve stems, welding rod, plastic deformations are involved, the
balls, nuts, bolts, rivets criterion for the design at a particular
 PHOSPOR BRONZE – bellows, operating temp
diaphragms, clutch disks, cotter pins,
SECONDARY CREEP

TERTIARY CREEP – present if the load is high

enough & if the time is long enough at an
accelerating rate leading eventually to
fracture
2.22 LOW-TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES

CHARPY/IZOD TEST – currently most used as

a measure of the low-temp suitability of
steel

2.23 PLASTICS – have come into use not only

as decorative and unstressed parts but also
as load carrying members

a) THERMOSETTING – plastic w/c

undergo chemical changes &
harden on being heated, usually
under pressure
 GRADE X – has a paper base,
comes in sheet, tube and molded
forms, used primarily for mech
applications
 GRADE XX – has a paper base,
comes in sheet, tube, rod and
molded forms, has good
machinability, greater moisture
resistance than Grade X, suitable
for elec(insulating) applications
 GRADE C – has a fabric base,
comes in sheets, tubes and rods,
used for gears
 GRADE A – has an asbestos base,
comes in sheets, tubes and rods,
more resistant to heat among the
above mentioned
b) THERMOPLASTIC – plastic w/c may be
reshaped on heating, temp ↑; softens,
remain soft in the heated state
 POLYETHYLENE – inexpensive, used
widely for bottles & other
containers
 NYLON – expensive, has load
carrying capacity up to 200-250°F,
good wear resistance, used for
bearings, dry or lubricated,
machined or molded
 TEFLON – uses similar to those of
nylon but more expensive, not
molded in the conventional
manner, very inert plastic, has the
ability to tolerate a continuous
temp of 500°F