PROJECT CONCEPT SUMMARY

Over the past several years there have been Increasing reports of cases of contaminated
groundwater. Many cases were caused by leaking from surface impoundments or landfills,
or leakage from underground storage tanks. Treatment of groundwater use, discharge or
recharge into the aquifer is becoming a major concern.

Concern over groundwater quality is a major environmental issue. The Environmental

Protection Agency has taken steps to protect this valuable resource, but groundwater
supplies are being found with increasing regularity to be already contaminated.

The concern over quality is well founded, as nearly half of the U.S. relies upon groundwater
as a drinking water source, and the presence of potentially hazardous organic compounds
requires treatment with the best available technology. These organic chemicals can
originate from a variety of sources, such as surface impoundments (lagoons), landfills,
surface and subsurface disposals, underground equipment (tanks) and accidental spills.

The groundwater contamination then becomes a complex problem, ranging from trace
contamination of a large aquifer to a localized leachate containing various metals, organic
and inorganic chemicals. An additional aspect of the problem involves the end use of the
groundwater. After the problem is identified, the choice of a treatment technology can be
made.

Groundwater contamination is an ever present danger with the introduction and detection
of new chemicals that have been demonstrated as toxic in shallow aquifers and wells
through evolving industrial processes.

Groundwater remediation is the process that is used to treat polluted groundwater by

removing the pollutants or converting them into harmless products. Groundwater is water
present below the ground surface that saturates the pore space in the subsurface. Globally,
between 25 per cent and 40 per cent of the world's drinking water is drawn from boreholes
and dug wells .Groundwater is also used by farmers to irrigate crops and by industries to
produce everyday goods. Most groundwater is clean, but groundwater can become
polluted, or contaminated as a result of human activities or as a result of natural conditions.

The many and diverse activities of humans produce innumerable waste materials and by-
products. Historically, the disposal of such waste have not been subject to many regulatory
controls. Consequently, waste materials have often been disposed of or stored on land
surfaces where they percolate into the underlying groundwater. As a result, the
contaminated groundwater is unsuitable for use.

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Current practices can still impact groundwater, such as the over application
of fertilizer or pesticides, spills from industrial operations, infiltration from urban runoff,
and leaking from landfills.

Using contaminated groundwater causes hazards to public health through poisoning or the
spread of disease, and the practice of groundwater remediation has been developed to
address these issues.

Contaminants found in groundwater cover a broad range of physical, inorganic chemical,

organic chemical, bacteriological, and radioactive parameters. Pollutants and contaminants
can be removed from groundwater by applying various techniques, thereby bringing the
water to a standard that is commensurate with various intended uses.

Ground water remediation techniques span biological, chemical, and

physical treatment technologies. Most ground water treatment techniques utilize a
combination of technologies. Some of the biological treatment techniques
include bioaugmentation, bioventing, biosparging, bioslurping,and phytoremediation.

Some chemical treatment techniques include ozone and oxygen gas injection, chemical
precipitation, membrane separation, ion exchange, carbon absorption, aqueous chemical
oxidation, and surfactant enhanced recovery. Some chemical techniques may be
implemented using nanomaterials.

The most common activated carbon used for remediation is derived from bituminous
coal. Activated carbon absorbs volatile organic compounds from ground water by
chemically binding them to the carbon atoms.

Groundwater remediation is the process that is used to treat groundwater by removing the
pollutants. There are many different groundwater remediation methods, but they all have
the same goal: clean polluted water.

These three groundwater treatment methods are most commonly used by environmental
consultants:

Physical:
The most basic type of groundwater remediation, uses air to strip water clean (air
sparging). Another method, called pump and treat, physically removes the water from the
ground and treats it by way of biological or chemical means. Both of these methods have
proven successful in treating contaminated groundwater.

Biological:
This method uses organic matter, microorganisms and plants to clean contaminated water.
Bioaugmentation, bioventing, and biosparging are three ways to use biological material to

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break down certain chemicals and compounds industrial waste in groundwater. Biological
methods are convenient because the contaminated water may not even need to be
removed to be treated.

Chemical:
This method may take longer to execute and can be costly, but still may be the only option
on certain contaminants. Carbon absorption, ion exchange, chemical precipitation, and
oxidation are all ways to achieve clean groundwater by way of chemical remediation.

These are the most commonly used groundwater remediation methods, and of course there
are reasons to choose one method over another. The goal for all of them is the same –
remove contaminants and leave behind clean, potable drinking water.

Groundwater Treatment Guide Introduction Groundwater sources can be either shallow or

deep. Groundwater from a shallow surface connected or unconfined aquifer can be
contaminated with disease causing microorganisms or chemicals from surface activities.

Groundwater from a deep or confined aquifer will be less likely to be contaminated with
disease causing microorganisms, but may contain heavy metals, other chemicals and
radioactivity, depending on the geology. Groundwater supplies should undergo
comprehensive water quality testing to ensure suitability for drinking water purposes.

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Groundwater supplies should be tested for E. coli and a comprehensive range of chemical
and physical characteristics prior to use, including radioactivity. The water should be
retested if there are any changes in water quality, such as the appearance of odours, taste
or colour.

Groundwater Health Risks:

Groundwater from a shallow surface connected or unconfined aquifer may be

contaminated with disease causing microorganisms or harmful levels of chemicals from
urban, agricultural or industrial activities. Groundwater from a deep or confined aquifer,
with an encased and well maintained bore may be free from disease causing
microorganisms, but the chemical quality must be thoroughly checked to ensure it is
suitable for drinking.

Groundwater may need to be disinfected before consumption to remove harmful

microorganisms and should be disinfected to prevent any downstream contamination.

Disinfection does not remove chemicals and other treatment processes may be necessary
to manage any associated risks to health. If there are specific chemicals in your
groundwater that may pose a health risk you are likely to need specialist advice on their
removal. If your groundwater contains dissolved gases, such as hydrogen sulphide, or if it
contains high concentrations of iron, it may be useful to pass it through an aerator before
filtering. Advice from a specialist should also be sought on the installation of aerators or
specialist treatment.

Groundwater Treatment Systems:

There are several important actions that can be taken to reduce the risk of contamination
in groundwater supply systems. These actions include; Protect the bore from livestock and
human access by erecting fencing to provide at least a 50 metre radius buffer zone around
the bore.

A larger buffer zone may be required for shallow bores, permeable soils and/or fractured
rock aquifers Protect the bore from surface water entry by installing a suitable watertight
bore seal extending at least 3 metres in depth below the top of the bore and a surrounding
concrete plinth at least 2 metres in diameter, sloping away from the bore head and
extending at least 300 mm above the surrounding ground level.

There are several methods for treating groundwater and professional advice should be
sought for the design and installation of an appropriate water treatment system, to remove
any contaminants that may present a health risk. These treatment methods may include:
Filtration to remove particulate matter from water.

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There are many filtration devices available and microorganism and particle removal varies
with the filter type. Some filter systems will require a power supply UV disinfection by
ultraviolet (UV) light irradiation is effective against most bacteria, viruses and protozoa.

UV systems require relatively low maintenance, do not require the addition of chemicals
and can include warning alarms to indicate equipment faults. Specialist UV chambers for
treating groundwater are designed to provide a dosage of UV light at a given flow rate. UV
systems are most effective when the water is clear and free of particles.

Groundwater supplies will often need filtration prior to UV disinfection due the presence
of chemicals and particles. UV treatment does not remove chemicals from water.

UV systems will require a power supply. Water that has been disinfected using UV should
be used straight away, not stored in tanks. Chlorine disinfection is a common form of
disinfection that is effective against harmful bacteria, viruses and Giardia, but has limited
effect against Cryptosporidium.

Groundwater supplies will commonly require filtration prior to chlorination due the
presence of chemicals (e.g. iron and manganese) that should be removed in order for the
chlorination process to be effective. A storage tank is also needed, to provide adequate
chlorine contact time.

Filtration Treatment Systems Include Polypropylene & ceramic cartridge type filters can
effectively treat water by removing sediment and bacteria, but will not remove viruses.

Activated carbon filters are most effective in removing and/or reducing chemicals such as
iron and hydrogen sulphide, objectionable tastes, odours and colour, but will not remove
bacteria or viruses. NSF/ANSI Standard 42 refers to the removal of specific aesthetic or
non-health-related contaminants (chlorine, taste, odor and particulates).

Micro/Ultra filtration membrane filters (0.1 - 0.01 micron) can effectively treat water by
removing sediment and bacteria. Ultrafiltration membrane filters may also remove viruses.
Installations should include a pre-filtration stage of 30 micron rating, an automatic filter
backwash cleaning function and a suitable disposal method for the small amount of dirty
backwash water from the filters. NSF/ANSI Standard 53 refers to the removal of specific
health related contaminants.

Reverse osmosis filters (0.001 micron) are the most sophisticated and are extremely
efficient and effective for the removal of microorganisms and most residual chemicals from
water.

The filters produce a constant waste stream when operating, and usually need to be
connected to a drain and a power supply. Installations should include a pre-filtration stage

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of 5 micron rating, an automatic filter backwash cleaning function, and suitable disposal
method for the waste stream and small amount of dirty backwash water from the filters.
NSF/ANSI Standard 58 refers to the removal of total dissolved solids and other optional
reduction claims.

Carbon Fibres:

Carbon fiber is a “fibrous carbon substance having a fine graphite crystal structure” which
is composed mainly by carbon and manufactured by carbonizing acryl fibers, oil, and
carbon by a special heat treatment process.

It is generally said to be a “light, strong, corrosion-resistant” advanced functional material.

It is widely used in diverse applications, taking advantage of its combination of properties
as a light weight materials with excellent mechanical properties, and its excellent
properties as a carbon material.

Carbon Fiber which is used for use as a water purification materials are given a special
surface treatment. It is PAN type (manufactured by carbonizing polyacrylonitrile which is
manufactured to cause the fibers to expand in water, different from general industrial use.
Carbon fibers for water purification consist of bundles of 12,000 or 15,000 ultra-fine, 7μm
filaments.

Carbon Fibers (CFs) are widely used as reinforcement material in polymer composites.
However, they are having inert surface and do not allow matrix material to make bonding
with it. Surface treatment of fibers is one of the suggested methods to improve adhesion
between the two.

CFs are mainly used as reinforcements in composite materials such as CF reinforced

plastics, carbon-carbon composite, CF reinforced materials, and CF reinforced cement. CF
offer the highest specific modulus and highest specific strength of all reinforcing fibers.

CF composites are suited to applications where strength, stiffness, lower weight, and
outstanding fatigue characteristics are critical requirements. They are also finding
applications where high temperature, chemical inertness and high damping are important
criteria. CFs also have good electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity and low linear
coefficient of thermal expansion.

CFs, though very expensive are most favoured for tailoring high performance composites
and tri bio-composites. Their surface, however, is chemically inert and leading to the most
potential problem of inadequate adhesion and hence weaker composite than the expected
one.

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It is essential to treat them with proper treatment so as to explore their full potential in
composites. Several types of reported surface treatments of CFs are classified in two
categories.

First, improves the adhesion by physical means thereby enhancing the roughness resulting
in more surface area and a large number of contact points, micro-pores or surface pits on
already porous CFs surface. The second on the other hand, involves chemical reactions
leading to inclusion of reactive functional groups that promote good chemical bonding with
the polymer matrix.

Most of the methods bring both the changes simultaneously. Interestingly any surface
treatment method especially which etches fiber’s surface also leads to affect the strength of
the fiber adversely. First effect called as positive effect leads to the enhancement in fiber-
matrix adhesion and hence improvement in the strength of composite since matrix
supports the fibers more firmly. Simultaneously, other effect which is in negative direction
reduces the strength of fibers due to etching contributing to deteriorate the strength of
composite.

The final strength of the composite depends on the net contribution of these two opposing
effects. It is hence imperative to optimize the extent of treatment to get the maximum
possible enhancement in the performance properties of composite.

Water purification by Carbon Fiber is performed by pollutant capturing ability from large
specific surface of Carbon Fiber's ultra-fine filaments and biofilm formed by effective
microorganisms decompose pollutants. This mechanism of water purification is a bio-film
treatment method which is one of the wastewater treatment methods using Carbon Fiber
as a contact media.

Carbon fibers, alternatively abbreviated as CFs, are carbonaceous materials in fibrous

shape with diameter of 5-10 m. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC) defined carbon fibers as fibers, filaments, lines or reels which contain more than
92% of carbon and usually in a non- graphitic state.

Non-graphitic state in carbon can be described as a two-dimensional long-range order of

carbon atoms in planar hexagonal networks without any measurable crystallographic
order in the third direction (c-direction) apart from more or less parallel stacking.

The excellent properties of carbon fibers include high stiffness, high tensile strength, light
weight, high chemical resistance, high temperature tolerance and low thermal expansion.

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carbon filters are most effective at removing chlorine, particles such as sediment, volatile
organic compounds (VOCs), taste and odor from water. They are not effective at removing
minerals, salts, and dissolved inorganic substances.

These advantages of carbon fibers attract interest from researchers in new class
applications such as aerospace application in the West military in the late-1950s. CFs are
also popular in civil engineering.

Most commercial carbon fibers are produced from organic precursor into fiber form which
involves stabilization at the initial processing steps, for example, heating PAN fiber
precursor in air to temperatures then cross linking in order to render it infusible.

Finally the cross linked precursor fiber was placed into a furnace having an inert gas
atmosphere of a gas such as Argon, and heated at temperatures graphitization of the
material to drive off nearly all of the non-carbon elements, converting the pre- cursor to a
carbon fiber.

Each particle, or granule, of carbon provides a large surface area, or pore structure,
allowing contaminants the maximum possible exposure to the active sites within the filter
media. One gram of activated carbon has a surface area in excess of 3,000 m2 (32,000 sq ft).

There are three techniques used to produce commercial fibers: melt spinning, wet
spinning, or dry spinning.. Certain properties are easier to develop in each carbon fiber but
not available for both. Hence, the detail of raw materials and processes used to form the
precursor carbon fibers are very important for structure and properties improvement. It
can also help in reduction of production costs for both classes of pitch-based and PAN-
based carbon fibers.

carbon adsorption is a reliable and effective means of removing most organic impurities
found in potable water supplies. Plant operations and pilot column studies have shown
carbon filtration to be an effective process for removing detergents (Flentje, 1964),
insecticides, (Robeck, 1965), viruses (Robeck, 1964), specific chemical pollutants, (Dostal,
1965), and taste and odor pollutants (Flentje, 1964).

These results confirm postulations that carbon bed filtration would remove a high
percentage of undesirable organic contaminants from water efficiently over a wide range of
impurity concentration conditions.

carbon filtration is a relatively simple and economical procedure. It is possible to adopt

existing plant filters for a combination filtration - adsorption unit process with minimum
alteration, by filling them with granular carbon.

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Tests (Joyce, 1966) had shown that, in accordance with adsorption theory, granular carbon
in beds is more efficient than pulverized carbon used in slurry form in accordance with
conventional water plant procedures. Typical particle sizes that can be removed by carbon
filters range from 0.5 to 50 micrometres. The particle size will be used as part of the filter
description.

The efficacy of a carbon filter is also based upon the flow rate regulation. When the water is
allowed to flow through the filter at a slower rate, the contaminants are exposed to the
filter media for a longer amount of time.