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OUTLINE
A. Periodic Trends
a) Development of the periodic table
b) Periodic classification of elements
c) Periodic variation of properties

B. Metallurgy and Chemistry of Metals

a) Occurrence of metals
b) Metallurgical processes
c) Band theory of conductivity
d) Semiconductors
Fe Villar e) Properties of metals
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Forerunner of the modern PERIODIC TABLE

OUTLINE
Julius Lothar Meyer
C. Nonmetallic Elements and Their Compounds German chemist
a) General properties of nonmetallic
elements
b) Properties of non-metals

D. Transition Elements Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev

a) General properties of transition elements Russian chemist
b) Coordination compounds
PERIODIC LAW:
When the elements are arranged in order of increasing
atomic mass, certain sets of properties recur periodically.
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Mendeleev’s early periodic table, published in 1872. Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev

Based on his periodic

table, he accurately
predicted the
properties of some of
these unknown
elements before their
discovery.

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History of the Periodic Table The MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

HENRY MOSELEY (1887-1915)

showed that elements can be
identified by their atomic numbers.

Periodic law (present version) :

“The properties of the elements vary
periodically with their atomic numbers.”
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PERIODIC TABLE

PATTERNS IN ION FORMATION

Periodic Trends

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Periodic Trends Periodic Trends

1. Atomic Size/Radii (AR) Influenced by three factors:

1. Energy Level
2. Ionic Radii (IR) Higher energy levels are further away
from the nucleus.
3. Ionization Energy (IE)
2. Charge on nucleus (# protons)
4. Electron affinity (EA) More charge pulls electrons in closer.
(+ and – attract each other)
3. Shielding and penetration effect
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- refers to the effect of inner-shell e- in shielding - refers to the effect of inner-shell e- in shielding
or screening outer-shell e- from the full effects of or screening outer-shell e- from the full effects of
the nuclear charge. the nuclear charge.

Each electron
“feels” not only
the attraction to
the nucleus but
also repulsions
from other
electrons
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Shielding between electrons in the same shell 17

The ability of an
2s penetrates The nuclear charge felt by an electron when
electron to get close
closer to the
nucleus than 2p
to the nucleus is both the actual nuclear charge (Z) and the
penetration repulsive effects (shielding) of the other
electrons are taken into account
Orbital shape causes
electrons in some
orbitals to “penetrate”
close to the nucleus.

Penetration increases σ - shielding constant

Comparison of 1s, 2s, and 2p nuclear attraction Z - actual nuclear charge
radial probability functions
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Periodic Trends

1. Atomic Size/Radii (AR)

2. Ionic Radii (IR)

INCREASING Zeff

3. Ionization Energy (IE)

4. Electron affinity (EA)

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Why is atomic size difficult to determine? Atomic radius – estimate of

 The electron cloud surrounding the
nucleus is based on probability and
does not have a defined edge
 electronic probability distribution is
affected by neighboring atoms.
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atomic size
 ½ the distance between the
two nuclei in two adjacent
metal atoms (metallic radius)
or
 ½ the distance between the
nuclei of the two atoms in a
diatomic molecule (covalent
radius)
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H
Trends Among the Main-Group Elements
Li
 Down a group – increasing
- n of the outermost electrons increases Na
 Therefore increase in atomic size down a
group is due to increasing principal K
quantum number, n, of the valence
electrons.
Rb
The more electronic shells in an
atom, the larger is the atom.
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Which is the largest atom?

Ba, 217 pm; Sc, 161 pm; Se, 117 pm

 Across a period • Sc, Ba, or Se. Ba > Sc > Se

 e-s are added to THE SAME principal Ba > Sc
energy level
 The effective nuclear (Zeff)increases
 e-s are pulled in more tightly.

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Ar
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Which is the largest atom? Metal atoms lose

Cations electrons to form
Na+ [Z=11] 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 cations
• K, Ga, Li

Lose e-

10 e-
11 e- 11 p+
11 p+

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Cations Cations

Mg2+
Mg [Z=12] 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2  When a metal atom loses one or more e- to form a
positive ion, the positive nuclear charge exceeds the
negative charge of the electrons in the resulting
Lose 2e- cation.
 The nucleus draws the e- closer

Cations are smaller than the atoms

from which they are formed.

12 e- 10 e-
12 p+ 12 p+
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Anions
Na+ [Z=11] 1s2 2s2 2p6 Non-metal elements gain valence electrons to
form anions
Isoelectronic

Mg2+ [Z=12] 1s2 2s2 2p6

For isoelectronic cations, the more positive

the ionic charge, the smaller the ionic radius.

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6.3

Anions Trends in Ionic Size

• Relative Sizes of Some Atoms and Ions

Anions are larger than the atoms from which

they are formed.

For isoelectronic anions, the more negative

the charge, the larger the ionic radius.

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6.3

Trends in Ionic Size Trends in Ionic Size

• Relative Sizes of Some Atoms and Ions
Size generally increases

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Arrange the following species in order of The amount of energy required to completely
increasing size K+ Cl- S2- Ca2+ remove an electron from a gaseous atom.

K+ [Z=19] 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 X(g) + energy → X+ + e- IE1

S2- [Z=16] 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
X+ (g) + energy X2+ (g) + e- IE2
Cl- [Z=17] 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
X2+ (g) + energy X3+ (g) + e- IE3
Ca2+ [Z=20] 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
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6.3

Trends in Ionization Energy (IE1)

• Down a group - IE1 decreases .
Generally Decreases

Generally Increases
– The size of the atom increases since n
increases.
– Electron is farther from the nucleus.
– easier to remove an outer electron

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• Across a period - IE1 increases  Atoms with a low IE tend to form cations - metals
– Nuclear charge increases while shielding is
constant - Zeff increases .  Atoms with a high IE tend to form anions (except
the noble gases) – nonmetals
– Attraction of the electron to the nucleus
increases.
 The ionization energies of the metalloids generally
fall between those of metals and nonmetals.
Ionization energies decrease as atomic
radii increase.
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Variations in Successive Ionization Energies Variations in Successive Ionization Energies

Al - [Ne]3s2 3p1

[Ne]3s2
[Ne]3s1
1s2 2s2 2p6
Each succeeding ionization energy is larger than
the preceding one (IE1 > IE2 > IE3 ) 1s2 2s2 2p5
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Discontinuities in ionization energy in Discontinuities in ionization energy in

going across a period going across a period

Be [Z=4] 1s2 2s2

B [Z=5] 1s2 2s2 2p1
N (7) 1s2 2s2 2p3
O (8) 1s2 2s2 2p4

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 Associated with the energy change that  Related to tendency to form anions
occurs when a gaseous atom gains e-  Higher EA higher tendency to form anions
 Ability to accept 1 or more e-s S = - 200 kJ/mol
Br = - 325 kJ/mol

e- Energy is given off*.  affected by e- repulsions and nuclear

Cl Cl- attractions
*Some tables of EA1 values list them as
-349 kJ/mol
positive values because that quantity
of energy would be absorbed to
remove an electron from the anion.
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Electron affinities of the main-group

elements, kJ/mol

O (g) + e- → O- (g) EA1 = - 141 kJ/mol  Across a period:

O- (g) + e- → O2- (g) EA2 = + 744 kJ/mol There is an overall

left-to-right increase,
but it is not at all
Affinity for additional electrons regular.
becomes less and less.

EA becomes more positive.

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Electron affinities of the main-group Electron affinities of the main-group

elements, kJ/mol elements, kJ/mol

 Down a group: Explain:

No regular trend in For 16 and 17 EA
decrease in affinity to become less negative
electron as you go down the
group
Groups 16 and 17
have the most The incoming e- is
negative EAs. added in larger and
Noble gases slightly larger orbitals and is
thus farther from the
(endothermic) EAs
nucleus
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Electron affinities of the main-group Electron affinities of the main-group

elements, kJ/mol elements, kJ/mol

Explain: Explain:
Electron affinities of O Why are the EA of grp
and F are “out of line” 2, negative or small
– less negative than positive values?
expected. .

O and F are the

smallest atoms in their
respective groups:
repulsion is largest for
O and F compared to
atoms in their groups. 55 56

Summary
Shielding is constant
Atomic Radius decreases
Ionization energy decreases
Electron affinity decreases*

Ionization energy increases

Electron affinity increases*
Atomic radius increases
Shielding increases

ACROSS A PERIOD (L-R) - E.A. INCREASES (higher Zeff, many

exceptions)
DOWN A GROUP (T-B) - E.A. DECREASES (lower Zeff; *With many exceptions
increasing  higher repulsion) 57 58