Lecture 21: Introduction to

Primary Systems (Central

Plants)

Material prepared by GARD Analytics, Inc. and University of Illinois

at Urbana-Champaign under contract to the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory. All material Copyright 2002-2003 U.S.D.O.E. - All rights
reserved
Importance of this Lecture to
the Simulation of Buildings
Primary systems provide hot and
chilled water for the secondary
systems as well as other energy
sources that are needed by the
building
Some knowledge of the primary
systems (central plants) is required
to accurately simulate buildings and
to understand what the model input
parameters are 2
 Purpose of this Lecture

Gain an understanding of:

 Basic information about primary
plants (central plants)
 Interconnection between primary
plants and the rest of the building

3
 Cooling Equipment

Chillers: Compression-Based and

Absorption
Heat Pumps
Rooftop/DX Packaged Units
Thermal Energy Storage (Water and
Ice)
 Compression-Based Liquid
Chilling Systems
 Compression Chillers and Heat Pumps both
work on what is commonly referred to as a
“vapor compression cycle”
 Thermodynamic cycle through which refrigerant goes
 Refrigerant is enclosed within cycle components
 Components
 Condenser

 Compressor

 Evaporator (aka Liquid Cooler)

 Expansion Valve

 Primary and secondary fluids (refrigerant, water,

etc.)

5
 Compression Cycle

Typical compression cycle

diagram: Condenser QC

High Compressor
Pressure Expansion Work
Low Valve
Pressure

Evaporator QE
6
 Compression-Based Liquid
Chilling Systems (cont’d)
 Cycle Details
 High pressure side: from compressor outlet through
condenser to expansion valve inlet
 Low pressure side: from expansion valve outlet
through evaporator to compressor inlet
 Utilize the fact that the boiling point of the refrigerant
changes as the fluid pressure changes: lower pressure
means a lower boiling temperature
 Refrigerant picks up heat in the evaporator (refrigerant
evaporates) because the chilled fluid temperature is
higher than the refrigerant temperature
 Refrigerant rejects heat in the condenser (refrigerant
condenses) because condenser fluid temperature is
lower than refrigerant temperature
 Compressor drives the cycle by compressing the
refrigerant through the addition of work
 First Law of Thermodynamics
7
 Chillers/Heat Pumps for
Conditioning
 Cooling: Normal operation mode
 Goal is to provide cooling at the evaporator where there is

chilled water or air that is produced

 Coefficient of performance (COP) equal to cooling

achieved at the evaporator over the work required at the

compressor
 Heating: Reverse operation (heat pumps)
 Goal is to provide heating at the condenser where there is

hot water or air that is produced

 Typically this requires a reversal of refrigerant flow

 Coefficient of performance (COP) equal to heating

achieved at the condenser over the work required at the

compressor

8
 Chillers/Heat Pumps for
Conditioning (cont’d)
 Efficiency and Energy Issues
 Work is required because we are trying to get heat to flow in a
direction that is counter the natural flow of heat (natural
would be from higher temperature to lower temperature)
 COP is generally greater than 1.0 so we get more kW-h of
cooling or heating than electric kW-h that we put into the
compressor
 Performance (and COP) of the system is highly dependent on
the fluid temperatures that the condenser and evaporator are
in contact with
 Lower evaporator temperatures result in lower COP
 Higher condenser temperatures result in lower COP
 More extreme temperatures lower COP and can lower available
capacity
 Temperature relation to performance can be a hindrance to the
system or a potential advantage
 Heat pump may struggle and require more energy as outside
temperatures become more extreme
 Presence of a more moderate/constant temperature source can
keep system running efficiently (e.g., ground)

9
 Chillers/Heat Pumps for
Conditioning (cont’d)
 Chiller vs. Heat Pumps—what’s the
difference?
 Difference in system components: none
 Chillers are generally cooling only device and
are used to produce chilled water for cooling
coils (size range can be quite large)
 Heat pumps can provide both heating and
cooling and are typically smaller in size
(often residential units)
 Heat pumps are typically compression cycle
only and almost all use electric energy as
input
 Chillers can use various cycles and may
actually use other energy sources as the
system energy input 10
 Condensers
 Purpose: to reject heat from refrigerant to
surrounding environment, condensing the
refrigerant from a (superheated) vapor to a
(subcooled) liquid
 Condenser is really a “heat exchanger” which
transfers energy from one fluid stream to another
without mixing the two streams
 Water-Cooled Condensers
 Heat exchanged with water which is circulated to another
“component” (ground, lake, pond—natural or constructed,
river, cooling tower, etc.) as closed or open loop
 Condenser temperature depends on water source
temperature

11
 Condensers (cont’d)
 Air-Cooled Condensers
 Heat exchanged with outdoor air

 Fans required to improve heat transfer

 Condenser temperature linked to outside air dry bulb

temperature
 Evaporative Condensers
 Heat exchanged sensibly and latently with outdoor air

 Fan and pump required: fan to circulate air through

unit, pump to circulate water
 Added evaporation process increases performance

 Condenser temperature linked to outside wet bulb

temperature (less than or equal to dry bulb)
 Condenser water and evaporative water kept separat

12
 Condensers (cont’d)

Cooling Towers
 Similar concept as evaporative
condensers
 Condenser water “open” in the tower
 Some water evaporates, requiring
make-up water
 Some systems eliminate the fan
requirement

13
Condenser Examples

14
Condenser Examples
(cont.)

15
Digital images on this slide
courtesy of: Lisa Fricker, Graduate
16
Condenser Examples
(cont.)

17
 Evaporators (Liquid
Coolers)
 Purpose: to absorb heat in the
refrigerant from the surrounding
environment, evaporating the
refrigerant from a liquid (or liquid/vapor
mixture) to a (superheated) vapor
 Evaporator is also a heat exchanger
 Evaporator can be a cooling coil itself or
a refrigerant (DX or direct expansion
coil) to water heat exchanger to the
chilled water loop

18
 Heat Exchangers
 Heat Exchanger Types (largest to
smallest):
 Shell-and-Tube
 Plate/Plate-and-Frame
 Tube-in-Tube
 Shell-and-Coil
 Heat Exchanger Issues:
 Larger exposed air means largest UA (more
heat transfer)
 Fouling can affect performance over time
(maintenance issues)
 Interior and exterior fins on coils

19
 Compressors
 Purpose: to compress the refrigerant vapor to a
higher pressure (also increases the temperature)
 Mechanical device: power input converted to
mechanical energy
 Types of Compressors:
 Positive-displacement: “squeeze”—increase pressure
be decreasing vapor volume
 Reciprocating
 Rotary
 Scroll
 Trochoidal
 Dynamic: “spin”—increase pressure by transferring
angular momentum, momentum converted to pressure
increase
 Centrifugal
 Centrifugal tend to be used in larger systems
20
 Compressors (cont’d)

Motor Types
 Open: motor and compression
chamber separated via shaft link
 Hermetic: motor and compression
chamber same, motor shaft and
compressor crankshaft integral
 Semi-hermetic: bolted construction
allows field service

21
 Compression Cycle: Big
Picture
Cooling Tower
Direction of heat transfer

Condenser Compressor
Expansion
Valve
Evaporator

Air System To Zones…

Cooling Coil 22
 Absorption-Based Liquid
Chilling Systems
 Concept
 Compression-based chillers use electrical energy (work) to
produce heating or cooling (in the opposite direction of
natural energy flow)
 Absorption-based chillers use mixture/solution chemistry
and a heat source to produce heating (reverse cycle—also
called heat transformer) or cooling (forward cycle—more
common)\
 Absorption-based systems are most effective when a “free”
or very inexpensive source of heat is available
 Solar energy
 “Waste” heat
 Heat source must be high enough quality (temperature)
to drive system
 No compressor or other large rotating mechanical
equipment needed
 Two “refrigerants”—primary and secondary (absorbent)
 Primary—usually water
 Secondary—usually ammonia or lithium bromide (LiBr)
23
 Absorption Chillers (cont’d)
 Components
 Generator (desorber)—high pressure side
 Condenser—high pressure side
 Evaporator—low pressure side
 Absorber—low pressure side
 Heat Exchanger
 Pump
 Expansion valve/flow restrictors
 Refrigerants

24
 Absorption Chillers (cont’d)
 Cycle Details (LiBr system)
 Pure water (vapor/liquid) in the condenser and evaporator

 Primary refrigerant (water) and absorbent mixtures of

varying concentrations in generator and absorber

 Weak liquid solution is introduced into the generator

along with heat from some source

 Generator process: boils water out of solution

accomplishing two things

 Pure water vapor is sent over to condenser side of

chamber
 Strong(er) solution (liquid) is sent to absorber

 Water vapor in condenser is converted to liquid

(condensed) by the removal/rejection of heat

25
 Absorption Chillers (cont’d)
 Cycle Details (LiBr system, cont’d)
 Condensed water is pushed to the evaporator as a result of the
pressure difference/gravity
 Liquid water in the evaporator is boiled off with the addition of heat
at low temperature/pressure
 Water vapor boiled off from evaporator is sent to absorber
 Absorber: Water vapor condenses (potential heat rejection) and gets
reabsorbed into the water-LiBr solution, weakening the solution
 Absorber sends weakened solution back to generator where cycle
starts over again
 Pumps used to send solution from absorber to generator and to
circulate liquid water over evaporator coil
 Heat exchanger used between lines connection generator and
absorber—reduces heat addition needed in generator (improving
efficiency)
 Goal is cooling at the evaporator (forward cycle) or heating at the
generator (reverse cycle)
 Many slight variations on this basic cycle

26
 Absorption Chillers (cont’d)
 Performance Issues
 Capacities typically range from 180-almost 6000 kW
(big!) though smaller units on the range of 18-35 kW
available internationally
 Typical COP values are much lower than for compression
cycle chillers: 0.7-0.8 or lower is common
 Low COP not necessarily a problem if heat source is free:
COP = Usable cooling/energy input
 Other Issues
 Is a heat source available that can be used?

 Concerns about water in contact with metal inside

absorption system (rust formation)
 Potential toxicity of absorbent

 Noise—far less than a compression cycle chiller

27
 Thermal Energy Storage
 Concept
 Produce and store energy for use during another time
 Initially, this was as simple as cutting ice blocks from
Lake Michigan and storing those until summer
 Now, energy storage is produced during off-peak hours
when energy costs are lower
 Overall dollar effect is a reduction in the conditioning costs
for the buildingprimary (or only) benefit is economic
 Reduction in cost per kW-hr and reduction in demand costs
 Costs based on type of power plants running
 Cost of start-up and shutdown of power plants
 Mainly an issue for industrial customers, usually used for
cooling
 Utilities have in the past actually paid (in part) for systems
 Reduced demand reduces need for new power plants
 Shift of electric load uses power that might not
otherwise be used (hydroelectric, nuclear, etc.)

28
 Thermal Energy Storage
(cont’d)
 System Types
 Tempered Water Storage

 Storage of hot or cold water in a large tank above

or below grade
 Water is kept stratified, taking advantage of
density differences of water at different
temperatures
 Inlet diffusers must be designed to avoid mixing
 Some energy transfer does occur between hot and
cold sides
 Water in tank can serve as emergency water source
in case of fire
 Water temperatures for cooling same as for
standard chiller only system
 Large tank needs large space, tank losses

29
 Thermal Energy Storage
(cont’d)
 System Types (cont’d)
 Ice Storage
 Storage of cooling energy in the form of ice
 Latent heat of solidification allows large
amount of energy storage in a much smaller
area than a water system
 System types:
 Ice-on-coil outside melt (obsolete)
 Ice-on-coil inside melt
 Encapsulated ice (ice container)
 Ice harvester
 Ice slurry

30
 Thermal Energy Storage
(cont’d)
 Efficiency Issues (Ice Systems)
 Process for producing ice less efficient than chilled
water production (temperatures required for making
ice are much lower, resulting in lower efficiency/COP
and capacity of chiller)
 This may be offset somewhat be reduced condenser
temperatures due to cooler outdoor conditions at
night
 Systems can produce lower supply air temperatures,
reducing the flow rates needed to provide same
cooling (which lowers fan energy)
 Do ice storage systems save dollars and energy?

31
 Thermal Energy Storage
Controls
 Full Storage (discharging)
 Minimizes on-peak energy consumption,
maximizes energy consumption shift
 Largest storage requirements and perhaps
largest chiller (and initial costs)
 Probably largest potential savings on operating
costs
 Partial Storage (discharging)
 Types:

 Chiller priority: chiller runs during on-peak only up

to some set demand limit, ice meets all other needs
 Ice priority: storage meets demand up to some limit
and chiller is turned on if the demand is higher than
the limit
 Some shift of energy consumption to off-peak,
also savings on demand costs
 Smaller chiller requirements than full storage or
no storage 32
Thermal Energy Storage Controls
(cont’d)
 Charging Strategies
 Zero prediction—chiller charges system
at its capacity as soon as off-peak
period starts
 “Optimal” strategies
 Delay start of charging to take advantage of
presumably cooler outdoor air in early
morning hours
 And/or run chiller at less than full capacity
at whatever its optimal fraction of full load
is

33
 Heating Equipment

Boiler
Furnace
Heat Pump
 Heating Equipment

Electric resistance heating

Heat pump in heating mode
Solar panels
Boiler
 Water same basic principle,
 Steam just a different fluid

Furnace (air)

35
 Boilers
Definition: equipment whose sole
purpose is to provide hot water or steam
for various uses within a building
Size (capacity) range:
15 kW  30+ MW
Fuels: coal, wood, fuel oil, (natural) gas,
electricity

36
 Boiler Uses
Steam:
 Heating coils (reheat, preheat)
 Hot water heat exchangers
 Absorption cooling
 Laundry
 Sterilizers
Water:
 Heating coils (reheat, preheat)
 Domestic hot water

37
 Boilers: Basic Layout
stack/flue/ Goal:
chimney Try to get
most efficient
transfer of
water

water
water

water

heat from flue

gas
(combustion
products) to
burner water
air/fuel
mix
38
 Boiler Example
(continued)

Digital image on this slide courtesy

of: Lisa Fricker, Graduate Student,
39
 Boilers: Types
Dry Base/Back
Wet Base/Back/Leg
 Base (bottom), back (with respect to multi-
pass boilers), leg (top and sides)
Condensing
 Flue gas condensing due to low return
temperature of water
 More efficient, but potential for rust
greatly increased

40
 Boilers: Efficiency

Fuel Boiler (combustion efficiency)

 Efficiency = (input – stack loss) / input
 Non-condensing  75-86%
 Condensing  88-95+%

Electric Boiler (overall efficiency)

 Efficiency = output / input
 Range of efficiencies  92-96%
41
 Furnaces

Heats air indirectly

 Combustion products do not mix with
circulated air  dangerous
Fuels:
 Natural gas (most common)
 LPG (liquefied petroleum gas)
 Oil
 Electric
42
 Furnaces (continued)

Sizes:
 Residential units (smallest)
 Commercial (44  600+ kW)
 Generally smaller than boilers
Various configurations:
 Combustion systems
 Air flow variations (single/multi-pass)

43
Furnace
(AHU)
Example

44
Boiler/Furnace Stack

45
 Furnace Efficiency
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 103
 Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency (AFUE)

Usable Heat Output

AFUE ≈
Fuel Input
 AFUE includes: latent and sensible
losses, cyclic effects, infiltration, pilot
burner effects, and losses from a
standing pilot when furnace not in use
 AFUE ≈ 78-80% for non-condensing,
90+% for condensing
46
 Big Picture Review
Zone (Loads)
mix box

air
supply fan
surroundings Secondary
System
heating coil cooling coil
pump pump

A Building boiler chiller

and its
Primary System
HVAC pump cooling
System tower
47
 Summary
Primary systems convert one form of
energy (fuel, electricity, etc.) to
thermal energy
Chillers/heat pumps are used to
provide cooling (direct expansion or
chilled water)
Boilers are used to provide steam or
hot water for heating coils
Furnaces are used to provide hot air
48