RESEARCH 2.6.

2.7.
Projective devices
Stoichiometric devices
2.2. Structured
2.3. Semi-structured
1. Focus observation
2. Concealment
INSTRUMENT Most Frequently Used Data Strengths
3. Duration

Instrument Collection Techniques 1. Good for measuring attitude Types of Observation

-gen. term for researches 1. Documentary analysis & most other content of 1. Structured
-use for measuring device (survey, 2. Interview Schedule interest -uses checklist (data collection
test, questionnaire, etc.) 3. Observation 2. Allow probing by the tool)
-to help distinguish between 4. Physiological Measurement interview -specifies behaviors of
instrumentation, consider that the 5. Psychological Test 3. Can provide in-depth info interest
instrument is the device & 6. Questionnaire 4. Allow good interpretative
instrumentation is the course of validity 2. Unstructured
action (the process of dev., testing 1. Documentary Analysis 5. Very quickly turnaround for -observes things as they happen
& using the device)  Use too analyze primary & telephone interview -conducts experiment w/out
-researchers (chooses which type secondary sources 6. Moderately high preconceived ideas about what
of instrument/s to use based on the  @ times, data are not measurement validity for will be observed
research question) available/ difficult to locate well-constructed & well-
2 Broad Categories  Available mostly: tested interview protocols. 4. Physiological Measures
1. Researcher-Completed (1)churches, (2)schools,  collection of physiological
Instrument (3)public/private offices, Weaknesses data from subjects
1.1. Rating Scales (4)hospitals/ community 1. In-person int. are expensive  more accurate & objective
1.2. Interview  Information gathered tend & time-consuming that any other data-
Schedule/guides to be incomplete & not 2. Perceived anonymity by collection methods
1.3. Tally Sheets definite respondents possible low
1.4. flow chart 3. Data analysis sometimes 5. Psychological Test:
1.5. Performance checklist 2. Interview Schedule time consuming for open- 1. personality inventories
1.6. time-&-motion logs  skill of interviewer ended items. -self reported measurements that
1.7. Observation forms determines if the assess the differences of
interviewee is able to 3. Observation personality traits/values of people
2. Subject-Completed express his thoughts clearly  observation guide/checklist -gathers info form a person thru
Instrument  conducted w/ single person (instrument used) questions/statements that requires
2.1. Questionnaires  Focus group interview  must be done quietly & responses/reactions
2.2. Self-checklist (conducted w/ gr. of inconspicuous manner so as -EX.: Minnesota Multiphasic
2.3. attitude scales people) to get realistic data Personality Inventory (MMP) & the
2.4. Personality inventories Edwards Personal Preference
2.5. Achievement/aptitude Types of Interview Schedule the ff. should be taken into Schedule (EPPs)
tests 2.1. Unstructured consideration:
 2. projective techniques
-subject is presented w/ stimulus
designed to be ambiguous/vague
in meaning.
-EX.: Rorschach Inkblot Test &
Thematic Apperception Test
6. Questionnaire (Q)
 most common used
instrument in research
 list of Q about a topic, w/
spaces provided for the
response, & intended to be
answered by a # of person
 less expensive
 yields more honest
responses
 guarantees confidentiality
 minimizes biases based on
question-phasing mode
 researcher must make sure
Q is valid, reliable &
unambiguous (critical point
in designing)
3 Types of Questionnaires
1. Closed-ended/ structured
2. Open-ended/Unstructured
3. mixture of close & open
Relationship of RRL to the
Questionnaire
 RRL& studies must have
sufficient info & data to
enable the researcher to
thoroughly understand the
variables being investigated
in the study
 descriptive info gathered
from diff. sources are called
indicators for the specific
variable & they are used in
making sure that the
content of the Q is valid
 Valid indicator (supported
by prev. studies done by
experts)
Types of Question
1. Yes/ No Type
-ex. do you have the right to refuse
the call? yes/no?
2. Recognition Type
-alternative responses are provided
& respondents simply choose
among the choices
3. Completion Type
-respondents are asked to fill in the
tables w/ necessary info
4. Coding Type
-Numbers are assigned to names,
date & other pertinent data
5. Subjective Type
-respondents are free to give
opinions about issue of concern
6. Combination Type
-Q is a combination of 2/ more
types of Q
VALIDITY &
RELIABILITY
Validity
 accuracy of inferences
drawn from an assessment
 degree to which the
assessment measures what it
is intended to measure (na
measure ba niya ang dapat
e measure?)
Types of Validity
1. Construct validity
2. Face Validity
3. Criterion-related Validity
I. Construct Validity
 the assessment actually
measures what is designed to
measure (A is actually A)
 refers to “Validity”
 what you’re trying to measure
(i.e. IQ test is intended to
measure intelligence)
 ex.: you are trying to measure
student’s knowledge of the
solar system. You don’t want to
be measuring their ability to
read complex info text.
 ex.: This is most commonly an
issue with regard to the breadth
of standards addressed by an
assessment. For ex., if you
administer an assessment that
covers 3 standards, you
CANNOT infer from those results
whether/ not a student is
proficient in 7th grade
mathematics (cuz that is NOT
what you’ve assessed).
Types of Construct Validity
1. Convergent Validity
2. Discriminant Validity
3. Known-Group Validity
4. Factorial Validity
5. Hypothesis- Testing Validity
1. Convergent Validity
 there is evidence that the
same concept measured in
diff. ways yields similar results
 include 2 dif. test
 diff. measures of same
concept yield similar results
 researchers uses self-report
v.s observation (diff.
measures)
2. Discriminant Validity
 there is evidence that 1
concept is diff. form other
closely related concepts
3. Known- Group (KG) validity
 group w/ established
attribute of the outcome of
construct is compared w/ a
group whom the attribute is
not yet established
 ex,: in a survey that used
Questionnaire (Q) to explore
depression among 2 gr. of
patients w/ clinical diagnosis
of depression & those w/out.
it is expected in KG that the
construct of depression in
the Q will be scored higher
among the patients w/
clinically diagnosed
depression than those w/out
the diagnosis.
4. Factorial Validity
 empirical extension of
content validity
 it validates the contents of
the construct employing the
statistical model called
factor analysis
5. Hypothesis-testing validity
 evidence that a research
hypothesis about the
relationship between the
measures concept (variable) or
other concepts (variables),
derived from a theory, is
supported
II. Face Validity
 when an individual (& or
researcher) who is an expert on
the research subject reviewing
the questionnaire (instrument)
concludes that it measures the
characteristic/trait of interest
III. Criterion-Related Validity
 Assessed if interested i
determining the relationship of
scores on a test to a specific
criterion.
 a measure of how well a
questionnaire findings stack up
against another
instrument/predictor
Types of Criterion-Related Validity
1. Predictive
2. Concurrent
1. Predictive Validity (A predicts B)
 assessment predicts
performance on a future
assessment
2. Concurrent validity (A correlates
w/ B)
 assessment correlates w/
other assessments that
measure the same
constructs
Valid Inferences
 “Validity” (closely tied to the
purpose/ use of an
assessment)
DON’T ASK: “Is this assessment
valid?”
ASK: “Are the inferences I’m
making based on this assessment
valid for my purpose?”
Evidence-Centered Design (ECD)
 validity is about providing
evidence
 ECD boosts validity:
1. What you want to know?
2. How would you know?
3. What should the
assessment look like?
Reliability
 how consistent a measure is
of a particular element over
a period of time, & between
diff. participants
 is synonymous w/ the
consistency of a test, survey,
observation, or measuring
device
4 General Estimators
1. Inter-Rated/ Observer
Reliability
2. Test-Retest Reliability
3. Parallel-Forms Reliability
4. Internal Consistency
Reliability
Inter-Rated/ Observer Reliability
 used to assess the degree to
which diff. judges/raters
agree in their assessment
decisions
 useful cuz human observers
will not necessarily interpret
answers the same way
 raters may disagree as to
how well certain responses/
material demonstrate
 knowledge of the
construct/skill being
assessed.
 uses2 individuals to mark/
rate scores of psychometric
test, if their scores/ratings
are comparable then inter-
rated reliability is confirmed
Test-Retest Reliability
 Obtained by administering
the same test twice over a
period of time to a group of
individuals.
 the scores form time 1 & 2
can be correlated in order
to evaluate the test for the
stability over time
 this is the final sub-type & is
achieved by giving the
same test out at 2 diff. times
& gaining the same result
each time
 to assess student learning in
psychology could be given
to a group of students twice,
w/ the second
administration perhaps
coming a week after the 1st.
The obtained correlation
coefficient would indicate
the stability of the scores.
 it is measures by having the
same respondents
complete a survey at 2
different points in time to
see how stable the
responses are. In general,
correlation coefficient (r)
values are censured good if
r > 0.70
Parallel Form of Reliability
 obtained by administering
diff. versions of assessment
tool (both version must
contain items that probe the
same construct, skill,
knowledge, base, etc.) to
the same indi
 the scores from the 2
versions can be correlated
in order to evaluate the
consistency of results across
alternate versions
 To evaluate the reliability of
critical thinking assessment:
you might create a large set
of items that all pertain to
critical thinking & then slowly
split the questions up into 2
sets, which could represent
the parallel forms.
Internal Consistency Reliability
 used to evaluate the
degree to which diff. test
items that probe the same
construct produce similar
results
 this looks at the items w/in
the test, to assess the
internal reliability between
items.
 ex.: a personality test may individuals, the total score
seem to have 2/more for each “set ” is computed,
questions that are asking the & finally the Split-half
same thing. If the reliability is obtained by
participants answers these determining the correlation
similarly, then the internal between the 2 total “set”
consistency reliability is scores
assumed correct.
2 Types of Internal Consistency
Reliability
1. Average inter-item
correlation
2. Split-half reliability
Average inter-item correlation
 obtained by taking all the
items on the test that probe
the same construct (e.g.
reading comprehension)
 determining the correlation
coefficient for each pair of
items, & finally taking the
average of all these
correlation coefficients
 this final step yields the
average inter-item
correlation
Split-half reliability
 process: “splitting in half” all
the items of a test that are
intended to probe the same
area of knowledge (e.g.
WW II)in order to form 2
“sets” of items
 the entire test is
administered to a group of
 POPULATION,
PARAMETER &
SAMPLE
Population
 composed of
persons/objects that possess
some common charact
 eristics that are of the same
interest of the researcher
Parameter
 numeric/other measurable
characteristics forming 1 of
a set that defines a system
 sets the condition of its
operation
Sample
 subset of the entire
population or a group of
individuals
 represents the population
 serves as the respondents of
the study
Methodology
 is the systematic, theoretical
analysis of the methods
applied to a field of study
Validity
 the degree to which
research instrument gauges
 what it is supposed to
measure?
Reliability
 extent to which the
measurement tool provides
consistent outcomes if the
measurement is repeatedly
perform
Threats to Internal Validity
1. history
2. maturation
3. testing
4. instrumentation
5. regression towards mean
6. selection
7. mortality
History
 there is something about the
experience & history of 1
group that could lead to
differences?
Maturation
 natural development
influence the association?
Testing
 does actual participation in
the study change the
behavior/ responses?
Instrumentation
 what happens if the
instruments use change
during the course of a study
 if different groups of
participants interpret your
questions differently?
Regression towards the mean
 if you start w/ extreme
groups, they are likely to be
less extreme at another time
point
Selection
 are participants in your study
somehow diff. than those
who are not?
Mortality
 those who drop out of your
study could be qualitatively
different than those who
remain
PARTICIPANTS OF
THE STUDY
Ways to Determine Sample Size
Factors to consider in determining
Sample sizes:
1. Homogeneity of the
population
 the higher the degree of
variation w/in the
population, the smaller the
sample size that can be
utilized
2. Degree of Precision desired
by the Researcher
 a larger sample size will result
in greater
precision/accuracy of results
3. Types of Sampling
Procedure
 probability sampling (by
chance) utilizes smaller sizes
than NON-probability
sampling (by choice)
4. The use of Formula
a. Slovin’s Formula
𝑁
𝑛=
1 + 𝑁^2
b.Calmorin’s Formula
𝑁𝑉 + [(𝑆𝑒)2 𝑥(1 − 𝑝)]
𝑆𝑠 =
𝑁𝑆𝑒 + [𝑉 2 𝑥 𝑝(1 − 𝑝)]
Sampling
 a way of getting a
representative portion of the
target population
 needed regardless of the
research design for practical
reasons especially when the
population is large
 at TOTAL population of 100/
less may not need to be
sampled
 greater than 100 needs
sampling for desirable
effectiveness, efficiency &
economy in data gathering

Research Design
1. Descriptive
2. Experimental
2 Strengths (Sampling)
1. time, money & effort are
minimized
 number of respondents,
subjects/ items to be studied
becomes small yet they
represent the population
 data collection, analysis &
interpretation are lessened
2. Sampling gives more
comprehensive information
 small sample representing a
big population, a thorough
study yields results that give
more comprehensive info
that allows generalization &
conclusion
5 Weaknesses (Sampling)
1. Due to limited number of
data source, detailed sub
classification must be
prepared w/ utmost care
2. incorrect sampling design/
incorrectly following the
sampling plan will obtain
results that are misleading
3. Sampling requires an expert
to conduct the study in an
area, otherwise the results
obtained will be erroneous.
4. Characteristics to be
observed may occur rarely
in the population (ex.
teacher over 30 yrs. of
teaching experience)
5. Complicated sampling
plans are laborious to
prepare
2 General Types of Sampling
1. Probability sampling /
Scientific sampling
 gives every member of the
population equal chance to
be selected as part of the
study.
1. Non Probability Sampling/
Non- Scientific sampling
 opposite of probability
 researcher’s judgment
determines the choice of
sample
5 Types of Probability Sampling/
Scientific Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling
2. Systematic Sampling
3. Stratified Random Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
5. Multi-stage Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
 all members of the
population are given a
chance to be selected
 selection is done by draw lot
/ the use of the table of
random numbers.
Get a list of the total population
1. cut pieces of paper to small
sizes (1x1 in)that can be
rolled
2. put a number on each
piece of paper
corresponding to each
number of the total
population
3. Roll each paper of the
number and put them in the
a box
4. Shake well the box to give
equal chance for every
number to be chosen a
sample
5. pick out 1 rolled paper at a
time & unfold it
6. Record the number of the
unrolled paper
7. Repeat picking out until the
desired number of sample is
completed.
Systematic Random Sampling
 chooses nth name of a
population as the sample
 it entails using a list of the
population & deciding how
the nth name is chosen
 ex.: the population of
students in 1 school is listed
alphabetically & numbered
consecutively. From the list,
the sample to be taken is
the name that falls every nth
in the list until the desired
number of sample is
completed
Sampling Scheme
 used when there is a ready
list of the total population
 the steps:
o get the list of the total
population
o divide the total
population by the
desired sample size to
get the sampling
interval
Stratified Random Sampling
 dividing the population into
strata & drawing the sample
at random from each
division
Used when there is a ready list of
the population whose members
are categorized as students,
farmers, and fisherman. The steps
to follow are:
1. get the list of the total
population
2. decide on the sampling
size/ the actual percentage
 of the population to
considered as sample.
3. get an equal proportion of a
sample from each group.
Example:
500 pupils x .20 = 100
200 teachers x .20 = 40
150 parents x .20 = 30
Total Sample= 110
*get the 110 respondents by simple
random sampling/ systematic
sampling
Cluster Sampling
 uses a group as sample
rather than an indi
 ex.: the population may be
the parents in 1 school
district. the parents may be
grouped by barangay w/in
the district or by those in the
east, west, north, & south of
the district.
 differs from stratified
sampling that includes all
the strata in the sampling
process
Used when the population od
HOMOGENEOUS but scattered
geographically in all parts of the
country & that there is no need to
include all in the sampling. Steps in
the SCHEME:
1. decide on the sample size.
select the geographical
area that will serve as the
cluster
2. select the sample wi/in the
area or cluster by
systematic/ stratified
sampling depending on the
availability of the info
Multistage Sampling
 done by stages: 2,3,4 as the
case may be depending on
the number of stages
sampling is made
 Population is grouped by
hierarchy from which
sampling is done in each
stage.
 ex.: the population to be
studied consists of the
personnel in the public
elementary schools in the
country. Samples have to
be take form the national,
regional, provincial, district,
& school levels.
Steps followed in this scheme:
1. decide on the level of
analysis to be studied such
national, regional,
provincial, district,
barangay, etc.
2. select the sample at the
next level. ex.: if the survey is
provincial, the survey should
start at the municipal level,
then district, then barangay,
etc.
Example: characteristics/ prescribed
1st level. 3 municipalities/province criteria of the research
2nd level. 2 district/ municipality
3rd level. 4 barangays/ districts
4th level. 100
FINDING THE
respondents/barangay
SAMPLE SIZE
*use any of the sampling tech. Slovin’s Formula
given earlier in the arriving at the  use to calculate the sample
desired sample number. size(n) & the margin of
error(e)
3 Types of Non Probability  random sampling tech.
Sampling/ Non- Scientific sampling formula to estimate
1. Purposive Sampling sampling size
2. Incident/ Accidental
Sampling 𝑁
𝑛=
3. Quota Sampling 1 + 𝑁^2
Purposive Sampling Example:
 samples are choses based the parameter of the
on the judgment of the population is 8K at 2 % margin
researcher who determines of error or 98% accuracy
an individual, as sample for 𝑁
possessing special 𝑛=
1 + 𝑁^2
characteristics of some sort
8,000
=
Incidental/ Accidental Sampling 1 + 8,000 (0.02)2
 this design is used to take
samples who may be 8,000
=
available/ the nearest at 1 + 8,000 (0.0004)
the time of data gathering 8,000
=
1 + 3.2
Quota Sampling 8,000
=
 popular for opinion research 4.2
=1,905
 made by looking for indi
that possess the required
Calmorin’s Formula
 Population of more than
100, sampling is a must
 follows formula for scientific
sampling, illustrations &
examples (Calmorin &
Calmorin, 1995)
𝑁𝑉 + [(𝑆𝑒)2 𝑥(1 − 𝑝)]
𝑆𝑠 =
𝑁𝑆𝑒 + [𝑉 2 𝑥 𝑝(1 − 𝑝)]

When Ss=Sample Size

N= total no. of population
V= standard values (2.58) of 1 %
level of the probability with 0.99%
reliability
Se=Sampling error
P= largest possible proportion (0.50)

Example:
The total population is 500 has a
standard value of 2.58 at 1% level
of probability & 99% reliability. the
sampling error is 1% (0.01) & the
proportion of a target population is
50% (0.50)
given:
N= 500
V=2.58
Se=0.01
P=0.05
𝑁𝑉 + [(𝑆𝑒)2 𝑥(1 − 𝑝)]
𝑆𝑠 =
𝑁𝑆𝑒 + [𝑉 2 𝑥 𝑝(1 − 𝑝)]
500(2.58) + [(0.01)2 𝑥(1 − 0.5)]
𝑆𝑠 =
500(0.01) + [2.582 𝑥 0.5(1 − 0.5)]
1290.00005
𝑆𝑠 =
6.6641