ENS 201 Environmental Studies and Disaster Management

(2+1)

Theory notes

Course Teacher
Dr. V. Ponvizhi Ramya, Ph. D.,
Asst. professor,
TRIARD,
Perambalur.

2019
 Unit 1:
Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies Definition, scope and importance

1.1 MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

1.1.1 INTRODUCTION

The word environment is derived from the French word ‘environner’ which means to
‘encircle or surround’.

Thus our environment can be defined as “the Social, Cultural and Physical
conditions that surround, affect and influence the survival, growth and development
of people, animals and plants”

This broad definition includes the natural world and the technological environment as
well as the cultural and social contexts that shape human lives.

It includes all factors (living and nonliving) that affect an individual organism or
population at any point in the life cycle; set of circumstances surrounding a particular
occurrence and all the things that surrounds us.

1.1.2 SEGMENTS OF ENVIRONMENT

Environment consists of four segments.

1. Atmosphere- Blanket of gases surrounding the earth.

2. Hydrosphere- Various water bodies present on the earth.

3. Lithosphere- Contains various types of soils and rocks on the earth.

4. Biosphere- Composed of all living organisms and their interactions with the
environment.

1.1.3 MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

The Environment studies is a multi-disciplinary science because it comprises various

branches of studies like chemistry, physics, medical science, life science, agriculture, public
health, sanitary engineering etc.

It is the science of physical phenomena in the environment. It studies about the

sources, reactions, transport, effect and fate of physical and biological species in the air,
water, soil and the effect of from human activity upon these.
 As the environment is complex and actually made up of many different environments
like natural, constructed and cultural environments, environmental studies is inter
disciplinary in nature including the study of biology, geology, politics, policy studies, law,
religion engineering, chemistry and economics to understand the humanity’s effects on the
natural world.

This subject educates the students to appreciate the complexity of environmental

issues and citizens and experts in many fields.

By studying environmental science, students may develop a breadth of the

interdisciplinary and methodological knowledge in the environmental fields that enables
them to facilitate the definition and solution of environmental problems.

1.1.4 SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Environmental studies as a subject has a wide scope. It includes a large number of areas and
aspects, which may be summarized as follows:

Natural resources- their conservation and management

Ecology and Biodiversity

Environmental pollution and control

Human population and environment

Social issues in relation to development and environment

These are the basic aspects of environmental studies which have a direct relevance to every
section of society. Several career options have emerged in these fields that are broadly
categorized as:

(i) Research and development in environment:

Skilled environmental scientists have an important role to play in examining various

environmental problems in a scientific manner and carry out R&D activities for developing
cleaner technologies and promoting sustainable development.

(ii) Green advocacy:

With increasing emphasis on implementing various Acts and Laws related to environment,
need for environmental lawyers has emerged, who should be able to plead the cases related
to water, air, forest, wildlife, pollution and control etc
(iii) Green marketing:

While ensuring the quality of products with ISO mark, now there is an increasing emphasis
on marketing goods that are environment friendly. Such products have ecomark or ISO
14000 certification. Environmental auditors and environmental managers would be in great
demand in the coming years.

(iv) Green media:

Environmental awareness can be spread amongst masses through mass media like
television, radio, newspaper, magazine, hoardings, advertisements etc., for which
environmentally educated persons are required.

(v) Environmental consultancy:

Many non-government organizations, industries and government bodies are engaging

environmental consultants for systematically studying and tackling environment related
problems.

1.1.5 IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

The importance of environmental studies is that, the current trend of environmental

degradation can be reversed if people of educated communities are organized, empowered
and experts are involved in sustainable development.
Environmental factors greatly influence every organism and their activities.

At present a great number of environmental issues, have grown in size and complexity
day by day, threatening the survival of mankind on earth. These issues are studied besides
giving effective suggestions in the environment studies.

The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and
conservation of our natural resources, indiscriminate release of pollution into the

environment etc.

Environment studies have become significant for the following reasons:

1. Environment Issues being of International Importance:

It has been well recognized that environment issues like global warming, ozone depletion,
acid rain, marine pollution and loss of biodiversity are not merely national issues but are
global issues and hence must be tackled with international efforts and cooperation.
2. Problems Cropped in The Wake of Development:

Development, in its wake gave birth to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, Transportation

Systems, Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become phased out in the developed
world. The North, to cleanse their own environment has, fact fully, managed to move ‘dirty’
factories to South. When the West developed, it did so perhaps in ignorance of the
environmental impact of its activities. Evidently such a path is neither practicable nor
desirable, even if developing world follows that.

3. Explosively Increase in Pollution:

World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this plant lives in India. Evidently
with 16 per cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land area, there is a
heavy pressure on the natural resources including land. Agricultural experts have
recognized soils health problems like deficiency of micronutrients and organic matter, soil
salinity and damage of soil structure.
4. Need for An Alternative Solution:

It is essential, specially for developing countries to find alternative paths to an alternative

goal. We need a goal as under:

(1) A goal, which ultimately is the true goal of development an environmentally sound
and sustainable development.

(2) A goal common to all citizens of our earth.

(3) A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over-
consuming wasteful societies of the “developed” world.
5. Need To Save Humanity From Extinction:

It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from extinction. Consequences to our

activities cause destructing the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of
development.
6. Need For Wise Planning of Development:

Our survival and sustenance depend. Resources withdraw, processing and use of the product
have all to be synchronized with the ecological cycles in any plan of development. Our
actions should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the environment and
development.
Unit 2:
Natural Resources: Renewable and non-renewable resources Natural resources and associated
problems. a) Forest resources: Use and over-exploitation, deforestation, case studies. Timber
extraction, mining, dams and their effects on forest and tribal people. b) Water resources: Use
and over-utilization of surface and ground water, floods, drought, conflicts over water, dams-
benefits and problems. c) Mineral resources: Use and exploitation, environmental effects of
extracting and using mineral resources, case studies. d) Food resources: World food problems,
changes caused by agriculture and overgrazing, effects of modern agriculture, fertilizer-
pesticide problems, water logging, salinity, case studies. e) Energy resources: Growing energy
needs, renewable and non-renewable energy sources, use of alternate energy sources. Case
studies. f) Land resources: Land as a resource, land degradation, man induced landslides, soil
erosion and desertification. • Role of an individual in conservation of natural resources. •
Equitable use of resources for sustainable lifestyles.

NATURAL RESOURCES

1.2 NATURAL RESOURCES

1.2.1 INTRODUCTION

Natural resources can be defined as ‘variety of goods and services provided by nature
which are necessary for our day-to-day lives’.

Eg: Plants, animals and microbes (living or biotic part), Air, water, soil, minerals,
climate and solar energy (non- living or abiotic part).

They are essential for the fulfillment of physiological, social, economical and cultural
needs at the individual and community levels.

1.2.2 TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES

They are of two types of resources namely Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources.

1. Renewable resources: The resources that can be replenished through rapid natural
cycles are known as renewable resource. These resources are able to increase their abundance
through reproduction and utilization of simple substances.

Some examples of renewable resources though they do not have life cycle but can be
recycled.

Ex: Wood and wood-products, pulp products, natural rubber, fibers (e.g. Cotton, jute, animal
wool, silk and synthetic fibers) and leather.

In addition to these resources, water and soil are also classified as renewable
resources.
 Solar energy although having a finite life, as a special case, is considered as a
renewable resource in as much as solar stocks is inexhaustible on the human scale.

2. Non renewable resources: The resources that cannot be replenished through natural
processes are known as non-renewable resources. These are available in limited amounts,
which cannot be increased. These resources include fossil fuels (petrol, coal etc.), metals (iron,
copper, gold, silver, lead, zinc etc.), minerals and salts (carbonates, phosphates, nitrates
etc.).Once a non-renewable resource is consumed, it is gone forever.
Non-renewable resources can further be divided into two categories, viz.

A) Recyclable and

B) Non-recyclable

A) Recyclable: These are non-renewable resources, which can be collected after they are
used and can be recycled. These are mainly the non-energy mineral resources, which occur in
the earth’s crust (Ex: Ores of aluminum, copper, mercury etc.) and deposits of fertilizer
nutrients (e.g. Phosphate sock and potassium and minerals used in their natural state (asbestos,
clay, mica etc.)

B) Non-recyclable: These are non-renewable resources, which cannot be recycled in any

way.

Ex: Fossil fuels and uranium, which provide 90 per cent of our energy requirements

1.2.3 NATURAL RESOURCES AND ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS:

The main problem associated with natural resources is unequal consumption.

A major part of natural resources are consumed in the ‘developed’ world. The
‘developing nations’ also over use many resources because of their greater human population.
However, the consumption of resources per capita (per individual) of the developed countries
is up to 50 times greater than in most developing countries.

Advanced countries produce over 75% of global industrial waste and greenhouse gases.

Energy from fossil fuels consumed in relatively much greater quantities in developed
countries. Their per capita consumption of food too is much greater as well as their waste.

1.2.4 FOREST RESOURCES

A forest can be defined as a biotic community predominant of trees, shrubs or any other woody
vegetation usually in a closed canopy. It is derived from latin word ‘foris’ means ‘outside’.
India’s Forest Cover is 6,76,000 sq.km (20.55% of geographic area). Scientists estimate that
India should ideally have 33% of its land under forests. Today we only have
about 12% thus we need not only to protect our existing forests but also to increase our forest
cover.

1.2.4.1 FUNCTIONS OF FOREST

1. It performs very important function both to human and to nature.

2. They are habitats to millions of plants, animals and wild life.

3. They recycle rain water.

4. They remove pollutant from air.

5. They control water quality.

6. They moderate temperature and weather.

7. They influence soil condition and prevent soil erosion.

1.2.4.2 USES OF FOREST

1. Commercial uses

2. Ecological uses

1. Commercial uses:

i. Wood – used as a fuel

ii. Supply wood for various industries – Raw materials as pulp, paper, furniture timber
etc.

iii. Minor forest products – gum, dyes, resins

iv. Many plants – Medicines

v. Supply variety of animal products – honey. Ivory, horns etc.

vi. Many forest lands are used for - Mining, grazing, for dams and recreation.

2. Ecological uses: Forest provides number of environmental services.

i. Production of oxygen: Photosynthesis produces large amount of oxygen which is

essential for life.

ii. Reducing global warming: Carbon dioxide is one of the main green house

gas. It is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis. Therefore the problem of global warming
caused by CO2 is reduced.
iii. Soil conservation: Roots of trees bind the soil tightly and prevent soil erosion. They
also act as wind breaks.

iv. Regulation of hydrological cycle: Watershed in forest act like giant sponges and
slowly release the water for recharge of spring.
v. Pollution moderators: Forest can absorb many toxic gases and noises and help in
preventing air and noise pollution.

vi. Wild life habitat: Forest is the home of millions of wild animals and plants.

12.4.3 REASON FOR DEFICIENCY OF FOREST:

In India the minimum area of forest required to maintain good ecological balance is about 33%
of total area. But at present it is only about 12%. So over exploitation of forest material occurs.

1.2.4.4 OVER EXPLOITATION OF FOREST: Due to over population, there is an

increased demand for medicine, shelter, wood and fuel. Hence exploitation of forest materials
is going on increasing.
Cause of over exploitation:

1. Increasing agricultural production.

2. Increasing agricultural activities.

3. Increase in demand of wood resources.

1.2.4.5 DEFORESTATION: It is process of removal of forest resources due to natural or

manmade activities (i.e.) destruction of forests.

Causes of deforestation:

1. Developmental projects: Developmental projects causes deforestation through two

ways.

Through submergence of forest area.

Destruction of forest area.

Ex: big dams, hydro electric projects, road construction etc.

2. Mining operations: It reduces forest areas. Ex: Mica, coal, Manganese and lime
stone.

3. Raw materials for industries: Wood is an important raw material for various
purposes.
Ex: Making boxes, furniture and paper etc.

4. Fuel requirement: Wood is the important fuel for rural and tribal population.

5. Shifting cultivation: Replacement of natural forest ecosystem for mono specific tree
plantation. Ex: Teak
6. Forest fires: Forest fire destructs thousands of acres of forest.

7. Over grazing: Over grazing by cattle reduces the cultivation land

Consequences of deforestation (or) impacts of deforestation:

1. Economic loss

2. Loss of biodiversity

3. Destructs the habitats of various species

4. Reduction in stream flow

5. Increases the rate of global warming

6. Disruption of weather patterns and global climate

7. Degradation of soil and acceleration of the rate of soil erosion.

8. Induces and accelerates mass movement / land slides.

9. Increases flood frequency, magnitude / severity.

10. Breaks the water cycle

11. Breaks the nutrient cycle

1.2.4.6 PREVENTIVE MEASURES (OR) AVOID OF DEFORESTATION (OR)

METHODS OF CONSERVATION OF FORESTS
1. New plants of more or less of the same variety should be planted to replace the trees
cut down for timber

2. Use of wood for fuel should be discouraged.

3. Forest pests can be controlled by spraying pesticides by using aero planes

4. Forest fire must be controlled by modern techniques.

5. Over grazing by cattle must be controlled.

6. Steps should be taken by the government to discourage the migration of people into
the islands from mainland.
7. Education and awareness programmes must be conducted.

8. Strict implementation of law of Forest conservation Act.

Case study:

Deforestation in the Himalayan region, involves clearing of natural forests and plantation of
monoculture like Eucalyptus. Nutrient in the soil is poor; therefore soil losing their fertility,
hence, Himalayan area facing the serious problem of desertification.

1.2.4.7 MAJOR ACTIVITIES IN FORESTS

1.2.4.7.1 TIMBER EXTRACTION

Wood used for engineering purposes like building houses, making furniture is called timber.
The products derived from timber have been important to many civilizations, and thus it has
acquired value within these civilizations. Timber extraction results in deforestation and in the
fragmentation of the last remaining forests. It harms valuable species of trees, birds and wild
animals. In spite of this, it is sometimes necessary to extract timber, so as to meet the needs of
a developing country. During the extraction of timber, cutting, felling and handling should be
done selectively, carefully and in a planned manner, in order to save the remaining forests and
biodiversity.

Effects of Timber Extraction

The major effects of timber extraction on forest and tribal people include:

1. Poor logging results in a degraded forest.

2. Floods may be intensified by cutting of trees or upstream watersheds.

3. Loss of biodiversity.

4. Climatic changes such as less rains.

5. New logging roads permit shifting cultivators to gain access to logged areas and cut
the remaining trees.

6. It results in forest fragmentation which promotes loss of biodiversity because some

species of plants and animals require large continuous areas of similar habitat to survive.

7. Exploitation of tribal people by the contractors.

8. Soil erosion especially on slopes occurs extensively.

9. Sedimentation of irrigation systems, floods may be intensified by cutting of trees on
upstream.

Case Study-Chipko Movement

The world famous Chipko Movement, pioneered by Dasohli Gram Swarajya Mandal in
Gopeshwar brought about a general awareness about conservation of forests.

The first Chipko Movement dates back to 1731, when a village woman named Amrita Bai led
the Bishnoi women against the Maharajas men to prevent them from cutting trees. In this
attempt to save the trees, she sacrificed her life along with the lives of her husband, three
daughters and 363 people. The movement was given this name because the village women
embraced or hugged the trees to stop them from being cut. In 1972, in Uttar Pradesh, the
Chipko Movement was led by Bachnoi Devi of Advani who protected the hill forests from the
contractors axe men.

1.2.4.7.2 DAMS

Today there are more than 45,000 large dams around the world, which play an important role
in communities and economies that harness these water resources for their economic
development. Current estimates suggest some 30-40% of irrigated land worldwide relies on
dams. Hydropower, another important the use of stored water, currently supplies 19% of the
world’s total electric power supply and is used in over 150 countries. The world’s two most
populous countries – China and India –have built around 57% of the world’s large dams.

Dams problems

Dams are the massive artificial structures built across the rivers to store water for much
beneficial purpose.

Dams are considered a “Temples of modern India”. Dams destruct vast area of forest area.
India has more than 1600 large dams.

Effects of dams on forest:

1. Thousands of hectares of forest will be cleared.

2. Killing of wild animals and destruction of aquatic life.

3. Spreading of water borne diseases.

4. Water logging increases the salinity of the soil.

Ex: Narmadha Sagar project it has submerged 3.5 lakhs hectares of forest.
Effects of dam on tribal people

1. Construction of big dams lead to the displacement of tribal people.

2. Displacement and cultural change affects the tribal people both mentally and
physically.

3. They do not accommodate the modern food habits and life style.

4. Tribal people are ill treated by the modern society.

5. Many of the displaced people were not recognised and resettled or compensated.

6. Body condition of tribal people will not suit with new areas and hence they
will be affected by many diseases.

Case study- Sardar Sarovar Project:

The World Bank’s withdrawal from the Sardar Sarovar Project in India in 1993 was a result of
the demands of local people threatened with the loss of their livelihoods and homes in the
submergence area. This dam in Gujarat on the Narmada has displaced thousands of tribal folk,
whose lives and livelihoods were linked to the river, the forests and their agricultural lands.
While they and the fishermen at the estuary, have lost their homeland, rich farmers
downstream will get water for agriculture. The question is why should the local tribals be made
homeless, displaced and relocated to benefit other people? Why should the less fortunate be
made to bear the costs of development for better off farmers? It is a question of social and
economic equity as well as the enormous environmental losses, including loss of the biological
diversity of the inundated forests in the Narmada valley.

1.2.4.7.3 MINING

The process of extracting mineral resources and fossil fuels like coal from the earth is called as
mining.

Types of mining

1. Surface mining: Mining of minerals from shallow deposits

2. Underground mining: Mining of minerals from deep deposits

Steps involved in mining

1. Exploration

2. Development
3. Exploitation

4. Ore processing

5. Extraction and purification of minerals

The extent of damage by underground mining is more than that of surface mining, which
needs enormous amount of land area for its operation and management.

Effects of mining

1. Pollute soil, water and air.

2. Destruction of natural habitat.

3. Continuous removal of minerals leads to the formation of trench where water is logged
which contaminates the ground water.

4. Vibrations cause earth quakes.

5. Produces noise pollution

6. Reduces shape and size of the forest.

7. Increased risk of landslides.

8. Spoils the aesthetic beauty.

1.2.5 WATER RESOURCES

Water claims to be an important resource. An important use of water in our country is for
irrigation. Besides, water is also required in large amounts for industrial and domestic
consumption.

1.2.5.1 USES

Is essential for all forms of life.

Many uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and

environmental activities. Virtually, all of these human uses, require fresh water.

No plant or animal species can survive without water. If water in our body drops by 1%
we feel thirst, if it drops by 10% we face death.
1.2.5.2 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE:

Water from various water bodies

Evaporated by solar energy

Enters in to the atmosphere as clouds

Falls again on earth as rain or snow

Ultimately returns to the ocean.

1.2.5.3 DISTRIBUTION OF WATER RESOURCES

Fresh water resources

Surface water Underground water

Standing water bodies flowing water bodies

1.2.5.3.1 UNDERGROUND WATER

Aquifer: Layers of highly permeable rock that can store water is called an aquifer. Layer of
sand and gravels are good aquifers. Clay and crystalline rocks are not good aquifers.

Effects of over utilization of water

1. Decrease of ground water:

i. Increased usage decreases the ground water.

ii. Insufficient rain fall

iii. Building construction activities sealing the permeability of the soil.

2. Ground subsidence: If ground water withdrawal is greater than it’s recharge rate,
then the sediments in the aquifers get compacted. As a result shrinkage of land surface takes
place.

Problems:
a. Structural damages to the buildings

b. Fracture in pipes.

c. Reversing the flow of canals.

3.Lowering of water table: Over utilization of ground water in arid and semi arid regions for
agriculture disturbs the state of equilibrium of the hydrological cycle.
Problem:
a. Lowering of water table
b. Decrease the number of aquifers

c. Change the speed and direction of water.

4. Intrusion of salt water: In coastal area over exploitation of ground water leads to the
intrusion of salt water from sea. Therefore that water cannot be used for drinking and
agriculture.

5. Over utilization of water causes earth quakes, landslides and famines.

6.Drying up of wells: Due to over utilization, ground water level decreases much faster than
can be regenerated. It leads to drying up of dug well and bore wells.

7.Pollution of water: Near the agricultural land ground water decreases therefore water
containing nitrogen enters into the ground and pollute the ground water. Problem: Water
which contains excess nitrate content is not suitable for drinking.

1.2.5.3.2 REASONS FOR DECLINE OF GROUND WATER

Population continues to rise at an unprecedented and unsustainable rate; many more areas are
expected to experience this imbalance in the near future.

1. Population explosion: World population is > 6 billion and will continue to increase
significantly during the next few decades - Enormous demands on the world’s limited
freshwater supply. The total annual freshwater withdrawals today are estimated at 3800 cubic
kilometers, twice as much as just 50 years ago (World Commission on Dams, 2000).
2. Overutilization of Surface and Groundwater: Occurs at various levels. Use of more
water than really needed by human beings. Many agriculturists use more water than necessary
to grow crops. Industries in order to maximize short-term economic gains, does not bother its
liquid waste and releases it into streams, rivers and the sea.

3. Deforestation: Once hill slopes are removed of forest cover, the rainwater rushes
down the rivers and is lost. Forest cover permits water to be held in the area permitting it to
seep into the ground. This charges the underground stores of water in natural aquifers. This can
be used in drought years if the stores have been filled during a good monsoon. This soil and
water management and afforestation are long-term measures that reduce the impact of
droughts. The destruction of forests influences the regulation of natural water cycle. The
removal of dense and uniform cover over the hilly zones leads to occurrence of floods in
drainage basins. Nations situated in tropical climates including India experience disastrous
floods caused by the indiscriminate deforestation of the slopes above the valleys.

4. Hydropower generation: Large amount of water is used for generating power which
otherwise used for human needs.

5. Dams - for Agriculture and Power Generation

6. Rain fall: The erratic and inadequate rainfall results in reduction in storage in
subsurface reservoirs. The building construction activities are sealing the permeable zone,
reducing the area for percolation of rainwater into subsurface and increase in surface runoff.

7. India’s increasing demand for water for intensive irrigated agriculture, for generating
electricity, and for consumption in urban and industrial centers, has been met by creating large
dams. Dams support 30 to 40% of this area.

1.2.5.4 FLOOD

It is an over flow of water. It happens when the magnitude of flow of water exceeds the
carrying capacity of the channel within its bank.

1.2.5.4.1 CAUSES OF FLOOD

1. Heavy rainfall, melting of snow and sudden release of water from dams. (Flash floods)

2. Reduction in the carrying capacity of the channel.

3. Deforestation, mining and over grazing increase the runoff from rains and the level of
flood raises.
1.2.5.4.2 EFFECT OF FLOOD

1. Water spreads in the surrounding area and submerges them.

2. Cultivated land gets affected.

3. Extinction of civilization.

1.2.5.4.3 FLOOD MANAGEMENT

1. Floods can be controlled by dams.

2. Channel management control flood.

3. Flood hazards reduced by forecasting or flood warning.

4. Flood may also be reduced by reduction of run off by increasing infiltration through
appropriate afforestation in the catchment area.

1.2.5.5 DROUGHT

Drought is nothing but scarcity of water, which occurs due to

1. Inadequate rain fall

2. Late arrival of rain fall

3. Excessive withdrawal of ground water.

Lack of water for the needs of agriculture, livestock, industry or human population may be
termed as a drought. Drought causes serious damages to plants, animals and human life.

1.2.5.5.1 CAUSES OF DROUGHT

1. When annual rain fall is below normal and less than evaporation, drought is created.

2. High population.

3. Intensive cropping pattern

Ex: Maharashtra - There has been no recovery from drought for the last 30 years due to over
exploitation of water by sugarcane crop.
1.2.5.5.2 EFFECTS OF DROUGHT

1. Drought causes hunger, malnutrition and scarcity of drinking water an also changes
the quality of water.

2. Drought causes widespread crop failure leading to acute shortage of food and
adversely affects human and live stock population.
3. Worst situation of drought causes desertification.

4. Raw materials of agro based industries are critically affected during drought time,
hence industrial and commercial growth decreases.

5. Drought increases the degradation of natural resources.

6. Drought causes large migration of people and urbanization.

1.2.5.5.3 DROUGHT MANAGEMENT

1. Indigenous knowledge is essential.

2. Rain water harvesting system.

3. Construction of reservoirs to improve ground water level.

4. Modern irrigation technology (drip irrigation) very useful to conserve water.

5. Afforestration activities also improve the potential of water in the drought area.

6. Crop mixing and dry forming are the suitable methods which minimize the risk of crop
failures in dry area.

1.2.5.6 DAMS

Dams made significant contributions to human development and the benefits derived from
them have been considerable. Large dams are designed to control floods and to help the
drought prone areas, with supply of water. But large dams have proved to
cause severe environmental damage. Hence an attempt has been made to construct small dams.
Multiple small dams have less impact on the environment.

Benefits: Dams ensure a year round supply of water for domestic use and provide extra water
for agriculture, industries and hydropower generation.

Problems: They alter river flows, change nature’s flood control mechanisms such as wetlands
and flood plains, and destroy the lives of local people and the habitats of wild plant and animal
species, particularly is the case with mega dams.
Some of the problems are mentioned below.

Dam construction and submersion leads to significant loss of farmland and forest and
land submergence

Siltation of reservoirs, water logging and salination in surrounding lands reduces

agricultural productivity

Serious impacts on ecosystems - significant and irreversible loss of species and

ecosystems, deforestation and loss of biodiversity, affects aquaculture

Socio economic problems for example, displacement, rehabilitation and resettlement

of tribal people.

Fragmentation and physical transformation of rivers

Displacement of people - People living in the catchment area, lose property and
livelihood

Impacts on lives, livelihoods, cultures and spiritual existence of indigenous and tribal
people
Dislodging animal populations

Disruption of fish movement and navigational activities

Emission of green house gases due to rotting of vegetation

Natural disasters – reservoirs induced seismicity, flash floods etc and biological
hazards due to large-scale impounding of water – increase exposure to vectorbrone diseases,
such as malaria, schistosomiasis, filariasis.

1.2.5.7 SUSTAINABLE WATER MANAGEMENT

Building several small reservoirs instead of few mega projects

Developing small catchment dams and protecting wetlands

Soil management, micro-catchment development and afforestation permits recharging
of underground aquifer, thus reducing the need for large dams
Treating and recycling municipal waste water for agricultural use.

Preventing leakages form dams and canals and loss in municipal pipes

Effective rainwater harvesting in urban environments

 Water conservation measures in agriculture, such as using drip irrigation, control of
growing water intensive cash crops ; control of water logging.

Pricing water at its real value makes people use it more responsibility and efficiently
and reduces wastage

In deforested areas where land has been degraded, appropriate soil management
practices, making bunds along the hill-slopes and making nalla plugs can help retain moisture
and make it possible to revegetate degraded areas

Use waste water for activities that does not need fresh water – Recycling

Adopt mini water harvesting models for domestic usage.

Protect existing tanks

Develop systematic water management and adopt strict water auditing

“Save water Campaigns” for public awareness on water scarcity

Through rainwater harvesting, community based participatory initiatives and holistic

watershed management.

Responsible water usage can only be achieved by empowering local communities and
creating local accountability.

The government should develop policies that protect water resources, promote
sustainable watershed management and invest in technologies that will increase efficiency in
irrigation, industrial usage and improve water harvesting techniques.

1.2.5.8 WATER CONFLICTS

1. Conflict through use: Unequal distribution of water led to interstate and

international disputes.

National conflicts:

a. Sharing of cauvery water between Karnataka and TamilNadu.

b. Sharing of Krishna water between Karnataka and Andrapradesh

c. Siruvani – TamilNadu and Kerala

International conflicts:

Indus – India and Pakistan & Colorado river – Mexico and USA
1.2.6 MINERAL RESOURCES

Naturally occurring inorganic crystalline solids with uniform chemical composition are
called as minerals.

1.2.6.1 USES AND EXPLOITATION OF MINERALS

1. Development of industrial plants and machinery. - Fe, Al & Cu

2. Construction work – Fe, Al &Ni

3. Generation of energy - coal, lignite, uranium

4. Designing defense equipments like weapons and ornaments

5. Agricultural purposes – fertilizers and fungicides – Zn & Mn

6. Jewellery –Au, Ag & Pt

7. Making alloys for various purposes

8. Communication purposes – telephone, wires, cables and electronic devices

9. Medicinal purposes, particularly in ayurvedic system

1.2.6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGES CAUSED BY MINING ACTIVITIES

1. Devegetation:

Topsoil and vegetation get removed

Deforestation leads to several ecological losses

Land scape gets badly affected

2. Ground water contamination: Mining pollutes ground water; sulphur is converted

into sulphuric acid which enters into the soil.

3. Surface water pollution: Radioactive wastes and other acidic impurities affect the
surface water, which kills many aquatic animals.

4. Air pollution: Smelting and roasting are done to purify the metal which emits air
pollutants and damage the nearby vegetation. It causes many health problems.
5. Subsidence of land: Mainly underground mining results in cracks in houses, tilting of
buildings and bending of rail tracks.
1.2.6.3 EFFECTS OF OVER EXPLOITATION OF MINERALS

1. Rapid depletion of mineral deposits

2. Wastage

3. Environmental pollution

4. Needs heavy energy requirements.

1.2.6.4 MANAGEMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES

1. The efficient use and protection of mineral resources.

2. Modernization of mining industries

3. Search for new deposit

4. Reuse and recycling of the metals.

5. Environmental impacts can be minimized by adopting eco friendly mining technology.

1.2.6.5 CASE STUDIES-MINING AND QUARRYING IN UDAIPUR

200 open cast mining and quarrying in Udaipur. But 100 mines are illegal. 150 tons of
explosives are used per month. It pollutes air, soil and water. It affects irrigation and wild life.

1.2.7 FOOD RESOURCES

Food is an essential requirement for survival of life. Main components are carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, minerals and vitamins.

1.2.7.1 TYPES OF FOOD SUPPLY

1. Crop plants: Grains mostly constitute about 76% of the world’s food.

Ex: Rice, Wheat and Maize

2. Range lands: Produces 17% of world’s food from trees and grazing
animals. Ex: Fruits, milk and meat

3. Ocean: Fisheries – 7% of world’s food

1.2.7.2 WORLD FOOD PROBLEM

1. In the earth’s surface, 79% is water out of total area. 21% land (forest, desert, mountain
and barren land) . Less % cultivated land, at the same time population explosion is high
therefore world food problem arises.

2. Environmental degradation like soil erosion, water logging, water pollution, salinity
affects agricultural land.

3. Urbanization affects agricultural land. Hence production of rice, wheat, corn and other
vegetable is difficult.

1.2.7.3 TYPES OF NUTRITION

1. Nutritious nutrition: To maintain good health and disease resistance, we need large
amount of carbohydrate, proteins, fats and smaller amount of micronutrients such as vitamins
and minerals such as Fe, Ca and iodine. Food and agricultural organization (FAO) of United
Nations estimated that on an average, the minimum calorie intake on a global state is 2500
calories/day.

2.Under nutrition: People who cannot buy enough food to meet their basic energy needs
suffer from under nutrition. They receive less than 90% of this minimum dietary calorie.

Effect of under nutrition: Suffer from mental retardation and infectious diseases.

3. Mal nutrition: Besides minimum calorie intake we also need proteins, minerals, vitamins,
iron and iodine. Deficiency leads to malnutrition resulting in several diseases.
Effect of mal nutrition:

India 3rd largest producer of crops, nearly 300 million Indians are still under nourished. World
food summit 1996: The world food summit, 1996 has set the goal to reduce the number of
under nourished and mal nourished people to just half by 2015.

1.2.7.4 OVER GRAZING

It is a process of eating the forest vegetation without giving a chance to regenerate.

1.2.7.4.1 EFFECTS OF OVER GRAZING

1. Land degradation

Over grazing removing the cover of vegetation

 Exposed soil gets compacted

Soil moisture reduces.

Desertification - OG leads to poor, dry and compacted soil.

Land cannot be used for further cultivation.

2. Soil erosion: When the grasses are removed the soil becomes loose and gets eroded
by the action of wind and rain fall.

3.Loss of useful species: OG affects the plant population and their regenerating capacity. OG
replace the plant of high nutritive value with plant of low nutritive value.

1.2.7.5 AGRICULTURE

Agriculture is an art, science and industry of managing the growth of plants animals for human
use. It includes cultivation of the soil, growing and harvesting crops, breeding and raising
livestock, dairying and forestry.

1.2.7.5.1 TYPES OF AGRICULTURE

1. Traditional agriculture

2. Modern (or) industrialised agriculture

1. Traditional agriculture

Small plot, simple tools, surface water, organic fertilizer and a mixture of crops constitute
traditional agriculture. They produce enough food to feed their family and to sell it for their
income.
2. Modern agriculture

Hybrid seeds of single crop variety, high tech equipments, lot of fertilisers, pesticides and
water to produce large amount of single crops.

1.2.7.5.2 EFFECTS OF MODERN AGRICULTURE

1. Problems in using fertilizers

a. Excess of fertilizers causes micronutrient imbalance. (e.g) Punjab and Haryana

deficiency of nutrient zinc in the soil affect the productivity of the soil.

b. Blue baby syndrome (nitrate pollution): Nitrate present in the fertilizer causes blue
baby syndrome, when the amount exceeds the limit leads to death.
c. Eutrophication: Nitrogen and phosphorus in the crop fields washed out by runoff
water in the water bodies, which increases the nourishment of the lakes called eutrophication.
Hence algal species increases rapidly. Life time of the species is less and they decompose
easily and pollute the water which affects the aquatic life.

2. Problems in using pesticides

1. Death of non target organism.

2. Producing new pest – super pest

3. Bio magnification – Most of the pesticides are non bio degradable, keep on
concentrating in the food chain and it is harmful to human beings.

4. Risk of cancer:

a. It directly acts as carcinogen

b. It indirectly supports immune system.

3. Water logging: Land where water stand for most of the year.

Causes of water logging:

1. Excessive water supply

2. Heavy rain

3. Poor drainage

Remedy:

1. Preventing excessive irrigation

2. Subsurface drainage technology

3. Bio drainage like trees like Eucalyptus

1.2.7.6 CASE STUDY- PESTICIDES IN INDIA

In Delhi the accumulation of pesticide in the body of mother causes premature delivery and
low birth weight infant.

Pesticides in Pepsi and Coca Cola India has reported that Pepsi and coca cola companies are
selling soft drinks with pesticide content 30-40 times higher than EU limits. This damages the
nervous system,.
1.2.8 ENERGY RESOURCES

1.2.8.1 ENERGY DISTRIBUTION IN THE WORLD

Developed countries like USA and Canada constitute only 5% of the world’s
population but consume 25% of the world’s available energy.

Energy consumed by a person in a developed country for a single day is equal to

energy consumed by a single person in a poor country for one year.

Developed country GNP increases and energy consumption increases. In the poor
country GNP and energy consumption are less.

1.2.8.2 TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES:

1. Renewable energy resource (or)Non conventional energy resources

2. Non renewable energy resources (or) Conventional energy resources

1.2.8.2.1 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES: Energy which can be regenerated.

Merits of renewable energy resources

1. Unlimited supply

2. Provides energy security.

3. Fits into sustainable development concept.

4. Reliable and the devices are modular in size.

5. Decentralized energy production.

Types of renewable energy resources

1. Solar energy: Nuclear fusion reaction of sun produces enormous amount of energy.
Several techniques are available for collecting, storing and using solar energy.
a. Solar cell (or) Photovoltaic cell (or) PV cell:

Solar cell consists of p- type semi conductor (Si doped with B) and n-type semi
conductor (Si doped with P). P-type forms top layer and n-type forms bottom layer.

Solar rays fall on the top layer, the electrons from valence band promoted to the
conduction band which crosses the p-n junction into n-type semi
conductor. Potential difference between the two layers is created which causes flow of
electrons.
Uses: It is used in calculators, electronic watches, street light, water pumps etc.

b. Solar battery: Large number of solar cells connected in series is called solar battery.
It is used in remote areas where continuous power supply is a problem.

c. Solar water heater: It consists of insulated box painted with black paint with glass
lid. Inside the box black painted copper coil is present. Cold water is allowed to flow, it is
heated up and flows out into a storage tank from which water is supplied through pipes.

2. Wind energy: Moving air is called wind. The energy recovered from the force of the
wind is called wind energy It’s speed is high.

a. Wind mills: When a blowing wind strikes the blade of the wind mill, it rotates
continuously. And rotational motion of the blade drives number of machines like water pump,
flour mills and electric generators.

b. Wind farms: When a large number of mills are installed and joined together in a
definite pattern – it forms wind farm. It produces large amount of electricity.

Condition: Minimum speed for wind generator is 15 Km/hr

Advantages:

1. It does not cause air pollution

2. Very cheap

3. Ocean energy:

Tidal energy (or) Tidal power: Ocean tides are due to gravitational force of sun and moon
which produce enormous amount of energy. High tides – rise of water in the ocean. Low tides
– fall of water in the ocean. Tidal energy can be used by constructing a tidal barrage. During
high tides sea water enters into the reservoirs and rotates the turbine, produce electricity.
During low tides water from reservoir enters into the sea rotate the turbine produce electricity.
Ocean thermal energy:

Temperature difference between surface water and deeper level water in ocean generates
electricity. The energy available due to the difference in temperature of water is called ocean
thermal energy.

Condition: Temperature difference should be 200C.

Process: Ammonia is converted into vapours on the surface of warm water, it increases the
vapour pressure which rotate the turbine and generates electricity. Deeper level cold water is
pumped to cool and condense the vapour in to liquid.

3. Geo thermal energy: Temperature of the earth increases at a of 20 –750C per/km

when we move down the earth. The energy utilised from the high temperature present inside
the earth is called geothermal energy.

Natural geysers: Hot water or steam comes out of the ground through cracks naturally is
called natural geysers.

Artificial geysers: Artificially a drill hole up to the hot region and by sending a pipe into it.
The hot water or steam is used to rotate the turbine and generate electricity.

4. Bio mass energy:

Bio mass: Organic matter produced by plants or animals used as source of energy Bio gas:
Mixture of methane, carbondioxide and hydrogen sulphide. Methane is the major constituent.
It is obtained by anerobic fermentation of animal dung (or) plant wastes in the presence of
water.

Bio fuels: Fuels obtained by the fermentation of biomass.

Ex: Ethanol, methanol

Ethanol: Produced from sugar cane. Calorific value is less.

Methanol: Obtained from ethanol Calorific value too less.

Gasohol: Mixture of ethanol and gasoline India trial is going on to use gasohol in cars and
buses.

Hydrogen fuel: Hydrogen produced by pyrolysis, photolysis and electrolysis of water. It has
high calorific value. Non polluting one because the combustion product is water.

Disadvantages:

1. Hydrogen is highly inflammable and explosive.

2. Safe handling is required.

3. Difficult to store and transport.

1.2.8.2.2 NON RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES:

Energy which cannot be regenerated is called as non-renewable.

1. Coal: It is a solid fossil fuel.

Disadvantages:

1. When coal is burnt large amount of CO2 is released which causes global warming.
2. S, N produces toxic gases during burning.

2. Petroleum: Crude oil is a liquid consists of more than hundreds of hydrocarbons and
small amount of impurities. The petroleum can be refined by fractional distillation. In the
world level 25% of oil reserves are in Saudi Arabia. At present rate of usage, the world crude
oil reserves are expected to get exhausted in just 40 years.
3. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG): Petroleum gases obtained during FD and cracking
can be easily converted into liquid under high pressure as LPG. It is colorless and odorless gas,
but during cylindering mercaptans are added to detect leakage.

4. Natural gas: These are found above oil in oil wells. It is a mixture of methane and
other hydrocarbons. Calorific value is high. There are two types. Dry gas and wet gas.
5. Nuclear energy: Dr.H.Bhabha is a father of nuclear power development in India. 10
nuclear reactors are present in India. It produces 2% of India’s electricity. Nuclear energy can
be produced by two types of reactions. Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.

Nuclear fission; It is a nuclear change in which heavier nucleus split into lighter nuclei on
bombardment of fast moving neutrons. Large amount of energy is released through chain
reaction.

Ex: Uranium with fast moving neutron gives barium and krypton in addition to three neutrons;
in the second stage it gives nine neutrons and so on. This process of propagation of the
reaction by multiplication is called chain reaction.
Nuclear fission: It is a nuclear change in which lighter nucleus is combined together at
extremely high temperature (1 billion 0C) to form heavier nucleus and a large amount of
energy is released.

Ex: Isotopes of hydrogen combine to form helium molecule.

1.2.8.9 CASE STUDY

Wind energy in India: India generating 1200 MW electricity using the wind energy. Largest
wind farm situated near Kanyakumari in Tamilnadu. It produces 380 MW electricity.

Hydrogen fuel car: General motor company of china discovered a experimental car ( fuel H2)
can produce no emission only water droplets and vapors come out of the exhaust pipe. This car
will be commercially available by 2010.

1.2.9. Land resources:

Land as a resource: Land is a finite and valuable resource upon which we depend for our
food,fiber and fuel wood, the basic amenities of life. Soil is also a valuable resource.
Land Degradation:
Because of increasing of population growth the demands for arable land for producing food
and fuel wood is also increasing. Hence there is more and more pressure on the limited land
resources which are getting degraded due to over-exploitation. Soil erosion, water logging,
salinization and contamination of the soil with industrial wastes like fly-ash, press mud or
heavy metals all cause degradation of land.
Soil Erosion: Soil erosion means wearing a way of soil. It defined as the movement of soil
components, especially surface-litter and top soil from one place to another. It results in the
loss of fertility. It basically of two types viz, normal erosion go geologic erosion and
accelerated erosion. The agents that cause such erosion are- climatic agents and water induced
erosion, biotic agents. Wind is also responsible for the land erosion through saltation,
suspension and surface creep. In order to prevent soil erosion and conserve the soil the
following conservation practices are employed:
•Conservational till farming. •Contour farming •Terracing • Strip cropping • Strip cropping
•Alley cropping • Wind breaks or shelterbelts •Water logging
Landslides: Various anthropogenic activities like hydroelectric projects, large dams,
reservoirs, construction of roads and railway lines, construction of buildings, mining etc. are
responsible for clearing of large forested areas.
Desertification: Desertification is a process whereby the productive potential of arid or
semiarid lands falls by ten percent or more. Desertification is characterized by devegetation
and loss of vegetal over, depletion of groundwater, salinization and severe soil erosion.
Causes of desertification: 1) Deforestation b) Overgrazing 3) Mining and quarrying.
Role of an Individual in conservation of Natural Resources:
Different natural resources like forests, water, soil, food, mineral and energy resources play
avital role in the development of a nation. With our small individual efforts we can together
help in conserving our natural resources to a large extent. Following are the ways:
Conserve Water:
1. Don’t keep water taps running while brushing, shaving, washing or bathing.
2. In washing machines fill the machine only to the level required for your clothes.
3. Install water saving toilets that use not more than 6 liters per flush.
4. Check for water leaks in pipes and toilets and repair them promptly.
5. Reuse the soapy water of washing from clothes for gardening, driveways etc.
6. Water the plants and the lawns in the evening when evaporation losses are minimum. Never
water the plants in mid-day.
7. Install a system to capture rain water.
Conserve energy:
1. Turn off lights fans and other appliances when not in use.
2. Obtain as much heat as possible from natural sources. Dry the clothes in sun instead of direr
if
possible.
3. Use solar cooker for cooking which will be more nutritious and will save your LPG
expenses.
4. Build your house with provision for sunspace which will keep your house warmer and will
provide more light.
5. Drive less, make fewer trips and use public transportations whenever possible. Share a
carpool if possible.
6. Control the use of A.C.
7. Recycle and reuse glass, metals and papers.
8. Use bicycle or just walk down small distances instead of using vehicle.
Protect the Soil:
1. Grow different types of ornamental plants, herbs and trees in your garden. Grow grass in the
open areas which will bind the soil and prevent its erosion.
2. Make compost from your kitchen waste and use it for your kitchen-garden.
3. Do not irrigate the plants using a strong flow of water as it would wash off the soil.
4. Better use sprinkling irrigation.
Promote Sustainable Agriculture:
1. Do not waste food; Take as much as you can eat.
2. Reduce the use of pesticides.
3. Fertilize your crop with organic fertilizers.
4. Use drip irrigation.
5. Eat local and seasonal vegetables.
6. Control pests.
Equitable use of resources for sustainable life style:

There is a big divide in the world viz. North and South, more developed countries
(MDCs) and Less Developed countries (LDCs), haves and have-nots. But this is observed that
MDCs have only 22% of world’s population but they use 88% of natural resources, 73% of
energy and command 85% of income, in turn they contribute very big proportion to its
pollution. On the other hand LDCs have very low or moderate industrial growth and have 78%
of world’s population. They use only 12% of natural resources, 27% of energy and have only
15% of global income. The rich have gone richer and the poor have stead even poorer. There is
a huge gap between those two worlds. This is not sustainable growth. The solution to this
problem is to have more equitable distribution of resources and wealth. A global consensus has
to be reached for balanced distribution. There are two major causes of unsustainability. Over
population in poor countries and over consumption of resources by rich countries. The rich
countries will have to lower down their consumption levels and bare minimum needs of the
poor must be satisfied by providing them resources. Need of the hour is fairer sharing of
resources between rich and poor which will bring about sustainable development for all.
Unit 3:
Ecosystems • Concept of an ecosystem. • Structure and function of an ecosystem. • Producers,
consumers and decomposers. • Energy flow in the ecosystem. • Ecological succession. • Food
chains, food webs and ecological pyramids. • Introduction, types, characteristic features,
structure and function of the following ecosystem. a. Forest ecosystem. b. Grassland
ecosystem. c. Desert ecosystem d. Aquatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans,
estuaries)
Concepts of an Ecosystem – Structure and Function of an Ecosystem – Producers, Consumers
and Decomposers – Energy Flow in the Ecosystem – Ecological Succession – Food Chains,
Food Webs and Ecological Pyramids – Introduction, Types, Characteristic Features, Structure
and Function of the (A) Forest Ecosystem

(B) Grassland Ecosystem (C) Desert Ecosystem (D) Aquatic Ecosystems (Ponds, Streams,
Lakes, Rivers, Oceans, Estuaries)

2.1 ECOSYSTEMS

2.1.1INTRODUCTION:

ECOLOGY:

The term was first coined by Hons Reiter and Haekel in 1869.

The term ecology (Okekologie) is originated from two Greek words Oikos (eco) –
means “house” (or) place of living and “ology” means “the science of (or) the study of.

Hence, ecology is the branch of science that deals with the study of the pattern of relations
between the organism and their environment.

(OR)

Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms (or) group of organisms with

their environment.

(OR)

Ecology is the study of ecosystems.

ECO SYSTEM:

In 1935, the British ecologist A.G.Tansley coined the term “eco system”.

The term “eco system” is made up of two Greek words. “Eco” means ecological
sphere (or) house (or) place of living (or) surroundings (or) Environment, w here living
organism does exist while “system” means “group of organisms joined in regular and
interdependent manner. Hence,

A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with environment is known

as

ecosystem.

(OR)

A system of interaction of organisms with their surroundings (i.e., environment) is

called as “ecosystem”.

Examples: Pond, lake, ocean, forest and desert…. Etc are some of the examples of the

ecosystems.

2.1.2 FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOLOGY

STRUCTURE:

Living /Biotic

Non-Living /Abiotitic

PROCESS:

Energy flow

Cycling of matter

CHANGE:

Dynamic (Not static)

Succession etc.

FUNCTION:

Food chain

Food web

Ecological pyramids

Energy Flow
 Cycling of matter

2.1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOSYSTEM

Eco system is the basic functional unit of ecology.

It contains both biotic and abiotic components.

The function of ecosystem is related to the cycling of matter (materials) and flow of energy.
The amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure.

Ecosystem passes from a less complex state to more complex state, which is called as

“ecological succession”.

2.1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEM:

The ecosystem can be generally classified into two types:

1. Natural Ecosystem

2. Artificial Eco system

1. NATURAL ECOSYSTEM:

A natural ecosystem is developed and governed by nature.

These are capable of operating and maintaining themselves without any major interference
by man.

The following are the two types of natural ecosystem based on their habitat.

1. Terrestrial Ecosystem.

2. Aquatic Ecosystem.

1) Terrestrial Ecosystem:

This ecosystem is related to land.

Examples: Grassland ecosystem.Forest
ecosystem, and Desert ecosystem etc.
2) Aquatic Ecosystem:

This ecosystem is related to water, it is further sub divided into two types based on salt
content.

i. Fresh Water Ecosystem:

a. Running Water Ecosystems

Examples: Rivers, streams (small narrow rivers)

b. Standing Water Ecosystems

Examples: Pond, lake & well, etc

ii. Marine Ecosystem:

Examples: seas and sea shores <land along the edges of sea>

2. MAN MADE (OR) ARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEM:

An artificial ecosystem is created and maintained by man for his different needs.

Examples: Reservoirs, Artificial lakes and gardens, etc.

2.1.5 STRUCTURE (OR) COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM:

The term structure refers to various components. So, the structure of an ecosystem
explains the relationship between the abiotic (non-living) and the biotic (living) components.

Each and every ecosystem has two major components are:

1. Biotic (living) components.

2. Abiotic (Non-living) components.

Fig: Components Of Ecosystem

1. Biotic Components: The living component of an ecosystem is called “Biotic component”.

Examples: Plants (Producers)

Animals (Consumers) and

Micro Organisms (Decomposers)

The biotic components of an ecosystem are classified into three types based on how they
get their food.

A. Producers (Autotrophs) : Plants

B. Consumers (Heterotrophs) : Animals

C. Decomposers (Saprotrophs) : Micro organisms.

A. Producers (or) Autotrophs (Auto=self, troph=feeder)

Self food producing organisms are known as autotrophs.

Examples: All green plants and trees.

Producers synthesize their food themselves through photosynthesis. Hence they are
also called “Photo autotrophs”. (photo = light)
B. Consumers (or) Heterotrophs (Hetero = other, troph = feeder:

Consumers are organisms, which cannot prepare their own food and depend directly
(or) indirectly on the producers.

Examples: Plant Eating Species: Insects, rabbit, goat, deer, cow, etc.

Animals Eating Species: Fish, lions, tigers, etc.

Depending upon the food habits the consumers are divided into four types.

i. Herbivores (or) Primary Consumers (Plant Eaters)

ii. Carnivores (or) Secondary Consumers (Meat Eaters)

iii. Omnivores (or) Tertiary Consumers (With plant & meat

eaters)

iv. Detritivores (dead organism eaters)

i. Herbivores: (Herbi = the green plant & Vorare = to devour)

Animals that eat only plants are called Herbivores.

They directly depend on the plants for their food. So they are called Plant eaters.
Examples: Insects, goat, deer, cow, horse, etc.

ii. Carnivores: (Carne = flesh meat & Vorare = to devour)

Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores.

They directly depend on the herbivores for their food.

Examples: Frog, cat, snake & foxes, etc.
iii. Omnivores: (Omni = whole comes from “ohm” & Vorare = to

devour)

Animals that eat both plants and animals are called omnivores.
 They depend on both herbivores and carnivores for their food.

Examples: humans, tigers, lions, rats and fox etc.

iv. Detritivores: (Detritifeeder)

Animals that eat dead organisms and waste of living are called detritivores.
Examples: beetles, termites, ants, crabs, earthworms, etc.
C. Decomposers (or) Saptrotrophs: (Sapros = Rotten, trophos = feeder)

Decomposers attack the dead bodies of producers and consumers and decompose them
into simple compounds. During the decomposition inorganic nutrients are released.

The organisms which break down the complex compounds into simple products are
called decomposers (or) reducers.

Examples: micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi, etc.

2. Abiotic Components:

The non-living component of an ecosystem is called “abiotic component”

These non-living components enter the body of living organism, take part in metabolic
activities and then return to the environment. The abiotic component of the ecosystems divided
into three portions.

1. Climate factors : Solar radiation, temperature, wind, water current, rainfall, etc.
2. Physical factors : light, fire, soil, air, etc.

3. Chemical factors : Organic and Inorganic substances.

2.1.6 FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM:

The function of an ecosystem is related to the cycling of materials (matter) and flow of
energy.

2.6.1 Types of functions:

Functions of an ecosystem are of three types:

1. Primary Function: The producers (plants) can make their food themselves through
photosynthesis. This process is called primary function of eco system.
Examples: All green plants and trees.

2. Secondary Function: The consumers (animals and humans) cannot make their own
food. They are always depending upon the producers for their energy. This is called secondary
function of eco system.

3. Tertiary Function: Decomposers attack the dead bodies of consumers and producers
and decompose them into simpler compounds. During the decomposition inorganic nutrients are
released.

Examples: Micro organisms like bacteria and fungi, etc.

The functioning of an ecosystem may be understood by studying the following terms:

A. Food chains

B. Food webs

C. Food pyramids (or) Energy pyramids

D. Energy and material flow.

A. Food Chain:

Anything which we eat to live is called food.

Food contains energy.

Food can be transferred from one organism to the other.

The process of transfer of food (energy) from one organism to a series of organisms is
called as “food chain”.

A food chain always starts with a plant life and end with animal life. Thus, a food chain
is a picture (or) model that shows the flow of energy from autotrophs (producers) to series of
organisms in an environment, as shown in the following figure
Figure: Schematic representation of food chain.

Infact, all the food chains starts with the sun. The sun provides energy for plants.

The producers (plants) can make their food themselves with the help of the sunlight,
chlorophyll, water and air. The consumers, including animals and humans, cannot make their
own food. They are always depending upon the producers for their energy.
Decomposers are the micro-organisms that break down the dead animals

and plants and release nutrients that become part of the soil, which are re-used by new plants,
back to the starting point of the food chain.

Types of food chain:

Three basic types of food chains are found in a typical eco system. They are:

1. Grazing food chains.

2. Detritus food chains.

3. Parasitic food chains.

1. Grazing food chains:

Grazing food chain starts with green plants (producers) and goes to decomposer food
chain (or) detritus food chain through herbivores and carnivores.

It has two types :

a. Terrestrial food chain and

b. Aquatic food chain

a. Terrestrial food chain: Food chain on land is called terrestrial food chain. Example:
Grassland food chain

Forest land food chain

Desert land food chain

Grass land food chain

Grasses Grasshoppers Frog Snake Eagles

Forest food chain

Green plants Deer Tiger (or) lion

b. Aquatic food chain : This food chain is slightly different from terrestrial food
chain. It is seen in aquatic (water) eco system. Food chain in water is
called “Aquatic food chain”.

Example: Marine food chain Example: Ocean

Fresh water food chain Example: Pond,lake,
streams, etc.
Food chain in a pond

Phytoplankton Zoo Plankton Small fish Large fish Man

Marine Food chain:

Sea Weeds Small fish Large fish Sharks and other animals

Figure:

Food chain

Grazing food chain Detritus food chain Parasite food chain

Aquatic food
Terrestrial food chain chain

Marine food chain Fresh water food chain

Standing water food chain Running water food chain

2. Detritus’ food chain: Detritus food chain starts with dead organic matter (plants and
animals) and goes to decomposer through consumers. Detritus food chains, independent of solar
energy, but they depend on influx of dead organic matter.

Example:

Dead Plants Soil mitts Algae Crabs Small fish

Large

fish

3. Parasitic food chain: Parasitic food chain operates in many ecosystems. In this food chain
either consumer (or) producer is parasitized and the food passes to smaller organisms. A parasitic
food chain involves host parasite hyper parasites’ links.

Example: Trees Fruit eating birds Lice & Bugs Bacteria Fungi

B. Food Web:

Web means “network” such as spider’s web, World Wide Web (WWW) etc.

So, food web is a network of food chains.

In a food web many food chains are inter connected, where different types of organisms are
connected at different tropic levels, so that there are a number of options of eating and being eaten
at each tropic level. Thus, there is a inter connecting of various food chains are called food webs
and as shown in following figure.

Figure: Food Web

This food web shows many linear food chains <as shown in figure>. These linear food chains are
inter connected with other food chains operating in the eco system to form a food web. The
grazing food chains are as follows:

Grains Mouse Cat

Grains Mouse Hawk
Grains Mouse Snake Hawk
Grains Insect Sparrow Hawk
Grass Insect Lizard Snake Hawk
Grass Insect Sparrow Snake Hawk

The above food web is a simple one. Much more complex food webs do exist in nature.

C. Ecological Pyramids:

The concept of ecological pyramids was first developed by British ecologist Charles Elton in 1927.

Ecological pyramids are the diagrammatic representation of tropic structures in which the tropic
levels (i.e., tiers) are depicted in successive stages.

An ecological pyramid is shown in the following figure.

 Figure: Formation of an Ecological Pyramid

In ecological pyramids, tropic levels are shown in the following manner:

i. The producers represent first tropic level in the ecological pyramid.

ii. The herbivores (or) primary consumers represent second tropic level in the ecological
pyramid.

iii. The carnivores (or) secondary consumers represent third tropic level in the ecological
pyramid.

iv. The omnivores (or) tertiary consumers represent fourth tropic level in the ecological
pyramid.

On the basis of the number of organisms, the biomass of organisms and energy flow in
organist population. Three types of ecological pyramids are:
1. Pyramid of numbers.

2. Pyramid of biomass

3. Pyramid of energy.
1. Pyramid of numbers:

It shows the number of individual organisms present in each tropic level.

It is expressed in numbers per unit area.

Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have three types of pyramid of numbers.

a. Upright pyramid of numbers.

b. Partly upright pyramid of numbers.

c. Inverted pyramid of numbers.

1. Upright Pyramid of numbers:

The number of individual organisms gradually decreases from lower tropic level to
higher tropic level is called “upright pyramid of numbers”. Example: A grassland ecosystem
and a pond ecosystem show an upright pyramid of numbers.
The producers in the grass lands are grasses, which are small in size and large in
numbers. So, producers occupy lower tropic level (1s t tropic level).
The primary consumers (herbivores) are rats, which occupy the II tropic level. Since
the numbers of rats are lower when compared to the grasses, the size of which is lower.

The secondary consumers (carnivores) are snakes, which occupy the III tropic level.
Since the numbers of snakes are lower when compared to the rats, the size of which is lower.

The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are eagles, which occupy the IV tropic level. The
number and size of the last tropic level is lowest <as shown in figure>.

Similarly, in the case of pond ecosystem, producers, herbivores and carnivores are
decreases from lower tropic level to the higher tropic level. Thus, these pyramids are upright.

Therefore, the numbers of individual organisms permit area, decreases from lower
tropic level to higher tropic level as shown in figure.
Figure: Pyramid of numbers in an aquatic (pond) ecosystem
2. Partially Upright Pyramid Of Numbers:

A forest eco system is an example of partially upright pyramid.

In a forest eco system, big trees are the producers, which are less number. So, these
producers occupy the lower tropic level which is narrow base.

The primary consumers (herbivores) are birds, insects, which occupy the II tropic level.
Since the number of birds, insects and other species are higher when compared to the trees, the
size of which is broader.

The secondary consumers (Carnivores) are fox, snakes, lizards, which occupy the third
tropic level. Since the number of fox, snakes are lower when compared to the birds, insects the
size of which is lower.

The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are lion, tiger, which occupy the IV tropic level.
Since the number of lion, tiger are lower when compared to the fox and snakes the size of which
is very (or) narrow lower. So the pyramid is narrow on both sides and broader in the middle and
hence it is called partially upright of number as shown in figure.
Figure: Pyramid of numbers in the forest ecosystem

3. Inverted Pyramid Of Numbers:

The number of individual organisms gradually increases from lower tropic level to higher tropic
level, is known as “inverted pyramid of numbers”.

Example: Parasitic food chain shows as inverted pyramid of number as shown in the following
figure.

2. Pyramid of Biomass:

It represents the total amount of biomass (mass (or) weight of biological material (or)
organism) present in each tropic level.

It is expressed in gram per unit area.

 Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have two types of pyramid of biomass.
i. Upright pyramid of biomass.

ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass.

i. Upright Pyramid Of Biomass:

The pyramid of biomass gradually decreases from the produce level (or) first tropic level
to consumer level (higher tropic level) is called “upright pyramid of biomass”

A forest ecosystem showed an upright pyramid of biomass.

In this ecosystem, the biomass decreases from the producer level to consumer levels (as
shown in figure)
ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass:

The pyramid of biomass gradually increases from producer level to consumer

level are called as Inverted pyramid of biomass.

Example: The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass.

In this, ecosystem, the biomass increases from producer level to consumer levels as
shown in the following figure.

Figure: Pyramid of biomass in pond (eco system)

3. Pyramid of Energy:

It represents the amount of flow of energy in each tropic level.

It is expressed in calories per unit area per year.

In an eco system, the energy flows from producer level to the consumer level. At each
successive tropic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the form of heat,
respiration, etc. Thus, at each next higher level only 10% of the energy passes on. Hence, there
is a sharp decrease in energy at each and every producer to omnivores (or) top carnivores.
Therefore, the pyramid of energy is always upright as shown in figure.
2.1.7 MAJOR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS

2.1.7.1 FOREST ECOSYSTEM

Definition: It is a natural ecosystem consisting of dense growth of trees and wild animals
Types:

1. Tropical – deciduous, evergreen, wet green

2. Littoral and swamps

3. Sub tropical

Characteristics:

Abiotic: soil, sun light, temperature etc

Biotic : forest trees, shrubs and animals

Structure:
Producer : Trees and shrubs
Consumer : Primary – elephants, deer etc.
Secondary – snakes, birds, lizards etc
Tertiary – lions, tigers etc
Decomposers : fungi, bacteria

2.1.7.2 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

Definition:

Deals with water bodies and biotic communities present in them-Classified as fresh water
and marine ecosystems. Fresh water systems are classified as lentic and lotic ecosystems.
Types:

A. Pond ecosystem: Small fresh water ecosystem – seasonal in nature – organisms: algae,
aquatic plants, insects, fishes etc. Ponds are very often exposed to anthropogenic pressure
like cloth washing, bathing, cattle bathing, swimming etc.

B. Lake ecosystem: Big fresh water ecosystem – Zonation or stratification, especially during
summer is a common one.

Top layer – shallow, warm, prone to anthropogenic activities – Littoral zone

Second layer – enough sunlight, high primary productivity – Limnetic zone

Third layer – very poor or no sunlight – Profundal zone

Eg. Dal lake in Srinagar, Naini lake in Nainital Organisms:

1. Planktons – phytoplankton eg. Algae – zooplankton eg. Rotifers

2. Nektons – that swims in water eg. Fishes

3. Neustons – that float on the surface of water Benthos – that attached

to sediments eg. Snails

1. Oligotrophic lakes – with less nutrient content

2. Eutrophic lakes – with very high nutrient content due to fertilizer contamination

3. Desert salt lakes – that contains high saline water due to over evaporation

4. Volcanic lakes – formed by water emitted from magma due to volcanic eruptions

5. Dystrophic lakes – that contains highly acidic water (low pH)

6. Endemic lakes – lakes that contain many endemic species, etc.

C. Streams: fresh water ecosystem where water current plays a major role. Oxygen and
nutrient content are uniform. Stream organisms have to face extreme difference in climatic
conditions but they do not suffer from oxygen deficiency as pond and lake organisms. This is
because large surface area of running water provides more oxygen supply. The animals have
very narrow range of tolerance towards oxygen deficiency. Thus stream are worst victims of
industrial pollution.

D. River ecosystem: large streams flowing from mountain highlands are rivers.
 Three phases:

1. Mountain highlands – rushing down water fall of water – large quantity of dissolved
oxygen – plants attached to rocks and fishes that require more oxygen are found.

2. Second phase – gentle slopes of hills – warmer – supports the growth of plants and
fishes that require less oxygen are seen.

3. Third phase: river shapes the land – lots of silts, nutrients are brought – deposited in
plains and delta – very rich in biodiversity.

E. Oceans: Gigantic reservoirs of water covering >70% of earth surface – 2,50,000

species – huge variety of sea products, drugs etc. – provide Fe, Mg, oils, natural gas, sand etc.
– major sinks of carbon di oxide – regulate biochemical cycles.

Two zones:

1. coastal zone – warm, nutrient rich, shallow – high sunlight – high primary
productivity.

2. Open sea – away from continental shelf – vertically divided in to 3 zones.

Euphotic zone – abundant sunlight

Bathyal zone – dim sunlight

Abyssal zone – dark zone – world’s largest ecological unit.

F. Estuary: coastal area where river meet ocean – strongly affected by tidal actions –
very rich in nutrients – very rich in biodiversity also – organisms are highly tolerant – many
species are endemic – high food productivity – however to be protected from pollution.

Characteristics:

Structural Components:

Abiotic: pH, nutrients, D.O, temp, climatic conditions, etc.

Biotic: Phytoplankton, fishes, snails insects, birds, etc.

2.1.7.3 GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM:

Dominated by grass – few shrubs and trees are also found – rainfall average but erratic –
overgrazing leads to desertification.
Three types – depending on the climate

a. Tropical grass lands – found near the boarders of tropical rain forests. Eg. Savannas
in Africa. Animals – Zebra, giraffes etc. – fires are common in dry
seasons – termite mounds produce methane – leads to fire – high in photosynthesis –
deliberate burning leads to release of high CO2 – global warming.

b. Temperate grasslands – flat and gentle slopes of hills. Very cold winter and very
hot summer - dry summer fires do not allow shrubs and trees to grow – soil is quite fertile –
cleaned for agriculture.

c. Polar grasslands – found in arctic polar region – organism – arctic wolf, fox, etc. –
A thick layer of ice remains frozen under the soil surface throughout the year – known as
permafrost – summer insects and birds appear.
Components:

Structural Components:

Abiotic: soil pH, nutrients, soil moisture, temp, climatic conditions, etc.

Biotic: grass, caterpillar, butterfly, worms, insects, birds, etc.

Unit 4: Biodiversity and its conservation:- Introduction, definition, genetic, species &
ecosystem diversity and biogeographical classification of India. Value of biodiversity:
consumptive use, productive use, social, ethical, aesthetic and option values. Biodiversity at
global, National and local levels, India as a mega-diversity nation. Hot-sports of biodiversity.
Threats to biodiversity: habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife conflicts. Endangered
and endemic species of India. Conservation of biodiversity: In-situ and Ex-situ conservation of
biodiversity

2.2 BIODIVERSITY

2.2.1 INTRODUCTION

Biodiversity is the abbreviated word for ―biological diversity (bio -life or living
organisms, diversity-variety). Thus biodiversity is the total variety of life on our planet, the
total number of races, varieties and species. The sum of total of various types of microbes,
plants and animals (producers, consumers and decomposers) in a system.

Biomes can be considered life zones, environment with similar climatic, topographic
and soil conditions and roughly comparable biological communities (Eg. Grassland, forest).
The biomes shelter an astounding variety of living organisms (from driest desert to dripping
rain forest, from highest mountain to deepest ocean trenches, life occurs in a marvelous
spectrum of size, shape, colour and inter relationship). The variety of living organisms, the
biodiversity, makes the world beautiful.

There are 1.4 million species known presently. But based on new discoveries, by
research expeditions, mainly in tropics, taxonomists estimate there are between 3-50 million
different species may be alive today. Insects make up more than one half of all known species
and may comprise more than 90% of all species on earth.

2.2.2 LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

The concept of biodiversity may be analyzed in 3 different levels. They are

1. Ecosystem diversity

2. Species diversity

3. Genetic diversity

1. Community or Ecosystem diversity

A set of biotic components (plants, animals and microorganisms) and abiotic

components (soil, air, water, etc) interacting with each other is known as an ecosystem.

Ecosystem or ecological diversity means the richness and complexity of a biological

community, including tropic levels, ecological processes (which capture energy), food webs
and material recycling.
 The diversity at an ecological level or habitat level is known as ecosystem diversity.

Ex: River ecosystem- Rivers include fish, aquatic insects, mussels and a variety of plants that
have adapted.

Ecosystem diversity is the aggregate of different environmental types in a region.

It explains the interaction between living organisms and physical environment in an

ecosystem.

2. Species diversity –

A discrete groups of organisms of the same kind is known as species.

Species diversity is the diversity between different species.

The sum of varieties of all living organisms at the species level is known as species
diversity.

Species diversity describes the number of kinds of organisms within individual

communities or ecosystems.

The biotic component is composed of a large number of species of plants, animals

and microorganisms which interact with each other and with the abiotic component of the
environment.

Ex: The total number of species living on earth is approximately more than 2 million.
However, only around 1.5 million are found and assigned
scientific names.

Plant species: Apple, Mango, Wheat, Grapes, Rice etc

Animal species: Lion, Tiger, Elephant,Deer etc

3. Genetic diversity –

A species with different genetic characteristics is known as a sub-species or

"genera".

Genetic diversity is a measure of the variety of versions of same gene within

individual species.

Within individual species, there are varieties, that are slightly different from one
other. These differences are due to differences in the combination of genes.
Genes are the basic units of hereditary information transmitted from one generation
to the other.
Ex: (i) Rice varieties - All rice varieties belong to the species "oryzasativa". However there
are thousands of rice varieties that show variation at the genetic level in the form of different
size, shape, colour

and nutrient content.

(ii) Teak wood varieties: The various teak wood varieties available

are - Indian teak, Burma teak, Malaysian teak etc.

2.2.3 FUNCTIONS OF BIODIVERSITY: Two main functions of biodiversity are

1. It is the source on which the entire human species depends on for food, fibre,
shelter, fuel and medicine.

2. It depends on biosphere which in turn leads to stability in climate, water, soil, air
and overall health of biosphere.

2.2.4 VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY

Definition and estimation of the value of biodiversity is not easy. The value of biodiversity is
classified into:
1. Direct Value and

2. Indirect Value

1. Direct value of biodiversity: It is of two types a. Consumptive use value and

b. Productive use value

a. Consumptive use value:

The consumptive use value is the value placed on nature's products that are
consumed directly, without passing through a market. Some of them are firewood, food, and
game meat.

When direct consumption requires recreation, as in sport fishing and game viewing,
the consumptive value is the whole recreational experience. Consumptive value seldom
appears in national income accounts, but could be easily included in measures such as GDP.
It is valued from the cost if resource was sold at market value, rather than being consumed.

High consumptive use values on resources may lead to the following problems
Over-exploitation of wildlife in developing countries

Loss of traditional controls on hunting and

Loss of wildlife populations at productive levels.

 Consumptive use value benefits the communities closest to the resource if harvested
sustainably and managed efficiently.

b. Productive use value:

Productive use value refers to products that are commercially harvested (sold in a
market).

Its value is estimated at the production end rather than retail end by adding an
inflated cost to the finished product.

Productive use value is often the only value of biological resource reflected in
national income accounts and may have a major impact on the national economy.

Timber, fish, honey, construction materials, mushrooms, fruits, medicinal plants and
game meat sold in a market have productive use value.

2. Indirect value of biodiversity

Indirect values provide economic benefits without being harvested and do not
appear in GDP. However, they are crucial to other natural products which influence the
GDP.

These values involve functions performed by biodiversity which are not of any use.
Ex: Ecological Processes etc.

Direct values are often derived from indirect values because plants and animals are
supported by the services provided by their environments.

Many classes of plant and animal species are consumed by tribal and non-tribal
communities.

Ex:

1. Ecological functions

2. Flood and storm protection

3. Waste assimilation

4. Microclimatic functions

5. Nutrient cycles

6. Photosynthesis
7. Carbon stores

8. Soil protection, etc.

1. Non-consumptive use value

2. Optional value

3. Existence or ethical value and

4. Information value

1. Non-consumptive use value:

This indirect value deals with nature's functions and services.

It includes photosynthesis of plants which provides support system for other species
by maintaining water cycle, regulating climate, production and protection of the soil,
absorption and breakdown of pollutants, recreational, aesthetic, socio-cultural, scientific,
educational, spiritual and historic values of natural environments.

Recreational value is important with regard to tourism and helps the national GDP.

2. Optional value:

This refers to the potential of biodiversity that is currently known and needs to be
explored.

This refers to the idea that there may be several existing species that may prove to
be important in future and their usefulness needs to be studied with reference to a specific
problem currently plaguing the society.

Ex:

1. The growing biotechnology field is searching for a the cure for diseases like cancer
and AIDS.

2. Medicinal plants and herbs play a very important role in the economic growth of our
country.
3. Existence value:

This is the value gained from continuous knowledge of existence. Also, this is the
value that people are willing to pay to keep a species /
community /ecosystem from going extinct. Examples of this are high amounts being spent
for animals like pandas, whales, lions etc.
 Our rich heritage teaches us to worship plants, animals, rivers and mountains.
Examples being the Ganga river, trees like Banyan and Peepal and plants like the Vambu,
Tulsi and Vengai are worshipped.

4. Information value: This relates to the educational, scientific and aesthetic and
tourism values of biodiversity in an ecosystem

5. Aesthetic Values: Beautiful plants and animals inspire us to protect biodiversity.

The most important aesthetic value of biodiversity is eco-tourism.

Ex:

1. People from distant places spend time and money to visit areas where they can enjoy
aesthetic value of biodiversity. This is called eco -tourism.

2. The pleasant music of wild birds, beautifully coloured butterflies, colour of

peacocks and colour of flowers are very important for their aesthetic value.

2.2.5 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

Any disturbance in a natural ecosystem tends to reduce its biodiversity.

Waste generated due to increase in human population and industrialization spoils the
environment and leads to decreased diversity in biological species.

Any change in the system leads to a major imbalance and threatens the normal
ecological cycle.
Causes for loss of biodiversity are:

1. Habitat loss

2. Poaching of wildlife and

3. Man-wildlife conflicts

1. Habitat loss: The loss of populations of interbreeding organisms is caused by

habitat loss. Factors influencing habitat loss are:

a. Deforestation: Loss of habitat is mainly caused by deforestation activities. Forests and

grasslands are cleared for conversion into agriculture lands or settlement areas or
developmental projects. Forests and grasslands are natural home to thousands of species
which disintegrate due to loss of their natural habitat.

b. Destruction of wetlands: Wetlands, estuaries and mangroves are destroyed due to

farming, filling and pollution that cause loss of biodiversity
c. Habitat fragmentation: When the habitat is divided into small and scattered
patches the phenomenon is called habitat fragmentation. This leads to the disappearance of
most wildlife

d. Raw material: To produce hybrid seeds, wild plants are used as raw materials
leading to extinction of many wild plant species.

e. Production of drugs: Pharmaceutical companies collect wild plants for the

production of drugs leading to extinction of several medicinal plant species.
f. Illegal trade: Illegal trade of wildlife reduces biodiversity leading to habitat loss

g. Developmental activities: Construction of dams in forest areas coupled with the

discharge of industrial effluents kills birds and other aquatic life.

2. Poaching of wildlife: Poaching refers to killing animals or commercial hunting. It

contributes to loss of biodiversity. Poaching can be of two types listed below:

1. Subsistence poaching: This refers to killing animals for survival.

2. Commercial poaching: This refers to hunting animals in order to sell their products.
Factors influencing poaching:

1. Human population: Increased human population in India has led to pressure on forest
resources, leading to degradation of wildlife habitats

2. Commercial activities: Although a ban has been imposed internationally on the trade of
products of endangered species, there is a continued smuggling of wildlife products. Since
trading of such products is highly profitable, poachers continue to hunt endangered
animals and smuggle their fur, skin and tusks to other countries. Wildlife products include
furs, horns, tusks, live specimens and herbal products. Richest source of biodiversity
lies in

developing nations in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Advanced countries like Europe,
North America, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong are the major importers of wildlife products.

3. Man-Wildlife Conflicts: Man-wildlife conflicts arise, when wildlife starts causing

immense damage and danger to man. Under such conditions it is very difficult for the
forest department officials to convince the affected villagers to gain the villagers support for
wildlife conservation.
Ex:

1. In Sambalpur, Orissa, several people were killed by elephants. In retaliation, the

villagers killed and injured several elephants.

2. In Mysore, elephants were killed by farmers in retaliation to the damage done by

elephants to their cotton and sugarcane fields.
3. Villagers sometimes hide explosives in their fields to ward-off animals which
explode when the elephants enter the fields

4. Several people were killed when leopards attacked them in Sanjay Gandhi National
Park, Mumbai

Factors influencing man-animal conflicts

1. Shrinking forest cover compels wildlife to move outside the forest

2. Human encroachment into forest area induces a man-wildlife conflict

3. Injured animals have a tendency to attack man

4. Wild animals venture out of the forest area in search of food

5. Villagers set-up electric wiring around their fields. This injures animals (Elephants)
who suffer pain and get violent.
6. Cash compensation paid by the government is not enough.

7. Garbage near human settlements or food crops attracts wild animals.

2.2.6 BIO-GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA

India has different climate and topography in different parts and hence is termed as a
mega diversity country.

India occupies 10th place among plant rich countries of the world.

It is essential to acquire knowledge about the distribution and environmental interaction

of flora and fauna of India.

Bio-geographers have classified India into ten bio-geographic zones with each zone
having characteristic climate, soil and biodiversity.

These zones are described below:

1. Trans-Himalayas: The trans-himalayas is an extension to the Tibetean plateau.

This region harbors the high-altitude cold desert in ladakh (Jammu
and Kashmir) and Lahaul Spiti (Himachal Pradesh). It accounts for 5.7% of the country's
landmass.

2. Himalayas: The Himalayas are the northern boundaries of India. The entire
mountain chain is running from Kashmir in the North-west to Assam in the north-east. The
Himalayas comprise of a diverse range of biotic provinces and biomes. The himalayas cover
7.2% of the country's landmass
3. Desert: The extremely dry area west of the Aravalli hill range, is comprising both
the salty desert of Gujarat and the sandy desert of Rajasthan. Deserts occupy around 6.9% of
the country's land mass.

The kinds of deserts found in India are:

a. The desert of western Rajasthan

b. The desert ofGujarat

c. The high-altitude cold desert of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. The
Indian deserts have more diversified fauna.

4. Semi-arid: This zone lies between the desert and the Deccan plateau. It includes the
Aravalli hill range. It overs approximately 15.6% of the country's landmass.

5. Western Ghats: The western ghats are a mountain range that runs along the western
cost of India. They are a range extending north-south from southern tip of Gujarat in the
north to Kanyakumari in the south.The mountains cover an area of about 160,000 sq. km.
This ghat section covers an extremely diverse range of biotic provinces and biomes. It covers
about 5.8% of the country's landmass.

6. Deccan plateau: It is a large triangular plateau south of the Narmada valley. Three
sides of the plateau are covered by mountains slopes towards east. Satpura mountains cover
the north while western ghats cover the west side and eastern ghats cover the eastern side of
the plateau. It is the one of largest zones covering the southern and south-central plateau with
mostly deciduous trees. It covers 4.3% of the country's land mass.

7. Gangetic plain: This plain covers the area between the south himalayas to the tropic
of cancer. These plains were formed by the Ganges river system and are relatively
homogeneous. This region experience 600 mm rainfall
annually. Sunderbans forests are located in this region and it covers 11% of the country's
land mass.

8. North-east India These are pains and non-himalayan ranges of northeastern India
and have a wide variety of vegetation. It covers around 5.2% of the country's land mass.

9. Islands The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal has almost 300 big
and small islands. Among these, only five islands are inhabited. Only tribes are found in the
island of Nicobar. These islands have a highly diverse set of biomes and occupy 0.03% of
the country's biomass.

10.Coasts India has a large coastline distributed both to the east and west with distinct
differences between the two. The Lakshwadeep islands are included in this but the area of
these islands is negligible.
2.2.7 INDIA AS MEGA-DIVERSITY NATION

India's rich biological diversity - its immense range of ecosystems, species and genetic
forms is by virtue of its tropical location, climate and physical features.

India's biogeographical composition is unique as it combines living forms from three

major biogeographical realms, namely - Eurasian, Agro-Tropical and Indo-Malayan.

India's fabulous biodiversity is estimated to be over 45,000 plant species representing

about seven percent of the world's flora; and its bewildering variety of animal life represents
6.5 per cent of world's fauna. 15,000 species of flowering plants, 53,430 species of insects;
5050 species of molluscs, 6,500 species of other invertebrates; 2,546 species of fishes; 1228
species of birds, 446 species of reptiles, 372 species of mammals and 204 species of
amphibians have been identified.

In India about 1, 15,000 species of plants and animals have been identified and
described.

India stands tenth in 25 most plant-rich countries of the world. Plant richness means
greater uniqueness of species present.

India has been described as one of 12 mega-diversity countries possessing a rich means
of all living organisms when biodiversity is viewed as a whole. The greater the
multidiversity of species, greater is the contribution to biodiversity. There are 25 clearly
defined areas in the world called 'hot spots' which support about 50,000

endemic plant species, comprising 20 per cent of the world's total flora. India's defined
location of 'hot spots' is the Western Ghats and the Northeastern regions.
Forests, which embrace a sizeable portion of biodiversity, now comprise about 64 m.
hectares or about 19 per cent of the land area of the country, according to satellite imaging.
Roughly 33 cent of this forest cover represents primary forest. Indian flora comprises about
15,000 flowering plants and bulk of our rich flora is to be found in the Northeast, Western
Ghats, the Northwest and Eastern Himalayas, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Likewise, Assam and the Western Ghats are home to several species of mammal fauna,
birds, and reptilian and amphibian fauna.

As one of the oldest and largest agriculture societies, India has also a striking variety of
at least 166 species of crop plants and 320 species of wild relatives of cultivated crops. There
is a vital, but often-neglected factor when we focus on biodiversity. It may be a matter of she
surprise for many to understand that the tribals who officially constitute 7.5 per cent of
India's population have preserved 90 per cent of the country's biocultural diversity. To a
large extent, the survival of our biodiversity depends on how best the tribals are looked after.

To preserve our rich biodiversity, nine biosphere reserves are set up in specific
biogeographic'' zones: the biggest one is in the Deccan Peninsula in the Nilgiris covering
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Others are the Nanda Devi in Uttar khand in
the Western Himalayas, the Nokrek in Meghalaya, Manas and Dibru Saikhowa in Assam,
the Sunderban's in the Gangetic plain in West Bengal, Similar in Orissa, the Great Nicobar
and the Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu.

2.2.8 ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA

2.2.8.1 ENDANGERED SPECIES OF INDIA: A plant, animal or microorganism that is in

immediate risk of biological extinction is called endangered species or threatened species. In
India, 450 plant species have been identified as endangered species. 100 mammals and 150
birds are estimated to be endangered. India's biodiversity is threatened primarily due to:
1. Habitat destruction

2. Degradation and
3. Over exploitation of resources

The RED-data book contains a list of endangered species of plants and animals. It
contains a list of species of that are endangered but might become extinct in the near future if
not protected.

Some of the rarest animals found in India are:

1. Asiatic cheetah

2. Asiatic Lion

3. Asiatic Wild Ass

4. Bengal Fox

5. Gaur

6. Indian Elephant

7. Indian Rhinocerous

8. Marbled Cat

9. Markhor

Extinct species is no longer found in the world.

Endangered or threatened species is one whose number has been reduced to a critical
number. Unless it is protected and conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction.
Vulnerable species is one whose population is facing continuous decline due to habitat
destruction or over exploitation. However, it is still abundant.
Rare species is localized within a restricted area or is thinly scattered over an extensive area.
Such species are not endangered or vulnerable. A few endangered pecies in the world are
listed below:

1. West Virginia Spring Salamander (U.S.A)

2. Giant Panda (China)

3. Golden Lion Tamarin (Brazil)

4. Siberian Tiger (Siberia)

5. Mountain Gorilla (Africa)

6. Pine Barrens Tree Frog (Male)

7. Arabian Oryx (Middle East)

8. African Elephant (Africa)

Other important endangered species are:

1. Tortoise, Green sea Turtle , Gharial, Python (Reptiles)

2. Peacock, Siberian White Crane, Pelican, Indian Bustard (Birds)

3. Hoolock gibbin, Lion-tailed Macaque, Capped mokey, Golden monkey (Primates)

4. Rauvol fia serpentina (medicinal plant), Sandal wood tree, etc

Factors affecting endangered species

1. Human beings dispose wastes indiscriminately in nature thereby polluting the air,
land and water. These pollutants enter the food chain and accumulate in living creatures
resulting in death.

2. Over-exploitation of natural resources and poaching of wild animals also leads to

their extinction.

3. Climate change brought about by accumulation of green houses gases in the

atmosphere. Climate change threatens organisms and ecosystems and they cannot adjust to
the changing environmental conditions leading to their death and extinction.

An international treaty to help protect endangered wildlife is, "Convention on

International Trade in Endangered Species 1975" (CITES). This treaty is now signed by 160
countries.
1. CITES lists 900 species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or
wildlife products as they are in danger of extinction.

2. CITES restricts trade of 2900 other species as they are endangered.

Drawbacks of cites

1. This treaty is limited as enforcement is difficult and convicted violators get away by
paying only a small fine.

2. Member countries can exempt themselves from protecting any listed species.

2.2.8.2 ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA

Species that are found only in a particular region are known as endemic species. Almost 60%
the endemic species in India are found in Himalayas and the Western Ghats.
Endemic species are mainly concentrated in:

1. North-East India

2. North-West Himalayas

3. Western Ghats and

4. Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

Examples of endemic Flora species are

1. Sapria Himalayana

2. Ovaria Lurida

3. Nepenthis khasiana etc

Endemic fauna of significance in the western ghats are:

1. Lion tailed macaque

2. Nilgiri langur

3. Brown palm civet and

4. Nilgiri tahr
Factors affecting endemic species:

1. Habitat loss and fragmentation due to draining and filling of inland wetlands.

2. Pollution also plays an important role.

Ex: Frog eggs, tadpoles and adults are extremely sensitive to pollutants especially pesticides.
3. Over-hunting and

4. Populations can be adversely affected by introduction of non active predators and

competitors. Disease producing organisms also play an important adversary in reducing
populations of endemic species.

2.2.9 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

Due to

1. Habitat loss Deforestation activities (cutting trees for timber, removal of

medicinal plants)

2. Production of hybrid seeds requires wild plants as raw material, farmers prefer
hybrid reeds, many plant species become extinct.

3. Increase in the production of pharmaceutical companies made several number of

medicinal plants and species on the verge of extinction.
4. Removal of forest-cover for road laying and also due to soil erosion.

5. Illegal trade of wild life.

6. Population explosion, construction of dam, discharge of industrial effluents use of

pesticides.

Poaching of wild life

Due to poaching, illegal trade and smuggling activities most of our valuable fauna are
under threat organised crime has moved into illegal wild life smuggling because of huge
profit Eg. Tiger, Deer for hides, Rhinoceros – for horns, Elephant – for ivory tusk, Sea
Horse, Star turtle – sold to foreign market.

(Extinction, the elimination of species, is a normal process of the natural world.

Species die put and are replaced by others as part of evolutionary change.

Human caused reduction: The climate change caused by our release of green house
gases in the atm. could have catastrophic effects. Human disturbance of natural habitat is
the largest single cause pf loss of biological diversity. Woodlands and grasslands are
converted now use about 10% of the world’s land surface for crop production and about
twice the amount for pasture and grasslands.)

Hunting: Over harvesting is responsible for depletion or extinction of many species.

Eg. The American passenger pigeon was the world’s most abundant bird. In spite of
this vast population, market hunting and habitat destruction caused the entire
population to crash with in 20 years.

Fragmentation

Habitat fragmentation reduces the biodiversity because many animals like bears and large
cats require large territories to subsist. Some forest birds reproduce only in deep forest or
habitat far from human settlement. A large island for example, can support more
individuals of given species and therefore less likely to suffer extinction due to genetic
problems and natural catastrophes.

Commercial products:

Smuggling of fuels, hides, horns and folk medicines also affect the biodiversity in an
abrupt manner.

2.2.10 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

The following measures should be taken to conserve biodiversity

1. Illegal hunting and trade of animals and animal products should be stopped
immediately

2. People-at-large should boycott purchasing coats, purse or bags made of animal

skin
3. Bio-diversity laws should be strengthened.

4. Adequate crop and cattle compensation schemes must be started

5. Solar powered fencing must be provided with electric current proof trenches to
prevent animals from entering fields.

6. Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest borders

7. Adequate food and water should be made available for wild animals within forest
zones.

8. Development and construction work in and around forest region must be stopped.
 Biodiversity is one of the important tools for sustainable development. The
commercial, medical, genetic, aesthetic, and ecological importance of biodiversity
emphasizes the need for its conservation.

Factors affecting biodiversity:

1. Biodiversity is disturbed by human activity

2. Poaching of animals, over-exploitation of natural sources and degradation of

habitats affect biodiversity.

3. Marine ecosystems are disturbed due to oil spills and discharge of effluents

4. Climatic factors like global warming, ozone depletion and acid rain also affect

biodiversity

Need for biodiversity

1. It provides recreation and tourism

2. Drugs, herbs, food and other important raw materials are derived from plants and
animals

3. It preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals

4. It ensures sustainable utilization of life supporting systems on earth.

5. It needs to conservation of essential ecological diversity and life supporting

systems

6. Loss of biodiversity leads to ecological and environmental deterioration

Types of conservation

There are two types of biodiversity conservation:

1. In-situ conservation and

2. Ex-situ conservation

1. IN-SITU CONSERVATION

In-situ conservation involves protection of flora and fauna within its natural habitat. The
natural habitats or ecosystems under in-situ conservation are called "protected areas".
a. Biosphere reserves

b. National parks

c. Wildlife sanctuaries

d. Gene sanctuaries

a. Biosphere reserves: They cover large areas (>5000 sq.km.) They are normally used to
protect species for a long time. The roles of biosphere reserves are listed below:
i. Long-term survival of evolving ecosystem

ii. Protect endangered species

iii. Protect maximum number of species and communities

iv. Serve as site of recreation and tourism

v. May also be used for educational and research purposes

vi. Biosphere reserves function as an open system and changes in land use are not
allowed. No tourism and explosive activities are allowed in biosphere reserves.

b. A national park: It is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its
environment. It covers an area ranging from 100 to 500 sq.km. One or more national parks
may exist within a biosphere reserve. A national park is used for enjoyment through
tourism, without affecting the environment. It is used to protect, propagate and develop
wildlife. Grazing domestic animals inside national parks is prohibited All private rights
and forestry activities are prohibited inside a national park

c. Wildlife sanctuary is an area that is reserved for the conservation of animals only.

i. It protects animals only

ii. It allows operations such as harvesting of timber, collection of forest products,

private ownership rights and forestry operations, provided it does not affect animals
adversely
d. Gene sanctuary is an area where plants are conserved.

Other projects for the conservation of animals are Project Tiger, Gir Lion Project,
Crocodile breeding project, project elephant etc

Advantages of in-situ conservation

i. It is cheap and convenient

ii. Species get adjusted to natural disasters like drought, floods, forest fires etc.
Disadvantages of in-situ conservation

i. A large surface area of earth is required to preserve biodiversity

ii. Maintenance is not proper due to shortage of staff and pollution

2. EX-SITU CONSERVATION

Ex-situ conservation involves protection of flora and fauna outside their natural habitats.
This type of conservation is mainly done for conservation of crop varieties and wild
relatives of crops.

1. Ex-situ conservation involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plant and

animal species under controlled conditions

2. It identifies those species that are at a high risk of extinction

3. It prefers species that are important for man in the near future among the

endangered species.

Important centers of ex-situ conservation:

1. Botanical gardens

2. Seed banks

3. Microbial culture collections

4. Tissue and cell cultures

5. Museums and

6. Zoological gardens

Methods of ex-situ conservation

National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NPBGR) It is located in New Delhi and
uses the Cryopreservation Technique to preserve agricultural and horticultural crops.
Cryopreservation technique involves using liquid nitrogen at -196 C. Varieties of rice,
turnip, radish, tomato, onion, carrot, chilli, tobacco have been successfully preserved for
years using this technique.

National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NPAGR) It is located in Karnal,

Haryana and preserves the semen of domesticated bovine animals.
National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR) In this facility,
conservation of varieties of crop plants or trees is done using tissue culture. This facility
has been created within the NPBGR.

Advantages of Ex-situ conservation

1. Survival of endangered species is increasing due to special care and attention

2. In captive breeding the animals are assured of food, water, shelter and security
thereby have a longer life span

3. It is carried-out in cases of endangered species that do not have any chance of

survival in the wild

Disadvantages of Ex-situ conservation

1. It is an expensive method

2. Freedom of wildlife is lost

3. Animals cannot survive in the natural environment

Unit 5 : Environmental Pollution: Definition, cause, effects and control measures of : a. Air
pollution. b. Water pollution. c. Soil pollution. d. Marine pollution. e. Noise pollution. f.
Thermal pollution. g. Nuclear hazards. Solid Waste Management: causes, effects and control
measures of urban and industrial wastes. Role of an individual in prevention of pollution.
Pollution case studies.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Pollution may be defined as an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or

biological characteristics of air, water and land that may be harmful to human life and other
animals, living conditions, industrial processes and cultural assets. Pollution can be natural
or manmade.

The agents that pollute are called pollutants.

3.2 POLLUTANTS

Pollutants are by-products of man’s action. The important pollutants are summarized below:

• Deposited matter—Soot, smoke, tar or dust and domestic wastes.

• Gases—CO, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, halogens (chlorine, bromine and

iodine).

• Metals—Lead, zinc, iron and chromium.

• Industrial pollutants—Benzene, ether, acetic acid etc., and cyanide compounds.

• Agriculture pollutants—Pesticides, herbicides, fungicides and fertilizers.

• Photochemical pollutants—Ozone, oxides of nitrogen, aldehydes, ethylene,

photochemical smog and proxy acetyl nitrate.

• Radiation pollutants—Radioactive substances and radioactive fall-outs of the

nuclear test.

3.2.1 Classification of Pollutants

3.2.1.1 Nature of disposal: On the basis of natural disposal, pollutants are of two types:

1. Non-degradable pollutants: These are the pollutants, which degrade at a very slow
pace by the natural biological processes. These are inorganic compounds such as salts
(chlorides), metallic oxides waste producing materials and materials like, aluminum cans,
mercuric salts and even DDT. These continue to accumulate in the environment.

2. Biodegradable pollutants: These include domestic sewage that easily decomposes

under natural processes and can be rapidly decomposed by natural/ artificial methods. These
cause serious problems when accumulated in large amounts as the pace of deposition
exceeds the pace of decomposition of disposal.

3.2.1.2 Nature of form: On the basis of the form in which they persist after their release into
the environment, pollutants can be categorized under two types:

(i) Primary pollutants: These include those substances, which are emitted directly
from some identifiable sources. This include-

a. Sulphur compounds: SO2, SO3, H2S produced by the oxidation of fuel.

b. Carbon compounds: Oxides of carbon (CO+CO2) and hydrocarbons.

c. Nitrogen compounds: NO2 and NH3.

d. Halogen compounds: Hydrogen fluoride (HF) and hydrochloric acid (HCl).

e. Particles of different size and substances: These are found suspended in air. The
fine particles below the diameter of 100u are more abundant and include particles of metals,
carbon, tar, pollen, fungi, bacteria, silicates and others.

(ii) Secondary pollutants: The secondary pollutants are produced by the combination
of primary emitted pollutants in the atmosphere.

Ex: In bright sunlight, a photochemical reaction occurs between nitrogen oxides; oxygen and
waste hydrocarbons from gasoline that forms peroxy-acetyle nitrate (PAN) and ozone (O3),
both of them are toxic components of smog and cause smarting eyes and lung damage.

3.3 TYPES OF POLLUTION

3.3.1 AIR POLLUTION

3.3.1.1 Introduction: Air pollution is one such form that refers to the contamination of the
air, irrespective of indoors or outside. A physical, biological or chemical alteration to the air
in the atmosphere can be termed as pollution. It occurs when any harmful gases, dust, smoke
enters into the atmosphere and makes it difficult for plants, animals and humans to survive as
the air becomes dirty.

The WHO defines air pollution as the presence of materials in the air in such concentration
which are harmful to man and his environment. A number of ingredients find their way in
the air and these are mostly gases, which rapidly spread over wide areas.

3.3.1.2 Causes of Air pollution:

1. Burning of Fossil Fuels: Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels
like coal, petroleum and other factory combustibles is one of the major causes of air
pollution. Pollutants emitting from vehicles cause immense amount of pollution. Carbon
Monoxide produced by improper or incomplete combustion emitted from vehicles is another
major pollutant along with Nitrogen Oxides that is produced from both natural and manmade
processes.

2. Agricultural activities: Ammonia is a very common by product from agriculture

related activities and is one of the most hazardous gases in the atmosphere. Use of
insecticides, pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities emit harmful chemicals into
the air and cause water pollution.

3. Exhaust from factories and industries: Manufacturing industries release large

amount of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and chemicals into the air
thereby depleting the quality of air. Petroleum refineries also release hydrocarbons and
various other chemicals that pollute the air and also cause land pollution.

4. Mining operations: Mining is a process wherein minerals below the earth are
extracted using large equipments. During the process dust and chemicals are released in the
air causing massive air pollution.

5. Indoor air pollution: Household cleaning products, painting supplies emit toxic
chemicals in the air and cause air pollution.

6. Suspended Particulate matter: Suspended particulate matter popular by its

acronym SPM, is another cause of pollution.

3.3.1.3 Types of Air Pollutants

Primarily air pollutants can be caused by primary sources or secondary sources. The
pollutants that are a direct result of the process can be called primary pollutants. A classic
example of a primary pollutant would be the sulfur-dioxide emitted from factories

Secondary pollutants are the ones that are caused by the inter mingling and reactions
of primary pollutants. Smog created by the interactions of several primary pollutants is
known to be as secondary pollutant.

3.3.1.4 Common air pollutants

1. Carbon Dioxide: CO2 content of air has increased by 20% during the last century.
CO2 causes nausea and headache. Its increase in the air may cause green house effect, rise in
the atmospheric temperature. This may melt the polar ice resulting in rise in level of oceans
and flooding of coastal regions.

2. Carbon Monoxide: It is a very poisonous gas and is produced by incomplete

combustion of fuel. If inhaled. It combines with hemoglobin and reduces its oxygen-carrying
capacity. This leads to laziness, reduced vision and death.
3. Oxides of Nitrogen: These include NO and NO2 , which are released by
automobiles and chemical industries as waste gases and also by burning of materials. These
are harmful and lower the oxygen carrying capacity of blood.

4. Oxides of Sulphur: SO2 and SO3 are produced by burning of coal and

petroleum and are harmful to buildings, clothing, plants and animals. High

concentration of SO2 causes chlorosis (yellowing of leaves), plasmolysis, damage to mucous

membrane and metabolic inhibition. SO2 and SO3 react with water to form Sulphuric and
sulphurous acids. These may precipitate as rain or snow producing acid rain or acid
precipitation.

5. Photochemical Oxidants: Formed by the photochemical reactions between primary

pollutants, viz. oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons. Nitrogen oxides in the presence of
sunlight react with un-burnt hydrocarbons to form peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN), Ozone,
aldehydes and some other complex organic compounds in the air.

6. Hydrocarbons: These are un-burnt discharges from incomplete combustion of fuel

in automobiles. These forms PAN with nitrogen oxides, which is highly toxic.

7. Particulate Matter: Industries and automobiles release fine solid and liquid
particles into the air. Fly ash and soot from burning of coal, metal dust containing lead,
chromium, nickel, cadmium, zinc and mercury from metallurgical processes; cotton dust
from textile mills; and pesticides sprayed on crops are examples of particulate pollutants in
the air. These are injurious to respiratory tract.

8. Aerosols: Aerosols are chemicals released in the air in vapor form. These include
fluorocarbon (carbon compound having fluorine) present in emissions from the Jet aero
planes. Aerosols deplete the ozone layer. Thinning of ozone layer results in more harmful
ultraviolet rays reaching the earth, which are harmful to skin, and can lead to skin cancer
also.

9. Radioactive Substances: These are released by nuclear explosions and explosives.

These are extremely harmful for health.

10. Fluorides: Rocks, soils and. minerals containing fluorides release an extremely
toxic gas called hydrogen fluoride on heating. This gas is highly injurious to livestock and
cattle.

3.3.1.5 Control measures

The atmosphere has several built-in self cleaning processes such as dispersion, gravitational
settling, flocculation, absorption, rain-washout, etc to cleanse the atmosphere. However,
control of contaminants at their source level is a desirable and effective method through
preventive or control technologies.
1. Source control: Some measures that can be adopted in this direction are

1. Using unleaded petrol

2. Using fuels with low sulphur and ash content

3. Encouraging people to use public transport, walk or use a cycle as opposed to

private vehicles

4. Ensure that houses, schools, restaurants and playgrounds are not located on busy
streets

5. Plant trees along busy streets as they remove particulates, carbon dioxide and absorb
noise

6. Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outsdide the city preferably on
the downwind of the city.

7. Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbon monoxide

and hydrocarbons

2. Control measures in industrial centers:

1. Emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by each and every industry

2. Incorporation of air pollution control equipment in design of plant layout must be

made mandatory

3. Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere for pollutants should be carried out to

know the emission levels.

3.3.1.6 Equipment used to control air pollution

Air pollution can be reduced by adopting the following approaches.

1. Ensuring sufficient supply of oxygen to the combustion chamber and adequate

temperature so that the combustion is complete thereby eliminating much of the smoke
consisting of partly burnt ashes and dust.

2. To use mechanical devices such as scrubbers, cyclones, bag houses and electro-static
precipitators in manufacturing processes. The equipment used to remove particulates from
the exhaust gases of electric power and industrial plants are shown below. All methods retain
hazardous materials that must be disposed safely. Wet scrubber can additionally reduce
sulphur dioxide emissions.

3. The air pollutants collected must be carefully disposed. The factory fumes are dealt
with chemical treatment.
3.3.2 WATER POLLUTION

3.3.2.1 Introduction: Water pollution may be defined as “the alteration in physical,

chemical and biological characteristics of water which may cause harmful effects on humans
and aquatic life.”

3.3.2.2 Sources of water pollution

1. Point sources: These are pollutants that are discharged at specific locations through
pipes, ditches or sewers into bodies of surface waters.

Ex: Factories, sewage treatment plants, abandoned underground mines and oil tankers.

2. Non point sources: These pollutants cannot be traced to a single point of discharge.
They are large land areas or air-sheds that pollute water by runoff, subsurface flow or
deposition from the atmosphere.

Ex: Acid deposition, runoff of chemicals into surface water from croplands, livestock
feedlots, logged forests, urban streets, lawns, golf courses and parking lots.

3.3.2.3 Types, effects and sources of water pollution

Water pollution is any chemical, biological or physical change in water quality that has a
harmful effect on living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses.

3.3.2.4 Control measures of water pollution

1. Administration of water pollution control should be in the hands of state or central

government

2. Scientific techniques should be adopted for environmental control of catchment areas of

rivers, ponds or streams

3. Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations as it helps prevent disposal of

wastes into natural waters but also extraction of products from waste.
4. Plants, trees and forests control pollution as they act as natural air conditioners.

5. Trees are capable of reducing sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide pollutants and hence more
trees should be planted.

6. No type of waste (treated, partially treated or untreated) should be discharged into any
natural water body. Industries should develop closed loop water supply schemes and domestic
sewage must be used for irrigation.

7. Qualified and experienced people must be consulted from time to time for effective control
of water pollution.
8. Public awareness must be initiated regarding adverse effects of water pollution using the
media.

9. Laws, standards and practices should be established to prevent water pollution and these
laws should be modified from time to time based on current requirements
and technological advancements.

10.Basic and applied research in public health engineering should be encouraged.

3.3.3 THERMAL POLLUTION

3.3.3.1 Introduction

Thermal pollution is defined as the addition of excess of undesirable heat to water thereby
making it harmful to man, animal or aquatic life. Thermal pollution may also cause no significant
departures from or activities of aquatic communities.

3.3.3.2 Sources of Thermal Pollution

The following sources contribute to thermal pollution.

1. Nuclear power plants: Nuclear power plants including drainage from hospitals, research
institutions, nuclear experiments and explosions,

discharge a lot of heat that is not utilized along with traces of toxic radio nuclides into nearby
water streams. Emissions from nuclear reactors and processing installations are also responsible
for increasing the temperatures of water bodies. The operations of power reactors and nuclear fuel
processing units constitute the major contributor of heat in the aquatic environment. Heated
effluents from power plants are discharged at 10 C higher than the receiving waters that affect the
aquatic flora and fauna.

2. Coal-fired power plants: Coal fired power plants constitute a major source of thermal
pollution. The condenser coils in such plants are cooled with water from nearby lakes or rivers.
The resulting heated water is discharged into streams thereby raising the water temperature by
15C. Heated effluent decreases the dissolved content of water resulting in death of fish and other
aquatic organisms. The sudden fluctuation of temperature also leads to "thermal shock" killing
aquatic life that has become acclimatized to living in a steady temperature.

3. Industrial effluents: Industries like textile, paper, pulp and sugar manufacturing release
huge amounts of cooling water along with effluents into nearby natural water bodies. The waters
polluted by sudden and heavy organic loads result in severe drop in levels of dissolved oxygen
leading to death of several aquatic organisms.

4. Domestic Sewage: Domestic sewage is discharged into rivers, lakes, canals or streams
with minimal treatment or without any treatment. These wastes have a higher organic temperature
and organic load. This leads to decrease in dissolved oxygen content in the receiving waters
resulting in the set-up of anaerobic conditions causing release of foul and offensive gases in
water. Eventually, this leads to development of anoxic conditions resulting in rapid death of
aquatic organisms.

5. Hydro-electric power: Generation of hydroelectric power sometimes leads to negative

thermal loading in water systems. Apart from electric power industries, various factories with
cooling requirement contribute to thermal loading.

3.3.3.3 Thermal pollution in streams by human activities

Industries and power plants use water to cool machinery and discharge the warm water into
a stream

Stream temperature rises when trees and tall vegetation providing shade are cut.

Soil erosion caused due to construction also leads to thermal pollution

Removal of stream side vegetation

Poor farming Practices also lead to thermal pollution

3.3.3.4 Effects of Thermal pollution

1. Reduction in dissolved oxygen: Concentration of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) decreases with

increase in temperature.

2. Increase in toxicity: The rising temperature increases the toxicity of the poison present in
water. A 10C increase in temperature of water doubles the toxicity effect of potassium cyanide,
while 80C rise in temperature triples the toxic effects of o-xylene causing massive mortality to
fish.

3. Interference in biological activity: Temperature is considered to be of vital significance to

physiology, metabolism and biochemical processes that control respiratory rates, digestion,
excretion, and overall development of aquatic organisms. Temperature changes cause total
disruption to the entire ecosystem.

4. Interference in reproduction: In fishes, several activities like nest building, spawning,

hatching, migration and reproduction depend on optimum temperature.
5. Direct mortality: Thermal pollution is directly responsible for mortality of aquatic
organisms. Increase in temperature of water leads to exhaustion of microorganisms thereby
shortening the life span of fish. Above a certain temperature, fish die due to failure of respiratory
system and nervous system failure.

6. Food storage for fish: Abrupt changes in temperature alter the seasonal variation in the
type and abundance of lower organisms leading to shortage of right food for fish at the right time.
3.3.3.5 Control measures for thermal pollution

The following methods can be adapted to control high temperature caused by thermal discharges:

1. Cooling towers: Use of water from water systems for cooling systems for cooling
purposes, with subsequent return to the water way after passage through a condenser, is called
cooling process. Cooling towers transfer heat from hot water to the atmosphere by evaporation.
Cooling towers are of two types:

(i) Wet cooling tower: Hot water coming out from the condenser (reactor) is allowed to
spray over baffles. Cool air, with high velocity, is passed from
sides, which takes away the heat and cools the water.

(ii) Dry cooling tower: Here, hot water is allowed to flow in long spiral pipes. Cool air with
the help of a fan is passed over these hot pipes, which cools down hot water. This cool water can
be recycled.

2. Cooling ponds: Cooling ponds are the best way to cool thermal discharges. Heated
effluents on the surface of the water in cooling ponds maximize dissipation of heat to the
atmosphere and minimize the water area and volume. The warm water wedge acts like a cooling
pond.

3. Spray ponds: The water coming out from condensers is allowed to pass into the ponds
through sprayers. Here water is sprayed through nozzles as fine droplets. Heat from the fine
droplets gets dissipated to the atmosphere.

4. Artificial lakes: Artificial lakes are manmade water bodies that offer once-through
cooling. The heated effluents can be discharged into the lake at one end and water for cooling
purposes may be withdrawn from the other end. The heat is eventually dissipated through
evaporation

3.3.4 SOIL POLLUTION

3.3.4.1 Introduction

Soil pollution is defined as, “contamination of soil by human and natural activities which may
cause harmful effect on living organisms”.

1. Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm practices. Ex:
Planting trees on barren slopes

2. Contour cultivation and strip cropping may be practiced instead of shifting

cultivation

3. Terracing and building diversion channels may be undertaken.

4. Reducing deforestation and substituting chemical manures by animal wastes also
helps arrest soil erosion in the long term.

5. Proper dumping of unwanted materials: Excess wastes by man and animals pose a
disposal problem. Open dumping is the most commonly practiced technique. Nowadays,
controlled tipping is followed for solid waste disposal. The surface so obtained is used for
housing or sports field.

6. Production of natural fertilizers: Bio-pesticides should be used in place of toxic

chemical pesticides. Organic fertilizers should be used in place of synthesized chemical
fertilizers. Ex: Organic wastes in animal dung may be
used to prepare compost manure instead of throwing them wastefully and polluting the soil.

7. Proper hygienic condition: People should be trained regarding sanitary habits.

Ex: Lavatories should be equipped with quick and effective disposal methods.

8. Public awareness: Informal and formal public awareness programs should be

imparted to educate people on health hazards by environmental education.

Ex: Mass media, Educational institutions and voluntary agencies can achieve this.

9. Recycling and Reuse of wastes: To minimize soil pollution, the wastes such as
paper, plastics, metals, glasses, organics, petroleum products and industrial effluents etc
should be recycled and reused.

Ex: Industrial wastes should be properly treated at source. Integrated waste treatment
methods should be adopted.

10. Ban on Toxic chemicals: Ban should be imposed on chemicals and pesticides like
DDT, BHC, etc which are fatal to plants and animals. Nuclear explosions and improper
disposal of radioactive wastes should be banned.

3.3.5 NOISE POLLUTION

3.3.5.1 Introduction

Noise is defined as, "the unwanted, unpleasant or disagreeable sound that causes discomfort
to all living beings". Sound intensity is measured in decibels (dB) , that is the tenth part of the
longest unit Bel. One dB is the faintest sound that a human ear can hear.

3.3.5.2 Types of noise: Environmental noise has been doubling every ten years. Noise is
classified as:

1. Industrial Noise

2. Transport Noise
3. Domestic Noise

Industrial Noise:

It is sound with a high intensity sound caused by industry machines. Sources of such noise
pollution are caused by machines from machines in various factories, industries and mills.
Noise from mechanical saws and pneumatic drills is unbearable and a nuisance to the public.
The Indian Institute of Oto -Rino Laryngology, Chennai reported that increasing industrial
pollution damages the hearing ability by at least 20%. Workers in steel industry, who work
close to heavy industrial blower, are exposed to 112dB for eight hours suffer from
occupational pollution.

Transport Noise:

Transport noise mainly consists of traffic noise from road, rail and aircraft. The number of
automobiles on roads like motors, scooters, cars, motor cycles, buses, trucks and diesel
engine vehicles has increased enormously in the recent past further aggravating the problem
of transport noise. Noise levels in most residential areas in metropolitan cities are hovering
around the border line due to increased vehicular noise pollution. This high level of noise
pollution leads to deafening in the elderly.

Domestic noise:

This type of noise includes disturbance from household gadgets and community. Common
sources of noise are musical instruments, TV, VCR, Radios, Transistors, Telephones, and
loudspeakers etc. Statistically ever since the industrial revolution, noise in the environment
has been doubled every ten years.

3.3.5.3 Effects of Noise pollution

Noise pollution affects both human and animal health. It leads to: o contraction of
blood vessels
o making skin pale

o Excessive adrenalin in the blood stream which is responsible for high blood pressure.

o Blaring sounds are known to cause mental distress

o Heart attacks, neurological problems, birth defects and abortion

Muscle contraction leading to nervous breakdown, tension, etc

The adverse reactions are coupled with a change in hormone content of blood, which
in-turn increases heart beat, constriction of blood vessels, digestive spams and dilation of the
pupil of the eye.
 Adverse affects health, work efficiency and behavior. Noise pollution may cause
damage to the heart, brain, kidneys, liver and may produce emotional disturbance.

The most immediate and acute effect of noise is impairment of hearing that
diminishes some part of the auditory system. Prolonged exposure to noise of certain
frequency pattern leads to chronic damage to the inner ear.

Impulsive noise may cause psychological and pathological disorders

Ultrasonic sound can affect the digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular system and
semicircular canals of the internal ear.

The brain is adversely affected by loud and sudden noise by jets and airplanes.
People are subjected to psychiatric illness.
Recent reports suggest that blood is thickened by excessive noise.

The optical system of human beings is also affected by noise pollution. Severe noise
pollution causes:
Popularly dilation
Impairment of night vision and Decrease in rate of color perception
3.3.5.4 Control measures:

1. SOURCE CONTROL: This includes source modification such as acoustic treatment

to machine surface, design changes, limiting operational timings, etc

2. TRANSMISSION PATH INTERVENTION: This includes containing the source

inside a sound insulating enclosure, constructing a noise barrier or provision of sound
absorbing materials along the path.

3. RECEPTOR CONTROL: This includes protection of the receiver by altering the

work schedule or provision of personal protection devices such as ear plugs for operating
noisy machinery. The measure may include dissipation and deflection methods.

4. OILING: Proper oiling will reduce noise from the machine.

3.3.5.5 Preventive measures

1. Prescribing noise limits for vehicular traffic

2. Ban on honking (usage of horns) in certain areas

3. Creation of silence zones near schools and hospitals

4. Redesigning buildings to make them noise proof

5. Reduction of traffic density in residential areas

6. Giving preference to mass public transport system.

3.3.6 MARINE POLLUTION

3.3.6.1 Introduction

The discharge of waste substances in to the sea resulting in harm to the living resources,
hazards to the human health hindrances to the fishery and impairment of quality use of sea
water.

3.3.6.2 Sources

1. Dumping the wastes: Dumping of untreated wastes and sewages in the oceans by
coastal towns, cities and industries. Rivers on the way to sea carry huge amount of sewage
garbage agricultural discharge pesticide heavy metals. Huge quantity of plastic dumped in to
the sea.
2. Oil: This is discharged in to the sea as crude oil and as separate fraction. Oil and it’s
fractions are used in houses automobiles and industries. This causes devastation of marine
environment
3. Radioactive materials enter the ocean from nuclear weapon testing.

4. Toxics: Toxic waste is the most harmful form of marine pollution. Once toxic wastes
affects an organism it quickly passes along the food chain and as sea food which cause
various problems.

5. Marine Debris: Garbage like plastic bags, ropes helium balloons

3.3.6.3 Effects of marine pollution

1. Heavy metals and organic pollutants damages birds by thinning of egg shells and
tissue damage of egg.

2. Oil pollution causes damage to marine animals and plants including algae bird, fish
etc.

3. Oil spilling in the sea causes abnormal low body temperature in birds resulting in
hypothermia. During Exxon Valdez accident 150 rare species of bald eagles are affected by
ingested oil.

4. Oil films are able to retard the rate of oxygen uptake by water.

5. Hydrocarbon and benzpyrene accumulate in food chain and consumption of fish by

man may cause cancer.

6. Many marine birds ingest plastic that causes gastrointestinal disorders.

7. Oil spills inhibit photosynthesis and the growth of planktons. All aquatic animals
depend either directly of indirectly on planktons the basis of tropic
chain.

3.3.6.4 Control of marine pollution

Nature and world conservation union suggest the principles

1. The industrial unit on the coastal lines should be equipped with pollution control
instrument.

2. Urban growth near the coast should be regulated.

Methods of removal of oil

1. Physical methods.
 skimming the oil off the surface with suction device

Floating oil can be absorbed using absorbing materials like ploy urethane foam.
Chopped straw and saw dust also used to absorbed oil from the sea water.

2. Chemical methods like dispersion , emulsification and using chemical additives are
used to coagulated the oil

3.3.6.5 Protective method

1. Municipal and industrial waste should be treated before disposing in to sea

2. Coastal waste are periodically analyzed for detecting pollution level

3. Soil erosion in the coastal land should be arrested be suitable techniques

4. Recreation beaches should be maintained to meet hygienic and aesthetic standard.

3.3.7 Nuclear Pollution

Nuclear pollution is the physical pollution of air, water and soil by radioactive materials.

3.3.7.1 Sources of Nuclear Pollution

The sources of radioactivity include both natural and manmade.

3.3.7.2 Effects of Nuclear Pollution

Studies have shown that the health effect

ts due to radiation are dependent on the level of dose, kind of radiation, duration of exposure
and types of cells irradiated. Radiation effects can be somatic or genetic.

1. Somatic effects: Somatic affects the function of cells and organs. It causes damages
to cell membranes, mitochondria and cell nuclei resulting in abnormal cell functions, cell
division, growth and death.

2. Genetic effects: Genetic effects the future generations. Radiations can cause
mutations, which are changes in genetic makeup of cells. These effects are mainly due to the
damages to DNA molecules. People suffer from blood cancer and bone cancer if exposed to
doses around 100 to 1000 roentgens.

3.3.7.3 Management of Radioactive Waste

The radioactive waste which comes out from industry, nuclear reactors should be
stored and allowed to decay either naturally in closed drums or in very large underground air
tight cemented tanks (Delay and Decay).

The intermediate radioactive waste should be disposed off into the environment after
diluting it with some inert materials (Dilute and Disperse)

Now-a-days small quantities of high activity wastes are converted into solids such as
concrete and then it is buried underground or sea. (Concentrate and contain)

3.3.7.4 Control Measures

Laboratory generated nuclear wastes should be disposed off safely and scientifically.

Nuclear power plants should be located in areas after careful study of the geology of
the area, tectonic activity and meeting other established conditions.
Appropriate protection against occupational exposure.

Leakage of radioactive elements from nuclear reactors, careless use of radioactive

elements as fuel and careless handling of radioactive isotopes must be prevented.

Safety measure against accidental release of radioactive elements must be ensured in

nuclear plants.
 Unless absolutely necessary, one should not frequently go for diagnosis by x-rays.

Regular monitoring of the presence of radioactive substance in high risk area should
be ensured.

Among the many options for waste disposal, the scientists prefer to bury the waste in
hundreds of meters deep in the earth’s crust is considered to be the best safety long term
option.

3.3.8 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

3.3.8.1 Introduction

Rapid population growth and urbanization in developing countries has led to people
generating enormous quantities of solid waste and consequent environmental degradation.
The waste is normally disposed in open dumps creating nuisance and environmental
degradation. Solid wastes cause a major risk to public health and the environment.
Management of solid wastes is important in order to minimize the adverse effects posed by
their indiscriminate disposal.

3.3.8.2 Types of solid wastes

Depending on the nature of origin, solid wastes are classified into

1. Urban or municipal wastes

2. Industrial wastes

3. Hazardous wastes

Sources of urban wastes: Domestic wastes containing a variety of materials thrown

out from homes.

Ex: Food waste, Cloth, Waste paper, Glass bottles, Polythene bags, Waste metals, etc.

Commercial wastes: It includes wastes coming out from shops, markets, hotels,
offices, institutions, etc.

Ex: Waste paper, packaging material, cans, bottle, polythene bags, etc.
3.3.8.3 CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN
WASTES urban wastes are classified into:

Bio-degradable wastes - Those wastes that can be degraded by micro organisms are called
bio-degradable wastes

Ex: Food, vegetables, tea leaves, dry leaves, etc.

Non-biodegradable wastes: Urban solid waste materials that cannot be degraded by micro
organisms are called non-biodegradable wastes.

Ex: Polythene bags, scrap materials, glass bottles, etc.

3.3.8.4 SOURCES OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES

The main source of industrial wastes is chemical industries, metal and mineral
processing industries.

Ex: Nuclear plants: It generated radioactive wastes

Thermal power plants: It produces fly ash in large quantities

Chemical Industries: It produces large quantities of hazardous and toxic materials.

Other industries: Other industries produce packing materials, rubbish, organic wastes,
acid, alkali, scrap metals, rubber, plastic, paper, glass, wood, oils, paints, dyes, etc.

3.3.8.5 EFFECT OF IMPROPER SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

1. Due to improper disposal of municipal solid waste on the roads and immediate
surroundings, biodegradable materials undergo decomposition producing foul smell and become a
breeding ground for disease vectors

2. Industrial solid wastes are the source for toxic metals and hazardous wastes that affect
soil characteristics and productivity of soils when they are dumped on the soil

3. Toxic substances may percolate into the ground and contaminate the groundwater.

4. Burning of industrial or domestic wastes (cans, pesticides, plastics, radioactive materials

and batteries) produce furans, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls that are harmful to human
beings.

5. Solid waste management involves waste generation, mode of collection, transportation,

segregation of wastes and disposal techniques.
3.3.8.6 STEPS INVOLVED IN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Two important steps involved in solid waste management are- Reduce, Reuse and Recycle of
Raw Materials

1. Discarding wastes

Reduce - If usage of raw materials is reduced, the generation of waste also gets reduced.

Reuse - Refillable containers that are discarded after use can be

reused. Rubber rings can be made from discarded cycle tubes and this reduces waste generation
during manufacture of rubber bands.

2. Recycle- Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded materials into new useful products

Ex: Old aluminum cans and glass bottles are melted and recast into new cans and bottles,
preparation of cellulose insulation from paper, Preparation
of automobile body and construction material from steel cans This method (Reduce, Reuse &
Recycle), i.e, 3R's help save money, energy, raw materials and reduces pollution.

3.3.8.7 Discarding wastes

The following methods are adopted for discarding wastes:

1. Landfill

2. Incineration and

3. Composting

1. LANDFILL: Solid wastes are placed in a sanitary landfill in which alternate layers of
80 cm thick refuse is covered with selected earth-fill of 20 cm thickness. After 2-3 years solid
waste volume shrinks by 25-30% and land is used for parks, roads and small buildings.

This is the most common and cheapest method of waste disposal and is mostly employed in
Indian cities.

Advantages:

1. It is simple and economical

2. Segregation of wastes is not required

3. Land filled areas can be reclaimed and used for other purposes
4. Converts low-lying, marshy waste-land into useful areas.

5. Natural resources are returned to soil and recycled.

Disadvantages:

1. Large area is required

2. Land availability is away from the town, transportation costs are high

3. Leads to bad odor, if landfill is not properly managed.

4. Land filled areas will be sources of mosquitoes and flies requiring application of
insecticides and pesticides at regular intervals.

5. Causes fire hazard due to formation of methane in wet weather.

2. INCINERATION:

It is a hygienic way of disposing solid waste. It is suitable if waste contains more hazardous
material and organic content. It is a thermal process and very effective for detoxification of all
combustible pathogens. It is expensive when compared to composting or land-filling.

In this method municipal solid wastes are burnt in a furnace called incinerator. Combustible
substances such as rubbish, garbage, dead organisms and non-combustible matter such as glass,
porcelain and metals are separated before feeding to incinerators.
The non-combustible materials can be left out for recycling and reuse. The leftover ashes
and clinkers may account for about 10 to 20% which need further disposal by sanitary landfill or
some other means.

The heat produced in the incinerator during burning of refuse is used in the form of steam
power for generation of electricity through turbines.

Municipal solid waste is generally wet and has a high calorific value. Therefore, it has to be
dried first before burning. Waste is dried in a preheated from where it is taken to a large
incinerating furnace called "destructor" which can incinerate about 100 to 150 tons per hour.

Temperature normally maintained in a combustion chamber is about 700 C which may be

increased to 1000 C when electricity is to be generated.
ADVANTAGES:

1. Residue is only 20-25% of the original and can be used as clinker after treatment

2. Requires very little space

3. Cost of transportation is not high if the incinerator is located within city limits

4. Safest from hygienic point of view

5. An incinerator plant of 3000 tons per day capacity can generate 3MW of power.

DISADVANTAGES:

1. Its capital and operating cost is high.

2. Operation needs skilled personnel.

3. Formation of smoke, dust and ashes needs further disposal and that may cause air
pollution.

3. COMPOSTING: It is another popular method practiced in many cities in our country. In

this method, bulk organic waste is converted into fertilizer by biological action. Separated
compostable waste is dumped in underground trenches in layers of 1.5m and finally covered with
earth of 20cm and left for decomposition. Sometimes, Actionmycetes are introduced for active
decomposition. Within 2 to 3 days, biological action starts. Organic matter is destroyed by
actinomycetes and lot of heat is liberated increasing the temperature of compost by 75C and the
refuse is finally converted into powdery brown colored odorless mass called humus that has a
fertilizing value and can be used in agriculture. Humus contains lot of Nitrogen essential for plant
growth apart from phosphates and other minerals.

ADVANTAGES:

1. Manure added to soil increases water retention and ion-exchange capacity of soil.

2. This method can be used to treat several industrial solid wastes.

3. Manure can be sold thereby reducing cost of disposing wastes

4. Recycling can be done

DISADVANTAGES:

1. Non-consumables have to be disposed separately

2. The technology has not caught-up with the farmers and hence does not have an
assured market.
Unit 6: Social Issues and the Environment: From Unsustainable to Sustainable
development. Urban problems related to energy. Water conservation, rain water
harvesting, watershed management. Environmental ethics: Issues and possible
solutions, climate change, global warming, acid rain, ozone layer depletion, nuclear
accidents and holocaust. Wasteland reclamation. Consumerism and waste products.
Environment Protection Act. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act. Water
(Prevention and control of Pollution) Act. Wildlife Protection Act. Forest
Conservation Act. Issues involved in enforcement of environmental legislation. Public
awareness.

SOCIAL ISSUES AND ENVIRONMENT

Introduction:

From Unsustainable to Sustainable Development

Man is part of the nature and he is bound to obey the laws of nature. He depends on his
environment for basic things. More developmental activities are adopted in order to
increase the quality of life. For that he uses the available resources. The Earth has limited
supply of resources and renewable resources. These are to be managed in a scientific
manner for availing the generations to come. Hence developmental activities are to be
taken with more care about the environment and its protection. It brings benefits to all not
only to the present generation but also for future generations.

Sustainable development: Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generation to meet their own needs.

Important components of Sustainable development:

1. Economic development

2. Community development

3. Environmental protection
True sustainable development aims at optimum use of natural resources with high
degree of reusability, minimum wastage, least generation of toxic by-products and
maximum productivity. Aspects of sustainable development:

Inter generational equity-It states stat we should hand over a safe, healthy and
resourceful environment to future generation.

Intra generational equity:

A technological development of rich countries should support the economic growth of

poor countries and help in narrowing the wealth gap and lead to sustainability.

Approaches for sustainable development:

1. Devloping appropriate technology-technology which is locally adoptable,

ecofriendly, resource efficient and culturally suitable should be adopted. It uses local
labour, less resources and produces minimum waste.

2. Reduce ,Reuse and Recycle (3Rapproach) –Optimum use of natural resources

using it again and again instead of throwing it on wasteland or water and recycling the
material in to further products. It reduces waste generation and pollution.

3. Providing environmental education and awareness-Thinking and attitude of

people towards earth and environment should be changed by providing environmental
awareness and education.

4. Consumption of renewable resources- It is very important to consume the natural

resources in such a way that the consumption should not exceed the regeneration
capacity.
5. Non-renewable resources should be conserved by recycling and reusing.

6. By population control we can make sustainable development.

Urban problems related to energy:

Urbanization –Movement of human population from rural; areas to urban areas for
want of better education, communication, health, employment etc.

Causes:

Cities are the main centers of economic growth, trade transportation, medical
facilities and employment.

Urban sprawl:

The phenomenon of spreading of the cities in to sub-urban or rural areas is called urban
sprawl. Urban growth is so fast and is difficult to accommodate all commercial industrial
residential and educational facilities within the limited area.

Energy demanding activities:

Urban people consume lot of energy and materials in comparison with rural people.
This is because urban people have high standard of life and their life style demand
more energy.

Examples for energy demands:

1. Residential and commercial lightings.

2. Industries using large proportion of energy.

3. Usage of fans fridge, A.C, washing machines.

Control and prevention of pollution technologies need

more energy.

Solution for urban energy problems:

1. Energy consumption must be minimized in all aspects.

2. Public transportation should be used instead of motor cycles and cars.

3. Using of solar energy and wind energy.

4. Production capacity must be increased.

WATER CONSERVATION

The original source of water is precipitation from the atmosphere. The water available on
the earth may occur in all three stages as gas, liquid or solid. Temperature is the main
factor in deciding the state of water. As a liquid, the water forms hydrosphere. About
75% of the Earth’s surface is covered by the hydrosphere.

The process of saving water for future utilization is called conservation of water.

Need for water conservation.

1. Better life style requires more fresh water.

2. Agriculture and Industrial activities require more fresh water.

3. As the population increases the requirement of water is also more .

Strategies of water conservation

Reducing evaporation losses

Evaporation of water in humid regions can be reduced by placing

horizontal Barriers of asphalt below the soil surface.

Reducing irrigation losses

Sprinkling and irrigation conserves water by 30- 40%. Irrigation in early morning (or)
later evening reduces evaporation losses. Growing hybrid crop varieties also conserve
water.
Reuse of water

Treated waste water can be reused for irrigation. Water from washings, bath rooms etc.

can be used for washing cars, gardening.

Preventing of wastage of water

Closing the taps when not in use and repairing any leakage from pipes.

Decreasing run off losses

Run off , on most of the soils can be reduced by using contour cultivation
(or) Terrace farming.

Avoid discharge of sewage

Disposal into natural water resources should be avoided

Methods of water conservation

Rain water Harvesting and Watershed management

It means capturing rain where it falls or capturing the run off in your own village or
town. And taking measures to keep that water clean by not allowing polluting activities
to take place in the catchment.

Therefore, water harvesting can be undertaken through a variety of

ways Capturing runoff from rooftops

Capturing runoff from local catchments

Capturing seasonal floodwaters from local streams

Conserving water through watershed management

These techniques can serve the following the following purposes:

Provide drinking water

Provide irrigation water

Increase groundwater recharge

Reduce stormwater discharges, urban floods and overloading of sewage treatment plants

In general, water harvesting is the activity of direct collection of rainwater. The

rainwater collected can be stored for direct use or can be recharged into the
groundwater. Rain is the first form of water that we know in the hydrological cycle,
hence is a primary source of water for us. Rivers, lakes and groundwater are all
secondary sources of water. In present times, we depend entirely on such secondary
sources of water. In the process, it is forgotten that rain is the ultimate source that feeds
all these secondary sources and remain ignorant of its value. Water harvesting means to
understand the value of rain, and to make optimum use of the rainwater at the place
where it falls.

Rainwater harvesting. It is a technique of collecting and storing rain water for use in
non-monsoon periods. In the present age, concrete houses, well-built roads, footpaths
and well –concreted courtyards have left few open grounds. With the decrease in natural
forest cover, increase in concrete jungles and the decrease in exposed earth; very little
open ground is left for water to soak in and thereby increase the ground water table. So,
artificial recharging of the ground water is extremely essential. It is done through rain
water harvesting. For the purpose, rain water is collected at the roof top or in an open
well and then carried down for immediate use or it is directed into the aquifer.
Rain water harvesting techniques

There are two main techniques for rain water harvesting:

1. Storage of rain water on the surface for future use

2. Recharge of ground water

Recharge of ground water is a recent concept and the structures used for the purpose are:

Pits

Trenches

Dug wells

Hand pumps

Recharge shaft

Lateral shafts with bore wells

Spreading technique

Objectives of rain water harvesting.

1. To raise the water table by recharging the ground water.

2. To minimize water crises and water conflicts

3. To reduce rain water run off and soil erosion.

4. To reduce the ground water contamination from intrusion of saline water

Concept of rain water harvesting

Rain water harvesting involves collecting water that falls on roof of house
during Rain and conveying water through PVC or Al pipe to a near by
covered storage tank.
Method of rain water harvesting

1. Roof top method: collecting rain water from roof of the building and storing in
the ground. It is the low cost and effective technique for urban houses and buildings.

2. The rain water from roofs, road surfaces, play grounds is diverted into the
surface tank or recharge pits. The pit base is filled with stones and sand which
serves as a

Advantages:

Rise in ground water level and minimizing the soil erosion and flood Hazards. Scarcity
of water is reduced.

Rainwater harvesting systems channel rainwater that falls on to a roof into storage via a
system of gutters and pipes. The first flush of rainwater after a dry season should be
allowed to run to waste as it will be contaminated with dust, bird droppings etc. Roof
gutters should have sufficient incline to avoid standing water. They must be strong
enough, and large enough to carry peak flows. Storage tanks should be covered to prevent
mosquito breeding and to reduce evaporation losses, contamination and algal growth.
Rainwater harvesting systems require regular maintenance and cleaning to keep the
system hygienic.
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Water shed (or) drainage basin: It is defined as land area from which water drains
under the influence of gravity into stream, lake, reservoir (or) other body of surface
water. Watershed management of rain fall and resultant run off is called watershed
management.

Factors affecting watershed :

1.Overgrazing . deforestation , mining , construction activities affect and degrade

watershed.

2. Droughty climate also affects the water shed.

Need or objectives of watershed management

1. To raise the ground water level.

2. To protect the soil from erosion by run off.

3. To minimize the risks of floods, drought and landslides.

4. To generate huge employment opportunities in backward rain fed

areas to ensure security for livelihood.

Watershed management techniques

Trenches (pits) were dug at equal intervals to improve ground water

storage. Earthern dam or stone embankment must be constructed to
check run off water.

Farm pond can be built to improve water storage capacity of the catchment’s area.

Maintenance of watershed

Water harvesting: Proper storage of water in water shed can be used

in dry season In low rainfall areas.
Afforestation and agro-forestry help to prevent soil erosion and
retention of moisture in watershed areas

Reducing soil erosion: Terracing, contour cropping minimize soil erosion and run off
on the slopes of water sheds

Scientific mining and quarrying minimize the destructive effect of mining in

water shed areas Public participation is essential for water shed management.
People should be motivated for maintaining water harvesting structures
implemented by the government.

RESETTLEMENT & REHABILITATION

Based on the resettlement schemes proposed by each affected village and present
policies, laws and regulations of different levels of governments and the resettlement
requirements of ADB, the Resettlement Plan of Lauding Expressway Project was
prepared by PPTA consulting team and the staff from NPAEC under GPCD assisted by
design institute and Local County and township governmen

Target and Task

The overall objective of resettlement and rehabilitation is to ensure that the affected
production base will be restored, the affected labor force will be re-employed, and
income and livelihood of affected people will be improved or at least restored to their
previous levels before resettlement.
At present, the rural population of project impact area is mainly engaged in agricultural
actives, with most of their income coming from planting, economic trees, and animal
husbandry. According to the actual production and living standard among affected
villages, and the approved economic and social development plans for the relevant
counties, the target of

Resettlement and rehabilitation is set as follows:

(1) The resettle’s grain production level will be self-sufficient after resettlement.

(2) The income per capita shall be recovered to the standard before resettlement.

(3) The affected public infrastructures, school, hospitals, social

Welfare level, natural environment and traffic condition etc. shall be

improved after resettlement.

Resettlement Task

In 2005, there were 2,829 households with 13,149 persons to be resettled or

rehabilitated, in which 520 households and 2,352 persons will need house
relocation.

The basic resettlement policy of Lauding Expressway Project is to respect the wishes of
affected People and maintain their current production and living traditions. Based on
consultation of local affected peoples, the economic rehabilitation will be based on
developing replaced farming Resources within their own townships and villages. Planting
will be the focus of economic Rehabilitation strategy by developing new farmland and
improving the remaining farmland in the affected villages, and supplemented by
developing various other income generation opportunities in the project areas. In other
words, the resettlement and rehabilitation strategy will first to reestablish the physical
production bases for the affected persons, which will provide a long-term development
potential by fully utilizing local land resources.

Resettlement Principle

Under such policy, a number of resettlement and rehabilitation principles have

been developed for the Project.
(1) The resettlement plan will be based on detailed inventory for land acquisition
and houses Demolition, and adopted compensation standards and subsidies.

(2) The resettlement shall be combined with the local development, resource
utilization and Economic growth as well as environment protection. Considering the local
conditions, a Practical and feasible resettlement plan should be developed to restore or
improve their Economic production and create basic conditions for long-term
development.

Overall Scheme of Resettlement

Since the construction of Lauding Expressway Project will only acquire limited land
acquisition and demolition along the road alignment line, it will not have significant
negative impacts on production and livelihood for most affected villages. A series of
consultation meetings were held among affected villages and townships. According to
the resettle’s opinion and suggestion, and combined with the actual condition of
affected area, the basic rehabilitation scheme was determined as follows:

(1) Project affected persons will be resettled within their original villages and village
groups, so

that their way of production, living and social relationship can be maintained, which will
be beneficial for them to restore or improve their production and income level after
resettlement.

(2) In order to reduce the impacts on the production and livelihood among
resettle’s, the demolished houses will be dismantled after the new houses built. The
reconstruction of houses will adopt two approaches. For most relocated households,
they will choose to rebuild their houses by themselves, and all salvage materials will
belong to them. The second approach is for those who live near towns, their
rehabilitation will be carried out by local government in order to promote small town
development and save farmland.

(3) The rural relocated households will be resettled in their original villages. For
those who lose

Some farmland, the land-based rehabilitation will be adopted with a combination of

developing new farmland, redistributing remaining farmland and receiving their share
of resettlement subsidy among affected village groups.
Environmental Ethics

It refers to issues, principles and guidelines related to human interactions with their
Environment. (OR)

Ethics is a branch of philosophy. It deals with morals and values. An ethic is a

principle or value that we use to decide whether an action is good or bad.

Ethics differs from country to country.

Functions of Environment:

1. It moderates climate conditions of the soil.

2 A healthy economy depends on healthy environment. 3It is the life supporting

medium for all organisms.

3. It provides food , air , water and other important natural resources to the
human beings Environmental problems : Deforestation activities , population
growth and urbanization water Pollution due to effluents and smoke from
industries, Scarcity.

Solution to environmental problems:

Reduce the waste matter and energy resources.

Recycle and reuse as many of our waste product And resources

as possible. Avoid over exploitation of natural resources.

Minimse soil degradation and Protect the biodiversity of the earth. Reduce population
and increase the economic growth our country.

Ethical guidelines on environmental protection:

1. The earth is the habitat of all living species and not of human beings alone.

2. Natural resources and energies are depleting fast. We must protect them.
3. Involve yourself in the care of the earth and experience nature.

4. Respect nature, you are a part of it.

5. Think of the global cause and act for local protection

6. Keep yourself informed about ecological changes and developments.

7. Observe austerity, reserve scarce resources for the future and the future
generations.

8. We must be cooperative, honest, affectionate and polite to society and nature.

CLIMATE:

It is the average weather of an area. It is the general weather condition, seasonal

variations of the region. The average of such conditions for a long period is called
climate.

Causes of climate changes:

1. Presence of green house gases in the atmosphere

Increases the global temperature.

2. Depletion of ozone layer increases the global temperature.

Effects of climate change:

1. Small climate changes disturb agriculture which leads To

migration of animals and human.

2. Climate change may upset hydrological cycle which results in

floods and droughts in different parts of the world.

3. Global pattern of winds and oceans currents also gets disturbed by climate change.

Green house effect: Green house gases are CO 2 , Methane .Nitrous oxide NO2 , CFC
Among these CO2 is the most important green house gas.O 3 and SO 2 act as serious

pollutants causing global warming.Progrssive warming up of a gas surface due to

blanketing effect of man made CO2 atmosphere.
GLOBAL WARMING:

Green house gases in the atmosphere are transparent to light but absorb IR radiation.
These gases allow sunlight to penetrate the atmosphere and are absorbed by the earth
surface. This sunlight is radiated back as IR which is absorbed by gases. As a result the
earth surface and lower atmosphere becomes warm. This is called global warming.
EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING:

1.Sea level increases as result of melting and thermal expansion of ocean.

2.High CO2 level in the atmosphere have a long term negative effect on crop production
and forest growth.

3.Global rainfall pattern will change .Drought and floods will become more common.

Raising temperature will increase domestic water demand.

4.Many plants and animal species will have a problem of adapting. Many will be at the
risk of extinction, more towering verities will thrive.

5.As the earth becomes warmer the floods and drought becomes more frequent. There
would be increase in water-borne diseases.

MEASURES TO CHECK GLOBAL WARMING:

1. CO2 emission can be cut by reducing the use of fossil fuel.

2. Plant more trees.

3. Shifting from coal to natural gas.

4. Stabilize population growth.

5. Remove efficiently CO2 from smoke stocks.

6. Removal atmospheric CO2 by utilizing photo synthetic algae.

ACID RAIN:

Normal rain water is always slightly acidic (pH 5-5.6) because of Co2 present in the
atmosphere gets dissolved in it. Because presence of SO2 and NO2 gases as pollutants in
the atmosphere. The pH of the rain is further lowered. This type of precipitation of water
is called acid rain.
Formation:

Acid rain means the presence of excessive acids in the rain water. The thermal power
plants industries and vehicles release NO2 and SO2 in to the atmosphere due to the
burning of coal and oil. These gases reacts with water vapor in the atmosphere and from
acids like HNO3 ,H2SO4 .These acids descends on to the earth as acid rain through rain
water.

SOx +H2 O H2 SO4

NOy +H2 O HNO3

EFFECTS:

Effect on human being:

Human nervous system respiratory system and digestive system are affected by acid
rain.It cause premature death from heart and lung disorder like asthma, bronchitis.

On building:

At present Taj mMahal in Agra is suffering due to SO2 and H2SO4 fumes from Madura
refinery.Acid rain corrodes houses, monuments ,statues ,bridges and fences.

Acid rain causes corrosion of metals.

Terestrial and lake Ecosystem.

Reduce the rate of photosynthesis and growth in terrestrial vegetation.

Acid rain retards the growth of crops like beans potatoe ,carrot ,spinach. Acid rain rduces
fish population ,black flies,mosquitoes ,deer flies occurs largely which causes number of
complications in ponds rivers and lakes.

Activity of bacteria and other microscopic animals is reduced in acidic water. The dead
materials are not rapidly decomposed.Hence the nutrients like N,P are locked up in dead
matter.

Control of acid rain:

Emmision of No2 and SO2 from industries from power plants should be reduced by
using pollution control equipments.

Liming of lakes nad soils should be done to correct the adverse effect of acid rain. In
thermal points low sulphur content coal should be used.
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Ozone gas is present in the atmosphere. It is highly concentrated at the stratosphere

Between10to 50 Km above the sea level and is called as ozone layer.

Importance: O 3 protects us from damaging UV radiation of the sun. It filters UV- B

radiation. Now days certain parts of O 3 layer is becoming thinner and O 3 holes are
formed. Because of this more UV–B radiation reaches the earth’s surface. UV –B
radiation affects DNA molecules, causes damages to the outer cell of plants and animals.

It causes skin cancer and eye disease in human beings.

Formation of O3 : It is formed in the atmosphere by photochemical reaction

O 2 + hv ------------) O * + O *

The atomic oxygen reacts with molecular

O 2 to form O 3 O * + O 2 + M ----------) O
3+M

Where M = third body like nitrogen.

Causes of O 3 layer depletion : Refrigerators , air conditioners , aerosol sprays and

cleaning solvents release CFC s into the atmosphere. CFCs releases chlorine which
breakes O 3 to O2

Cl + O 3 ----------- ) Cl O + O 2 (g) Cl O

+ O * -----------) Cl + O 2

Each chlorine atom is capable of breaking several O 3 molecules . It is a chain reaction.

1% loss of O3 results in 2% increase in UV rays reaching the earth surface .

Ozone depletion chemicals CFC , HCFC , BFC. Some times atmospheric sulfur dioxide
Is converted in to H 2 S O 4 which increases the rate of O 3 layer depletion.
Effects ozone layer depletion:

Effects on human beings

1.UV rays causes skin cancer.

2.Increases the rate of non melanin skin cancer in fair colored people.

3.Prolonged expose to UV rays leads to actinia Katatities ( slow blindness) and cataracts.

Effects on aquatic system :

1.UV rays affects phytoplankton , fish , larval crabs.

2. phytoplankton consumes large amounts of CO 2 .

3.Decrease in phytoplankton results in more amount of CO2 in atmosphere. This

contributes to global warming.3. Ozone Depleting chemicals can causes global
warming.

Control measures : Manufacturing and using of O 3 depleting chemicals should

be stopped. Use of methyl bromide .which is a crop fumigant should be controlled.
Replacing CFC s by other maerials which are less damage
NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND HOLOCAUST

Energy released—during a nuclear reaction is called nuclear energy. Nuclear fission and Nuclear
fusion are used to prepare nuclear energy. During nuclear accidents large amount of energy and
radioactive products are released into the atmosphere.

Types of nuclear accidents :-

Nuclear Test- Nuclear explosions –release radioactive particles and radioactive rays into the
atmosphere.

Nuclear power plant accidents: Nuclear power plants located in seismic vulnerable area may
cause nuclear accidents which releases radiation.

Improper disposal of radioactive wastes: Drums with radioactive wastes, stored

underground rust and leak radioactive wastes into water, land and air.

Accidents during transport . Trucks carrying radioactive wastes (or) fuels in accidents.

The major accident at a nuclear power plant is a core melts down.

Effects of nuclear radiation

1. Radiation affects DNA in cells.

2.Exposure to low dose of radiation (100to 250 rds ) people suffer from fatigue, vomiting ,and loss
of hair.

3. Exposer to high radation (400- 500 rds ) affect bone marrow ,blood cells , natural resistance
fail of blood clot.

4. Exposure to very high dose of radiation (10000rds ) kills organisms by damaging the tissues
of heart and brain.

Nuclear Holocaust : -Destruction of Biodiversity by nuclear equipments and nuclear bombs is

called nuclear holocaust.
Effects of nuclear holocaust.

Nuclear winter, Nuclear bombardment will cause combustion of wood , plastics , forests etc.

Large quantity of soot will be carried out into the atmosphere.

Black soot absorbs all UV radiation and will not allow the radiation to reach the earth. There fore
cooling will result. This reduces evaporation of water .In stratosphere there wont be significant
moisture to rain out the black soot. Due to nuclear explosion a process opposite to global warming
will occur. This is called Nuclear winter.

Nuclear holocaust in Japan

In 1945 two nuclear bombs were dropped in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. About 100000
people were

Killed and the cities were badly destroyed. This explosion emitted forceful neutrons and gamma
radiation.

Radioactive Strontium liberated in the explosion replaced calcium in the bones .Large scale
bone deformities occurred in the people of these cities.

WASTE LAND RECLAMATION

Waste land. The land which is not in use is called waste land . Waste land is unproductive, unfit for
cultivation and grazing etc. 20% of the geographical area of India is waste land.

Types of waste land:

1. Uncultivable waste land.

2. Cultivable waste land.

Uncultivable waste land: Barren rocky areas, hilly slopes, sandy

deserts.

Cultivable waste land: These are cultivable but not cultivated for more than 5 years.Ex Degraded
forest land.
 Causes of waste land formation:

1. over exploitation of natural resources.

2. Industrial and sewage wastes.

3. Due to soil erosion, deforestation, water logging, salinity etc.

4. Mining activities destroy the forest and cultivable land.

Objects of waste land reclamation:

1. To prevent soil erosion, flooding and land

slides.
2. To avoid over exploitation of natural resources.

3. To improve the physical structure and quality of the soil.

4. To conserve the biological resources and natural ecosystem.

Methods waste land reclamation:

Drainage: Excess water is removed by artificial drainage. This is for water logged soil reclamation.

Leaching: Leaching is a process of removal of salt from the salt affected soil by applying excess
amount of water. Leaching is done by dividing the field into small plots. In continuous leaching 0.5to
1.0cm

Water is required to remove 90% of soluble salts.

Irrigation practices: High frequency irrigation with controlled amount of water helps to maintain
better availability of water in the land. Application of green manure and bio fertilizers improves
saline soil.

Application of gypsum: Soil sodality can be reduced with gypsum. Ca of gypsum replaces sodium
from the exchangeable sites. This converts clay back into calcium clay.
Social Forestry programme: These programs involve strip plantation on road, canal sides and degraded
forest land etc.

COSUMERISM AND WASTE PRODUCTS

The consumption of resources by the people is called consumerism. It is related to both increase In
population size as well as increase in our demand due to change in life style. If needs increases The
consumerism of resources also increases.

TRADITIONAL FAVOURABLE RIGHTS OF SELLERS

1. The right to introduce any product.

2. The right to change any price.

3. The right to use incentives to promote their products

IMPORTANT INFORMATION TO BE KNOWN TO BUYERS

1. Ingredients of the products.

2. Manufacturing date and expiry date .Whether the product has been manufactured against an
established law of nature or involved in right variation.
Objectives of consumerism.

1. It improves the right and powers of buyers.

2.It involves making manufacturer liable for the entire life cycle of a product

3.It force the manufacturer to reuse and recycle the product after usage.

4.Active consumerism improves human health and happiness and also it saves resources.
Sources of wastes are agriculture, mining, industrial and municipal wastes.

Example for waste products. It includes paper, glass, plastic, garbage, food waste,
Scrap, construction and factory wastes.

E- waste : Electronic equipments like computer, printers, mobile phones, calculator etc After usage
thrown as waste.

Effects of waste: Waste from industries and explosives are dangerous to human life.

Dumped wastes degrade soil and make it unfit for irrigation.

E-wastes contain more than 1000 chemicals which are toxic and cause environmental Pollution. In
computers lead is present in monitors, cadmium in chips and cathode ray tube , pvc in cables. All
these cause cancer and other respiratory problems if inhaled for long long periods.

Plastics are non-degradable and their combustion produces many toxic gases.

Factors affecting consumerism and generation of wastes:

People over population –Over population cause degradation of sources, poverty and premature
deaths. This situation occurs in less developed countries (LDC’s).In LDC’s the percaptia consumption
f resources and waste generation are less.

Consumption Over population: It occurs when there are less people than the available
Resources . due to luxurious life style per captia consumption of resources is very high.
Consumption is more and waste generation is more. Environment is also degraded.
ENVVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION AND LAWS

Water (prevention and control of pollution ) Act.1974.

This act provides for maintaining and restoring the sources of water. It also provide for preventing
and controlling water pollution.

Features of water act.

1.This act aims to protect the water from all kind of pollution and to preserve the quality of water in
all aquifers.

2.The act further provides for the establishment of central board and state boards For
prevention of water pollution.

3. The states are empowered to restrain any person from discharging a pollutant (or)
sewage or) effluent into any water body with out the consent of the board.

4.The act is not clear about the definition of pollutant, discharge of pollutant
Toxic pollutant.

State pollution control board

The consent of this board is needed

1. To establish any industry or any treatment and disposal system or any extension or addition which
likely discharge Or trade effluent into a stream or well or river or on land.
2. To use any new or altered outlet for the discharge of sewage.

3. To begin to make any new discharge of sewage.

Act also empowers the state board to order closure or stoppage of supply of Electricity, water
or any other service to the polluting unit.

AIR PREVENTION ACT 1981

This act was enacted in the conference held at Stock Holm. It envisages the
establishments Of central and State control boards to monitor air quality and pollution
control.

Important features:

1.The central board may lay down the standards for quality of air.

2.The central board co-ordinates and settle the disputes between state boards.
3.The central board provides technical assistance and guidance to state boards.

4.The state boards are empowered to lay down the standards for emission of air pollutants
from industries or other resources.

5.The state boards are to examine the manufacturing processes and control equipment for
for the prescribed standards.
6.The direction of central board is mandatory on state boards.

7.With out the consent of the central board operation of an industrial unit is prohibited in
heavily polluted area.

8.Violation of law is punishable with imprisonment for three months or fine of Rs

10000 or both.

This act applies to all pollution industries. This act empowers the state board to order
closure of any industrial unit or stoppage of water supply or stoppage of electricity.

FOREST (COSERVATON) ACT 1980

This act is enacted in 1980. It aims to arrest deforestation. This act covers all types of
Forests including reserved forests, protected forests and any forest land.

IMPORTANT Features of the act :

1.The reserved forests shall not be diverted or dereserved wit out the permission Of
central govt.

2.The forest land may not be used nonforest purposes.

3.This act stops illegal activities with in forest area.

Features of amendment act of 1988

1.Forest departments are departments are forbidden to assign any forest land by way of lease or to
any private person or NG body for re- afforestation.

2.For re-afforstation clearance of any forest land is forbidden.

3.The division of forest land for non –forest uses is punishable.

WILD LIFE ACT 1972.
This act was amended in 1983, 1986, and 1991.This act is aimed to protect and preserve all animals
and plants that are not Domesticated. India has 350 species of mammals, 1200 species of birds and
about 20000 Known species of insects. Some of them are listed as endangered species in wild life
protection act. Wild life is declining due to human action. Wild life products like skins, firs, feathers,
Ivory etc. have decimated the population of many species. Wild life population monitored regularly
and management strategies formulated to protect them.

Important Features

1The act covers the rights and non- rights of forest dwellers.

2It allows restricted grazing in sanctuaries but prohibits in national parks.

3.I t also prohibits the collection of non timber forest.

4.The rights of forest dwellers recognized by forest policy of 1988 are taken away by
Amended wild life act of 1991.

ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT 1986

This act empowers the central govt. to fix the standards for quality of air, water, soil, and noise.
The central govt. formulates procedures and safe guards for handling of hazard substances.

Important features: 1. this act empowers the govt. to lay down procedures and safe guards for the
prevention of accidents which cause pollution and remedial measures if accidents occur.

2 The govt.has the authority to close or prohibit or regulate any industry or its operation if The
violation of provisions of the act occurs.

3.Violation of the act is punishable with imprisonment for 5 years or fine of one lakh or both.

4.If violation continues an additional fine of Rs5000 per day may be imposed for entire period of
Violation of rules.

5.The act empowers the officer of the central govt.to inspect the sight or the plant or machinery
for preventing pollution and to collect samples of air , water, soil and other materials from any

Factory or its premises for testing.

PUBLIC AWARENESS

In order to conserve our environment each and every one must be aware about our environment
problems and objectives of various environmental policies at natural and local level.

Objectives of public awareness:

1. To create awareness among rural and city people about ecological Imbalance, local
environment and technological development.

2 To organize meetings, tree plantation programs, group discussion on development, exhibitions.

3.To focus on current environment problems and situations.

4.To train our planners, decision makers, politicians and administrators.

5.To eliminate poverty by providing employment that over comes the basic environmental
issues.

METHODS TO CREATE ENVIRONMNTAL AWARENESS

1. Environmental education must be imparted to the students in schools and colleges.

2. Media like TV Radio and cable net work can educate the people on environmental issues
through Cartoons, documentaries, street plays.

3. Cinema about environmental education should be prepared and screened in theatres

compulsorily .This films may be released with tax free to attract the public.

4.All the news papers and magazines must publish the environment related problems.

5.Special audio visual and slide shows should be arranged in public places.

6.Voluntary organizations like NCC, NSS, and ROTRACT Club should be effectively utilized for
creating environmental awareness.

7.Arranging competitions like story and essay writing painting competition on environmental issues
for student as well as public.Attreactive prizes should be awarded for the best effort.

8.Public leaders cine actors and popular social reformers can make an appeal to the public about the
urgency of environmental protection.
UNIT 7: Human Population and the Environment: population growth, variation among
nations, population explosion, Family Welfare Programme. Environment and human
health: Human Rights, Value Education, HIV/AIDS. Women and Child Welfare. Role of
Information Technology in Environment and human health. Case Studies.

Human population and the Environment

Population:- Group of individuals belonging to the same species which live in a given area at
given time.

Population density:- Number of individuals of the population per unit area ® per unit-volume.

Parameters effecting population:-

Birthrate (OR) Nationality:- Number of live births per 1,000 people in a population in a given year.

Death Rate (OR) Mortality:- Number of deaths per 1000 people in a population in a given year

Immigration:- It denotes the arrival of individuals from neighboring population.

Emigration:- It denotes the disposal of individuals from the original population to new areas.

Rate = Number of births

Number of years

Mortality = Number of babies died

Number of babies born x Number of year

h rate = Change of population

Number of year.

Population Growth :- Results from the difference between the rate of birth and death. In 1980 the
global population was about 1 billion people. In 1930 it reached 2 billion. In 1975 it reached 4 billion
with in 45 years. Now the population in 6 billion. It reaches 10 billion by 2050 as per the world Bank
calculation.

Causes:- 1. Due to decrease in death rate and increase in birth rate.

2.Availability of antibiotics, immunization increased food production, clean water and air, decreases
the famine related deaths and infant mortality.

3.The poverty and illiteracy lead controlled growth of population.

4.Child Marriages

5.People’s superstitions. People believe that it is because of God’s grace.

Characteristics of P.G.:-

Exponential growth:- Population growth occurs exponentially live 10, 102 , 103 , 104
etc., Which shows the dramatic increase in global population in the past 160 years.

Doubling Time:- Time required for the population to double its size at a constant annual

rate. It is calculated as follows:-

Td = 70 / r When r = annual growth rate

If a ration has 2 % annual growth its population will double in 35 years.

Infant Mentality:-

Percentage of infant died out of those born in one year. This rate is decreased in the last 50 years.
This differs widely in developing and developed countries.

Total fertility rates (TFR):

Average number of children delivered by a woman in her life time. The TFR varies from 2 in
developed to 4.7 in developing countries.

This ratio should be fairly balance in the society.

Male – female ratio has been upset in many countries including China - India. In china the ratio of
girls and boys is 100 – 140.
Demographic transition:

P.G. is redacted to economic development. The birth rate and death rate full due to improved living
conditions. This results in low population growth. This pheromones in called demographic transition.

Variation of population among Nation:

At present the worlds population has crossed 6 billions. Less developed countries (Africa, Asia, S.A)
have 80% population while developed countries have only 20%.

In most developed countries like USA, Canada, Australia population increases by less than 1%. But is
less developed countries the population increases by more than 1% / year.

Kenya is the fastest population growing countries in the world. When 20 million are residing.

China & India’s populate on was above 1000 million in 2000 years. Its share is 1/3 of the world
population.

Europe and N.H. accoents for 14% of world population.

Variation of pollution based on Age structure

Age structure of population can be classified into 3 classes.

Pre- productive population (0 – 14 years)

Reproductive population (15 - 44 years)

Post reproductive population (Above 45 years)

Variation of population is now explained based on the above three classes.

Pyramid shaped Variation of population (increase)

Eg. In India, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Algerian Reproductive population is more in companion to pre
reproductive population and post productive population. Hence the population increases.
Bell shaped variation of population:

Eg: In France, USA, UK, Canada etc., pre reproductive population and reproductive population is
more (OR) less equal. Hence population growth in stable.

Urn shaped variation of populations

Eg: In Germany, Italy, Sweden,

In Japan pre productive age group population in smaller than the reproductive age group population.
In the next 10 years. The number of people in reproductive age group less than before resulting in
decrease of population.

Population Explosion:

The enormous increase in population due to low death rate and high birth rate is called as population
expansion.

Doubling time: The number of years needed for a population to double in size. The doubling time
varies from country to country.
Population growth is higher in less developed countries.

Cause of population explosion:

1.Invention modern medical facilities, reduces the death rate and increases birth rate, which leads to
population explosion.
2.Increase of life expectancy is another important reason for population explosion. Eg:- In

1956, the average life expectancy of the human beings was 40 years. But now it is 61 years.

3.Illiteracy is one of the reasons for the population wxplosion.

Effect of population explosion (OR) environmental and social impacts of growing population

Poverty:

1. Population explosion leads to environmental degradation.

2.Population explosion causes over exploitation of natural resources. Hence there will be a shortage of
resources for the futune generation.
3.Increase in population will increases diseases, economic in equity and command wars.

4.Forests, grass lands are under threat.

5.The main reason for the growing unemployment in growing population.

6.Educating vast population is a very big task.

7.Population explosion is the main cause for pollution of air, land, water and noise.

8.Disposal of plastics and wastages is another problem of over population.

9. Scancity of fuel is also due to population explosion.

Family welfare programmes

Family welfare programme was implemented by Govt. of India as a voluntary programme. It

is a policy of growth covering human health, family welfare children and women’s right.
Objectives:

1.Slow down the population explosion by reducing fertility.

2.Pressure on the environment, due to over exploitation of natural resources is reduces.

Population stabilization Ratio

The ratio is derived by dividing crude birth rate by crude death rate.

Developed countries: The stabilization ratio of developed countries is 1. indicating zero

population growth.

Developing countries:

The ratio of developing countries is rearing 3 which in expected to lower down by 2025.

Stabilization in developing countries is possible only through family welfare programmes.

Family planning Programme

If provides educational and clinical services that help couple to choose how many children to have
and when to have them. Family planning programme provides information on birth spacing birth
control and health care for pregnant woman and infants. It also reduced the number of legal and
illegal abortions per year and decreased the risk of death from pregnancies.

Objectives:

1.Reduce infant mortality rate to below 30 / 1000 infants.

2.Achieve 100% registration of births, deaths marriage and pregnancies.

3.Encourages late marriages and late child bearing.

4.Encourages breast feeding.

5.Enables to improve woman’s health education, employment.

6.Constrain the spnead & Aids / HIV.

7.Prevent and control of communical diseases.

Fertility control methods

Traditional methods

It includes taboos and folks medicine.

Modern methods

It includes birth control techniques like mechanical barriers, surgical methods, chemical pills and
physical barriers to implantation. More than 100 contraceptive methods are on trial.

Family planning programme in India

1.In 1952 India started family planning programme.

2.In 1970 Indian govt. forced FP campain all the over country.

3.In 1978 govt. legally raized the minimum age of marriage for men from 18 to 21 and for
women 15 to 18 years.

4.In 1981 census report showed there is no drop in population. Hence funding for FP programme
has been increased.

Environment & human Health

Healthy person:- Physically fit person with out suffering any disease is called a healthy person.

Disease:- Harmful changes in the body’s condition by nutritional, biological, chemical (or)
psychological factors are called diseases.

Important Hazards and their health effects refer – bort

Chemical Hazards and their health effects refer T.B.

Biological Hazards and their health effects Refers T.B.

Preventive measures:

1.Always wash your hand before eating.

2.Cut short and clean your nails systematic.

3.Drinking chemically treated and filtered water.

4.Eat food always in hot condition.

5.Wash the vegetables and fruits a with clean water before cooking.

6.Avoid plastic containers and Al vessels.

7.Do physical exercise to have proper blood circulation.

Human Rights

Human rights are the fundamental rights possessed by human beings irrespective caste,
nationality, sex & language.

The aim of Govt. is to ensure happiness to the entire citizen with equal rights.

Under the Indian constitution the following fundamental rights have been guaranteed to human
beings.

1.Human right to freedom

2.Human right to property

3.Human right to freedom of religion.

4.Human right to culture and education.

5.Human right to constitutional remedies

6.Human right to Equality

7.Human right to against exploitation.

8.Human right to food and environmental

9.Human right to health

1. Human rights to freedom

Every citizen has the freedom to express his view freely.

Citizen can assemble at any place to express their views.

Freedom to form unions (or) associations.

Freedom to slant any profession.

Indian Constitution

Indian constitution provides for civil, social, cultural, educational and political rights.

Article 14 – equality before law.

Article -15

Prohibits discrimination on the ground of race, religion caste, sex (or) place of birth.

Article 16

Provides equal opportunity for all citizens in regarding to employment.

Article 19

Provides for freedom of speech and expression, forming association and union.

Article – 20

Protection from connection except in accordance with the law of the land.

Article – 22 – lays down the rights of a person in custody.

Article – 24 – prohibits exploitation of labour children.

Article – 25 – grantees freedom to profess, practice and propagate a religion of one’s choice.
Value education

Education is nothing but learning through which knowledge about a particular thing can be
acquired with the help of our knowledge and expedience we can identify our value to understand
ourselves and our relationship with other and their environment.

Types of Education:

Format Education:- (In this all leaning process are self related). All people will read write, will
get good jobs and take with any problem with the help of formal education.

Value Education:- It is an instrument used to analyse our behavior and provide proper direction
to our youth. It teacher the youth the distinction between right & wrong, to be helpful loving,
generous and tolerant.

Eg:- If a person is highly, Qualified and well settled in life, something he does not know how to
behave with his environment.

Value based environmental education

The provides knowledge about the principle of ecology, fundamental of environment and
biodiversity. It creates sense of duty to care for natural resources and to mange them in
sustainable key.

Objectives:

1. Improve integral growth of human being.

2.To create altitudes and improvement towards sustainable life style.

3.To increase awareness about our national history, cultural heritage, constitutional rights,
national integration.

4.To understand (about the our) natural environment in which how land, air and water are
interlinked.

5.To know about various living and non living organism and their interaction with the
environment.
Types of values:

1. Universal values (or) social values:

These values tells about the importance of the human conditions. These are reflected in life, joy,
love, tolerance, truth etc.

2. Cultural values:

These values various with respect to time and place. These are concerned with rights & wrong,
good & bad true & false and behavior of human beings. It is reflected in language, education,
law, economics, philosophy etc.

3. Individual values:

These are personal principles and the result of individual personality and experience parents &
teachers are the main key to shape and individual values. I t is reflected in individual goods,
relationship, commitments.

4. Global values:

Human civilization is a part of the planet. Nature and natural pheromone on the earth are
interconnected and inter-linked with special bonds of harmony. If this harmony disturbed any
where leads to catastrophic results due to ecological imbalance.

Aids / HIV – Discover in 1983. Source of the virus is not beer identified spread through African
monkey. Through vaccine program – spread by small pox vaccine programme of Africa.
Hepatitis – B Viral vaccine legmy and new York.

World scenario

90% from developing countries. 13% of world’s population live is Africa. Almost all states &
African countries were affecters HIV. India ranks 2nd in the world with 5 million affects people.
Scenario in India:

Large number of infected people are in Maharastra & Tamil Nadu followed by Delhi, UP,
Karnataka & Goa. Till sept. 2003 24,667 cases are found in Tamil Nadu.

Smog:- Mixture of smoke from coal combustion and fog in suspended droplets form
photochemical smog cause irritation to eyes and lungs (ii) many damage plants (iii) Irritation to
nose & throat (iv) asthma
Role of IT in Environment

IT plays a vital role in the field of environment education. IT means collection, processing,
storage and dissemination of information. The internet facilities, information through
satellites,www and geographical information provides up to date information on various aspects
of environment, weather.

Remote sensing

It refers to any method which can be used to gather information about an object without coming
in contact with it. Gravity, magnetic, electro magnetic forces could be used for remote

sensing. Remote sensing covers various disciplines from laboratory testing to astronomies. Now
remote sensing is used to denote identification of earth feathers by detecting the characteristic
electro magnetic radiation. That is reflected by the earth.

Components of a remote sensing system

The system consists of a sensor to collect radiation. Other important parts are a platform, an
aircraft, a balloon, rocket and satellite.

The information received by the sensor is suitably manipulated and transported back to earth. The
data’s are reformed and processed on the ground to produce photographs, computer compatible
magnetic taps and digital storage medium.

Applications

1 Agriculture: In India agriculture provides livelihood of 70% of population and contributes to

about 35% of net nation product. We require optimal management of land and water resources
along with high yielding variety seeds, fertilizer input.

Remote sensing can provide valuable information for land and water management.

2. Forests: Remote sensing provides information clearly on the type, density and extent of
forest cover, wood volume and biomass, forest fire, encroachment etc.
3. Land cover: Spatial information on land is required at different scales depends upon use
remote sensing data is converted to map. The spatial resolution plays a role on the scale of
mapping.

4. Water resources: Remote sensing data has been used in many application related to surface
water body mapping, ground water targeting, wet land, flood monitoring, reservoir sedimentation,
water quality monitoring etc. One of the most simple applications is inventorying surface water
body.
DATABASE

It is the collection of inter related data on various objects. In the computer the
information of database is arranged in a systematic manner.

Applications: I The ministry of environment and forest. They are compiling database
on various biotic components. Database is also available for diseases likes HIV |
AIDS. Malaria, Fluorosis.

National Management Information System (NMIS) : They compile database on R

& D Projects along with information about research scientists

and personnel involved. Environmental Information System : It
functions in 25 centres all over the country.

They generate net work of database in areas like pollution control,

remote sensing, biodiversity, and desertification.

GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)

It is a technique of superimposing various thematic maps using

digital data on large Number of inter related aspects.

Applications: Different thematic maps having digital information on water resources,

Soil type, forest land, crop land, grass lands are superimposed on a layered form in
computer using soft ware.

Interpretation of polluted zones, degraded lands can be made on GIS base.

3. GIS can be used to check unplanned growth and related environmental problems.

SATELLITE DATA:

It helps in providing correct and reliable information forest cover

Provides information of monsoon, ozone layer depletion Smog etc.

Helps in discovering reserves of oil, minerals.

 WWW:

More current data is available on www on line learning centre.

Www .mhhe.com \ environmental science.

Multimedia Digital content manager (DCM) in the form of CD ROMS.

Application of computers in the field of Environment & human health:

1.Unknown parameters can be stimulated by computer techniques

2.EIA(Environmental Impact Assessment) problems can be analyzed

3.Inventories of emission sources are compiled and maintained

4.Net-work analysis, statistical analysis and the status of environmental pollutions can
be high lighted

5.Comprehensive administrative system can be developed by using computer network

techniques.

6.Remote sensing-Graphical Interface System are useful for coral reef mapping and
ocean resources. They are also useful to access the loss of biodiversity/hot spots etc.
DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Unit 8: Natural Disasters- Meaning and nature of natural disasters, their types and
effects. Floods, drought, cyclone, earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, volcanic
eruptions, Heat and cold waves, Climatic change: global warming, Sea level rise,
ozone depletion.

Disaster Management - Natural Disasters - Meaning and nature of natural

disasters, their types and effects - Floods, drought

The word Disaster is from a French word Disaster meaning bad or evil star. Disaster
means a situation in which there is a sudden disruption of normalcy within society
causing widespread damage to life and property. A disaster can be either natural [rain,
flood, cyclone, storm, landslides, earthquake, volcanoes] or manmade [war including
biological, arson, sabotage, riots, accident (train, air, ship), industrial accidents, fires
(forest fires), bomb explosions, nuclear explosions and ecological disasters] or
complex disasters, where there is no single root cause, are more common in
developing countries. A specific disaster may spawn a secondary disaster that
increases the impact. A classic example is an earthquake that causes a tsunami,
resulting in coastal flooding; changing the land in to saline problem soils and poor
quality of water sources ultimately affecting crop production.

Disaster:

A disaster is a natural or manmade event which results in widespread human loss, loss
of livelihood, property and life often resulting in permanent changes to human
societies, ecosystems and environment.

The damage caused by disasters is immeasurable and varies with the geographical
location, climate and the type of the earth surface/degree of vulnerability which
influences the mental, socio-economic, political and cultural state of the affected area.

A Disaster is an event that occurs in most cases suddenly and unexpectedly, causing
severe disturbances to people, objects and environment, resulting in loss of life,
property and health of the population.

Disaster causes disruption in normal pattern of life, generating misfortune,

helplessness and suffering affecting the socio-economic structure of a region/country
to such an extent that there is a need for assistance or immediate outside intervention

Generally, disaster has the following effects in the concerned areas,

It completely disrupts the normal day to day life

It negatively influences the emergency systems
Normal needs and processes like food, shelter, health, etc. are affected and deteriorate
depending on the intensity and severity of the disaster.

The studies made so far on disaster concluded that all disasters can be seen as being
human-made, their reasoning being that human actions before the strike of the hazard
can prevent it developing into a disaster which indicated the result of human failure to
introduce appropriate disaster management measures. In addition the myths about
disaster,

It Can’t Happen to Us.

The Nature’s forces are so Deadly the Victims will Die anyway.
There is Nothing We Can Do also worsens the problem.

Unpredictability
Unfamiliarity
Speed
Urgency
Uncertainty
Threat

Risk: Risk is a measure of the expected losses due to a hazardous event of a particular
magnitude occurring in a given area over a specific time period. Risk is a function of
the probability of particular occurrences and the losses each would cause. The level of
risk depends on:

Nature of the Hazard

Vulnerability of the elements which are affected
Economic value of those elements

Vulnerability: It is defined as “the extent to which a community, structure, service,

and/or geographic area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of particular
hazard, on account of their nature, construction and proximity to hazardous terrain or a
disaster prone area”

Hazards: Hazards are defined as “Phenomena that pose a threat to people, structures,
or economic assets and which may cause a disaster. They could be either manmade or
naturally occurring in our environment.”
Hazards are routinely divided into natural or human-made, although complex disasters,
where there is no single root cause, are more common in developing countries. A
specific disaster may spawn a secondary disaster that increases the impact. A classic
example is an earthquake that causes a tsunami, resulting in coastal flooding; changing
the land in to saline problem soils and poor quality of water sources ultimately
affecting crop production. Based on the devastation, these are further classified into
major/minor natural disaster and major/minor manmade disasters.
Arise without direct human involvement, but can become more severe because of
human actions prior, during or after the disaster itself. Also, one specific event may
spawn another type of disaster as indicated already. For example, a hurricane may
cause flooding by excessive rain or by pulling seawater onshore, also called a storm
surge. A volcanic eruption is particularly prone to spawning additional events like
earthquakes, structural fires and wildfires, flooding from melting of mountain snow
and ice, landslides, mudslides, thunderstorms and, if the volcano is located in or near
the ocean, tsunamis. Thus a natural disaster is the effect of a natural hazard (e.g., flood,
tornado, hurricane, volcanic eruption, earthquake, or landslide). It leads to financial,
environmental or human losses.

A natural hazard will hence never result in a natural disaster in areas without
vulnerability, e.g. strong earthquakes in uninhabited areas. The term natural has
consequently been disputed because the events simply are not hazards or disasters
without human involvement (Alexander, 2002).

Land movement disasters

Avalanches

Earthquakes

Lahars

Volcanic eruptions

Water disasters
Floods

Limnic eruptions

Tsunami

Weather disasters
Blizzards

Cyclonic storms

Droughts

Hailstorms

Heat waves

Tornadoes
Fire
Health and diseases
Epidemic

Famine
Space
Gamma ray bursts

Impact events

Solar flares

Supernovae and hypernovae

Man-made disaster

Disasters caused by human action, negligence, error, or involving the failure of a

system are called man-made disasters. Man-made disasters are in turn categorized as
technological or sociological. Technological disasters are the results of failure of
technology, such as engineering failures, transport disasters, or environmental
disasters. Sociological disasters have a strong human motive, such as criminal acts,
stampedes, riots and war.

Major manmade disaster:

Setting of fires

Epidemics
Deforestation
Pollution due to prawn cultivation
Chemical pollution.
Biological Pollution
Wars

Road / train accidents, riots

Food poisoning
Industrial disaster/ crisis
Theft and Destruction of Tourism Infrastructure
Hijacking and Terrorism
Social and Cultural Disaster
Environmental pollution

Earthquake

Volcanic eruption

Tsunami

Cyclone

Flood

Landslide
Bushfire

Drought

Major accident (fire, explosion, hazmat)

General Effects of Disaster

Loss of life

Injury

Damage to and destruction of property.

Damage to and destruction of production.

Disruption of lifestyle

Loss of livelihood.

Disruption to essential services

Damage to national infrastructure

Disruption to governmental systems

National economic loss

Sociological and psychological after effect.

Flood:

The term "flood" is a general or temporary condition of partial or complete inundation

of normally dry land areas from overflow of inland or tidal waters or from the unusual
and rapid accumulation or runoff of surface waters from any source. Flood is usually
an overflow of excessive water that submerges land and the inflow of tide onto land.
Flooding and flash flooding are the deadliest of natural disasters. Floodwaters claim
thousands of lives every year and render millions homeless. One of the more
frightening things about flooding is that it can occur nearly anywhere, at any time. It
can result from excess water jams on rivers, even moderate rain, or a single very heavy
downpour as it occurred in Himachal Pradesh recently.

Floods usually cause large-scale loss of human life and wide spread damage to
properties. This damage is known as flood damage. Unimaginable damage will be
caused to agriculture; thereby affects government planning and this will upset the
financial budgeting, thereby slowing down the economy as a whole.
What causes Flood?

Heavy down pore in the form of rain, brings down more water than can be disposed of
by combined factors natural and manmade systems causes flooding. The rivers
overflow embankments may be breached. Generally rains following storm and
hurricane are heavy and bring unmanageable amount of water causing flash floods.

Monsoon rainfalls can cause disastrous flooding in some equatorial countries, such as
Bangladesh, due to their extended periods of rainfall. Heavy rain caused substantial
damage across Eastern Europe in the summers of 2003 and 2005. Normally riverine
floods occur only in winter as a result of heavy rain in combination with melting of
snow and glaciers in spring. A flood occurs when an area of land, usually low-lying, is
covered with water. The worst floods usually occur when a river overflows its banks.
An example of this is the January 1999 Queensland floods, which swamped south-
eastern Queensland. Floods happen when soil and vegetation cannot absorb all the
water ; water then runs off the land in quantities that cannot be carried in stream
channels or kept in natural ponds or man-made reservoirs.

Periodic floods occur naturally on many rivers, forming an area known as the flood
plain. These river floods usually result from heavy rain, sometimes combined with
melting snow, which causes the rivers to overflow their banks. A flood that rises and
falls rapidly with little or no advance warning is called a flash flood. Flash floods
usually result from intense rainfall over a relatively small area. Coastal areas are
occasionally flooded by high tides caused by severe winds on ocean surfaces, or by
tidal waves caused by undersea earthquakes. There are often many causes for a flood.

The frequency or probability of a flood usually is described by assigning a recurrence

interval to the flood at each gagging station. This is accomplished by statistically
evaluating long-term annual peak stream flows at a station. Standard techniques and
procedures used to determine the station flood-frequency relations are described by the
U.S. Water Resources Council (1982). For example, a 100-year flood-recurrence
interval means that, in any given year, a flood of a specified stream flow magnitude
has a 1-in-100 chance of happening.

Rainfall is generally heaviest with slower moving storms (less than 10 mph). To
estimate the total rainfall in inches from a hurricane, divide 100 by the forward speed
of the storm in miles per hour (100 / forward speed = estimated inches of rain). A flood
can also occur when a volcanic eruption melts a large amount of ice and snow quickly.
In the case where a snow- capped volcano erupts, the melt water often picks up
substantial amounts of volcanic ash and other debris to become a lahar (is an
Indonesian term for a volcanic mudflow).

When it comes to hurricanes, wind speeds do not tell the whole story. Hurricanes have
a number of different features which, together, can cause devastating flooding. One is
the storm surge (sea flooding as much as 8 meters high) caused by the leading edge of
the hurricane when it moves from sea to land. Another is the large amounts of
precipitation associated with hurricanes. The eye of a hurricane has extremely low
pressure, so sea level may rise a few meters in the eye of the storm. This type of
coastal flooding occurs regularly in Bangladesh.

While storm surge is always a potential threat, more people have died from inland
flooding in the last 30 years. Intense rainfall is not directly related to the wind speed of
tropical cyclones. In fact, some of the greatest rainfall amounts occur from weaker
storms that drift slowly or stall over an area. Inland flooding can be a major threat to
communities hundreds of miles from the coast as intense rain falls from these huge
tropical air masses.

The favorable conditions for a hurricane include a pre-existing weather disturbance,

warm tropical oceans, moisture, and relatively light winds aloft. If the right conditions
persist long enough, they can combine to produce the violent winds, incredible waves,
torrential rains, and floods we associate with this phenomenon. In Europe floods from
sea may occur as a result from heavy Atlantic storms, pushing the water to the coast.
Especially in combination with high tide this can be damaging. Under some rare
conditions associated with heat waves, flash floods from quickly melting mountain
snow have caused loss of property and life.

Each year, an average of ten tropical storms develops over the Atlantic Ocean,
Caribbean Sea, and Gulf of Mexico. Many of these remain over the ocean and never
impact the U.S. coastline. Six of these storms become hurricanes each year. In an
average 3-year period, roughly five hurricanes strike the US coastline, killing
approximately 50 to 100 people anywhere from Texas to Maine. Of these, two are
typically "major" or "intense" hurricanes (a category 3 or higher storm on the Saffir-
Simpson Hurricane Scale). A hurricane is a type of tropical cyclone, which is a generic
term for a low pressure system that generally forms in the tropics. The cyclone is
accompanied by thunderstorms and, in the Northern

Hemisphere, a counterclockwise circulation of winds near the earth's surface.Undersea

earthquakes, eruptions of island volcanos that form a caldera, (such as Thera or
Krakatau) and marine landslips on continental shelves may all engender a tidal wave
called a tsunami that causes destruction to coastal areas (Marine floods).

Floods are the most frequent type of disaster worldwide. Thus, it is often difficult or
impossible to obtain insurance policies which cover destruction of property due to
flooding, since floods are a relatively predictable risk.

Some time the factors like flow of water getting blocked as in Northern Russia. An
unusually cold winter caused large amounts of ice to form along the river, which
drains into the Barents Sea. When the river began to thaw, huge chunks of ice floated
downstream, gathered at the mouth of the river, and formed a dam. The waters backed
up for hundreds of kilometers and threatened to pour in on the 35,000 residents in the
city of Nar yen-Mar. In a last-minute attempt to save the town, the Russian air force
brought in four SU-24 assault aircraft and dropped ninety-six 250-kg bombs on the ice,
with little effect. Eventually the town had to be evacuated (Associated Press, June 4,
1998). While most floods follow heavy rain, or rapid, widespread melting of deep
snow, flood forecasters also have to worry about several other factors.
Factors that help determine whether a flood is minor or major:

Deep snow cover. Deep snow can melt into a lot of water. Deep snow very rarely
causes flooding by itself. Often, heavy rain and rapid warm ups combine with rapidly
melting snow to cause major flooding problems. For example, Fargo, S.D. had a 15
inch snow pack at the beginning of March 1994. Fortunately, slowly warming
temperatures along with below freezing overnight temperatures through most of March
into April reduced flooding from melting snow. Forecasters were originally concerned
that the deep snow would pose significant problems during the spring thaw.

Frozen ground: Frozen soil can not absorb as much water as unfrozen soil. Rain or
rapid snow melt at frozen soil can cause flooding that wouldn't have occurred if the
soil were not frozen.

Wet or saturated soil: Saturated soil can't absorb rain and water from melting snow.
The excess water becomes runoff that rapidly flows into rivers and streams.
Unsaturated soil acts like a sponge, absorbing some of the water from rain or snow
melt. Saturated soil by itself does not cause flooding. Usually, heavy rain or rapid
snow melt combined with saturated soil causes the flooding.

Full reservoirs: Reservoirs are large, mostly man-made basins that hold water for
irrigation and drinking. Reservoirs can alleviate river flooding by absorbing and
spreading out flood crests flowing down the river. This would reduce the height in
which the water rises downstream of the reservoir. If the reservoir is already full, then
it can not absorb any water from swollen rivers.

High river and stream levels: Streams or rivers that are already at bankfull can be a
precursor to major flooding. Heavy rain or rapid snow melt that flows into an already
full river will cause the river to overflow its banks and flood nearby locations. High
river levels, such as those in the Ohio Valley in the spring of 1997, make forecasters
very nervous anytime a storm threatens to dump heavy rain over the region. A
prolonged dry spell, however, can alleviate flooding concerns.

Ice-covered rivers. As rain or melting snow Fall River, ice at the surface cracks and
breaks up into chunks that float downstream. These chunks of ice can form a dam as
they run into barriers, such as bridges, along the rivers. The ice dams cause water to
rise rapidly behind them, flooding many upstream locations. If the dam suddenly
breaks, water can also flood downstream locations. Large chunks of ice can also
damage bridges and other structures.

Widespread, heavy rain: This is perhaps the most important and influential factor of
them all. Long periods of heavy rain can cause flooding even if all other factors are
unfavorable for flooding. Often, heavy rain is a cause of some of the factors listed
above such as wet soils, high stream levels and full reservoirs. The Midwest flooding
during the summer of 1993 and the Southeast flooding caused by the remnants of
Tropical Storm Alberto in 1994 are a couple of examples of flooding caused by heavy
rain.

Whether or not these factors cause flooding often depends on daily weather conditions
over the region such as temperature and precipitation. This makes long range flood
forecasts very difficult to pin down, which is the main reason why hydrologists often
forecast long range flood potential rather than actual long range flood forecasts.

Effects of Flood:

There are various types of effects caused by flood and that can be categorized into
three types, namely, primary, secondary and tertiary. The primary effects of flood
damage include physical damages like damage to bridges, cars, buildings, sewer
systems, roadways, and even casualties like people and livestock death due to
drowning. The primary effect of floods is due to direct contact with the flood waters.
The velocity of water tends to be high in floods and consequently, discharge increases
as velocity increases. Because of excess rainfall, the rivers and streams flow with
higher velocities wherein they are able to transport larger particles like rocks as
suspended load. Such large particles include not only rocks and sediment but during a
flood it could also include large objects such as automobiles, houses and bridges.
Massive amounts of erosion during the floods can undermine bridge structures and
buildings causing their collapse.

During floods, water will also enter human built structures causing water
damage. The flood damage to houses include ruining of furniture, damage to the
floors and walls of the house and damage to any other item that comes in contact
with the water. Automobiles on the roads get stranded in the floods and they get
carried away by the flood waters or water enters into the automobile, which
results in damage that cannot be easily repaired. The flood water carries
sediment as suspended load. As the flood waters recede, the sediments get
deposited and things and structures including the interior of buildings usually
get covered with a thick layer of stream-deposited mud. Farmlands affected by
floods face a huge loss as they usually result in crop loss. Livestock, pets, and
other animals are often carried away by the strong currents of the flood water.
Humans who get caught in the high velocity flood waters often get drowned.

Among the secondary effects of flood damage are the disruption of many
essential services like gas and electricity. Flood damage also includes the
contamination of the drinking water supply, if sewage treatment plants are
flooded. This poses a greater threat because this may result in disease and other
health hazards, especially in under developed countries. The public
transportation systems may also be disrupted during floods, resulting in
shortages of food and other supplies.

Tertiary effects of flood damage are generally long-term effects like the location
of river channels that may change because of flooding; fewer new channels will
develop, leaving the old channels dry. Farmlands with crops get destroyed by
the sediment deposition caused by the floods. People may not be able to make it
to their workplace due to disruption of services. The floods may also result in
destruction of wildlife habitat. Although floods have some advantages floods
cause havoc to life and property of mankind. By following various preventive
measures the effects of flood damage can be reduced to a great extent.

The average rainfall in Chennai is 1100mm to 1300 mm per year and this year
Chennai received 1,049 mm of rainfall in November 2015, the highest recorded
since November 1918.

Risk Identification: Chennai had big and small ponds nearly 150 acting as a
‘sponge’ to absorb the excess water connected by a working overflow system. The
mindless development & Haphazard construction along the banks of lakes blocking
channels, which would have normally allowed rain water to drain out. According to a
report of CMDA, there are over 1.5 lakh illegal structures in the city which have been
responsible for the disappearance of over 300 water bodies.
Old Mahabalipuram Road (OMR) stretch has n number of IT companies, before
which it consisted of forests and lakes.

Today, Chennai has a host of

expensive infrastructure like a brand-
new airport built on the floodplains of
the Adyar river, a bus terminal in
flood-prone Koyambedu, an MRT
over the Buckingham Canal and the
Pallikaranai marshlands, an IT
corridor and a Knowledge Corridor
consisting of engineering colleges
built on important drainage courses
and catchments.

Risk Reduction/Mitigation, Risk Transfer: Consistent rains started on November 8

and by the end of November, the level in the reservoir had reached its limit, which was
emplty before Diwali. Water in the Chembarambakkam reservoir stood at 22 ft at this
time. Since more than 500 mm rainfall was predicted over 1 and 2 December, bringing
down the level of water in the reservoir from 22 to 18 feet may be a viable solution. By
around 10 pm, the water was being released at 29,400 cusec into the Adyar river, as
engineers feared a breach of Chembarambakkam’s boundary. Panicking officials
opened the sluice gates, hoping Adyar would absorb the gushing water. But soon its
embankments were overrun. By midnight of December 2, Adyar, which flows through
the heart of Chennai, had gone completely under.

Emergency Reponses: The recent experience clearly shows the need for early
warning and dissemination of reliable information about floods and rescue, also the
lack of coordination among the multiple authorities. The NDRF, during Chennai Flood
Coordination between 50 teams, each with strength of 45 men played a key role in
rescuing flood-affected people in Chennai. In all, they succeeded in rescuing over
20,000 people. NDRF personnel are using social media and the internet to reach out
the affected people continuously. Various key ministries and nodal agencies concerned
with the emergency response and the Cabinet Secretary asked the Ministries concerned
to provide necessary assistance in a coordinated manner to the state government,
ensuring that the rescue and evacuation of the people is their top priority.

Drought

Most people think that a drought is of a period of hot, dry weather with too little rain.
While any or all of those conditions can be present during a drought, the definition of
drought is really more subtle and complex. Drought is not purely a physical
phenomenon that can be defined by the weather. Rather, at its most essential level,
drought is defined by the delicate balance between water supply and demand.
Whenever human demands for water exceed the natural availability of water, the result
is drought.

Different Ways of Viewing and Defining Drought

Which type of drought people mean when they talk about “drought” often depends on
who they are, they kind of work they do, and the perspective that gives them. Farmers
and ranchers are most often concerned with agricultural drought, for example, and
agricultural drought is also the type of drought that worries people in the grocery and
meat business or people in farm communities that depend indirectly on agricultural
income for their livelihoods. Urban planners usually mean hydrological drought when
they talk about drought, because water supplies and reserves are key components in
managing urban growth. The most common use of the term “drought” refers to
meteorological drought, because that is the drought condition most familiar to the
general public and the one most easily identified.

What Causes Drought?

Drought can be caused by too little precipitation (rain and snow) over an extended
period, as most people assume, but drought can also be caused by increased demand
for the available supply of usable water even during periods of average or above
average precipitation. Another factor that can affect water supply is a change in water
quality, say Siruvani water which most people prefers. Contaminated water say in
Tiruppur area especially near Orathupalayam areas (Tiruppur, Chennimalai) wherein
water is contaminated by industrial pollution. If some of the available water sources
become contaminated--either temporarily or permanently--that decreases the supply of
usable water, makes the balance between water supply and demand even more
precarious, and increases the likelihood of drought.
Types of Drought
There are three conditions that are generally referred to as drought:
Meteorological drought—This type of drought all about the weather and occurs when
there is a prolonged period of below average precipitation, which creates a natural
shortage of available water.

Agricultural drought—This type of drought occurs when there isn’t enough moisture
to support average crop production on farms or average grass production on range
land. Although agricultural drought often occurs during dry, hot periods of low
precipitation, it can also occur during periods of average precipitation when soil
conditions or agricultural techniques require extra water.

Hydrological drought—This type of drought occurs when water reserves in aquifers,

lakes and reservoirs fall below an established statistical average. Again, hydrological
drought can happen even during times of average or above average precipitation, if
human demand for water is high and increased usage has lowered the water reserves.

Effects of Drought

Drought can have serious health, social, economic and political impacts with far-
reaching consequences. Water is one of the most essential commodities for human
survival, second only to breathable air. So when there is a drought, which by definition
means having too little water to meet current demands, conditions can become difficult
or dangerous very quickly.

The consequences of drought:

Rise in Temperature: Droughts may be linked to a rise in temperature which may

bring insects like locusts and mosquitoes.

Hunger and famine: Drought conditions often provide too little water to support food
crops, through either natural precipitation or irrigation using reserve water supplies.
The same problem affects grass and grain used to feed livestock and poultry. When
drought undermines or destroys food sources, people go hungry. When the drought is
severe and continues over a long period, famine may occur.

Disease: Drought often creates a lack of clean water for drinking, public sanitation and
personal hygiene, which can lead to a wide range of life-threatening diseases.

Thirst: All living things must have water to survive. People can live for weeks without
food, but only a few days without water.

Land Degradation: If there is no water the plants holding down the soil will die, and
winds can quickly strip the land of topsoil. The natural habitat of native animals is
damaged and some may not survive. Wetlands and lakes may dry up.

Wildfires : The low moisture and precipitation that often characterize droughts can
quickly create hazardous conditions in forests and across range lands, setting the stage
for wildfires that may cause injuries or deaths as well as extensive damage to property
and already shrinking food supplies.

Social conflict and war : When a precious commodity like water is in short supply
due to drought, and the lack of water creates a corresponding lack of food, people will
compete— and eventually fight and kill—to secure enough water to survive.

Migration or relocation: Faced with the other impacts of drought, many people will
flee a drought-stricken area in search of a new home with a better supply of water,
enough food, and without the disease and conflict that were present in the place they
are leaving.

Economy: The country's economy may suffer as it may have to import food and
support farmers and unemployed and starving people.
CYCLONE, EARTHQUAKES, LANDSLIDES, AVALANCHES

CYCLONES

Cyclonic - refers to a region of low atmospheric sea level pressure; or, the wind system
around such a low pressure center that has a clockwise rotation in the Northern
Hemisphere and a counterclockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere (NOAA). In
meteorology, a cyclone is the rotation of a volume of air about an area of low
atmospheric pressure. Cyclones are responsible for a wide variety of different
meteorological phenomena such as tropical cyclones and tornadoes. Because of this,
most weather forecasters avoid using the term cyclone without a qualifying term.

Cyclone - Structure. The center of a cyclone is a low-pressure region. Pressure

gradient force, from high- to low-pressure regions, causes high wind around these
regions.

Cyclone - Types of Cyclones

Cyclone - Tropical cyclones
Cyclone - Extratropical cyclones
Cyclone - Subtropical cyclones
Cyclone - Mid-latitude cyclones
Cyclone - Polar low
Cyclone - Arctic cyclone
Cyclone - Mesocyclones
Cyclone - Tornadoes
Cyclone - Martian cyclones

Tropical cyclone - Structure and classification

A strong tropical cyclone consists of the following components.

Surface low: All tropical cyclones rotate around an area of low atmospheric pressure
near the Earth's surface. The pressures recorded at the centers of tropical cyclones are
among the lowest that occur on Earth's surface at sea level.
Warm core: Tropical cyclones are characterized and driven by the release of large
amounts of latent heat of condensation as moist air is carried upwards and its water
vapor condenses. This heat is distributed vertically, around the center of the storm.
Thus, at any given altitude (except close to the surface where water temperature
dictates air temperature) the environment inside the cyclone is warmer than its outer
surroundings.

Central Dense Overcast (CDO): The Central Dense Overcast is a dense shield of
very intense thunderstorm activity that make up the inner portion of the hurricane. This
contains the eye wall, and the eye itself. The classic hurricane contains a symmetrical
CDO, which means that it is perfectly circular and round on all sides.

Eye: A strong tropical cyclone will harbor an area of sinking air at the center of
circulation. Weather in the eye is normally calm and free of clouds (however, the sea
may be extremely violent). Eyes are home to the coldest temperatures of the storm at
the surface, and the warmest temperatures at the upper levels. The eye is normally
circular in shape, and may range in size from 8 km to 200 km (5 miles to 125 miles) in
diameter. In weaker cyclones, the CDO covers the circulation center, resulting in no
visible eye.

Eyewall: A band around the eye of greatest wind speed, where clouds reach highest
and precipitation is heaviest. The heaviest wind damage occurs where a hurricane's
eyewall passes over land.

Outflow: The upper levels of a tropical cyclone feature winds headed away from the
center of the storm with an anticyclonic rotation. Winds at the surface are strongly
cyclonic, weaken with height, and eventually reverse themselves. Tropical cyclones
owe this unique characteristic to the warm core at the center of the storm.

Tropical cyclone - Intensities of tropical cyclones

Tropical cyclones are classified into three main groups: tropical depressions, tropical
storms, and a third group whose name depends on the region.

A tropical depression is an organized system of clouds and thunderstorms with a

defined surface circulation and maximum sustained winds of less than 17 metres per
second (33 knots, 38 mph, or 62 km/h). It has no eye, and does not typically have the
spiral shape of more powerful storms. It is already becoming a low-pressure system,
however, hence the name "depression".

A tropical storm is an organized system of strong thunderstorms with a defined surface

circulation and maximum sustained winds between 17 and 33 meters per second
(34–63 knots, 39–73 mph, or 62–117 km/h). At this point, the distinctive
cyclonic shape starts to develop, though an eye is usually not present. Government
weather services assign first names to systems that reach this intensity (thus the term
named storm).
At hurricane and typhoon intensity, a tropical cyclone tends to develop an eye, an area
of relative calm (and lowest atmospheric pressure) at the center of the circulation. The
eye is often visible in satellite images as a small, circular, cloud-free spot. Surrounding
the eye is the eye wall, an area about 10 to 50 miles (16 to 80 kilometers) wide in
which the strongest thunderstorms and winds circulate around the storm's center.

The circulation of clouds around a cyclone's center imparts a distinct spiral shape to
the system. Bands or arms may extend over great distances as clouds are drawn toward
the cyclone. The direction of the cyclonic circulation depends on the hemisphere; it is
counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
Maximum sustained winds in the strongest tropical cyclones have been measured at
more than 85 m/s (165 knots, 190 mph, 305 km/h). Intense, mature hurricanes can
sometimes exhibit an inward curving of the eye wall top that resembles a football
stadium: this phenomenon is thus sometimes referred to as stadium effect.

Eye wall replacement cycles naturally occur in intense tropical cyclones. When
cyclones reach peak intensity they usually - but not always - have an eye wall and
radius of maximum winds that contract to a very small size, around 5 to 15 miles. At
this point, some of the outer rainbands may organize into an outer ring of
thunderstorms that slowly moves inward and robs the inner eye wall of its needed
moisture and momentum. During this phase, the tropical cyclone is weakening (i.e. the
maximum winds die off a bit and the central pressure goes up). Eventually the outer
eyewall replaces the inner one completely and the storm can be the same intensity as it
was previously or, in some cases, even stronger.

Tropical cyclone - Categories and ranking

Hurricanes are ranked according to their maximum winds using the Saffir-Simpson
Hurricane Scale. A Category 1 storm has the lowest maximum winds, a Category 5
hurricane has the highest. The rankings are not absolute in terms of effects. Lower-
category storms can inflict greater damage than higher-category storms, depending on
factors such as local terrain and total rainfall. For instance, a Category 2 hurricane that
strikes a major urban area will likely do more damage than a large Category 5
hurricane that strikes a mostly rural region. In fact, tropical systems of less than
hurricane strength can produce significant damage and human casualties, especially
from flooding and landslides.

The National Hurricane Center classifies hurricanes of Category 3 and above as Major
Hurricanes. The Joint Typhoon Warning Center classifies typhoons with wind speeds
of at least 150 mi/h (67 m/s or 241 km/h, equivalent to a strong Category 4 storm) as
Super Typhoons. The definition of sustained winds recommended by the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) and used by most weather agencies is that of a
10-minute average. The U.S. weather service defines sustained winds based on 1-
minute average speed measured about 10 meters (33 ft) above the surface.

Tropical cyclones can result in extensive flooding and storm surge, as happened with:
Bhola Cyclone, striking East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) in 1970,
Typhoon Nina, striking China in 1975,
Tropical Storm Allison, which struck Houston, Texas in 2001 and

Hurricane Katrina, which left most of New Orleans under water in 2005. Much of the
flooding was due to the failure of the city's levee system.

Other storm systems

Many other forms of cyclone can form in nature. Several of these relate to the
formation or dissipation of tropical cyclones. An extratropical cyclone is a storm that
derives energy from horizontal temperature differences, which are typical in higher
latitudes. A tropical cyclone can become extratropical as it moves toward higher
latitudes if its energy source changes from heat released by condensation to differences
in temperature between air masses; more rarely, an extratropical cyclone can transform
into a subtropical storm, and from there into a tropical cyclone. From space,
extratropical storms have a characteristic "comma-shaped" cloud pattern. Extratropical
cyclones can also be dangerous because their low-pressure centers cause powerful
winds.
A subtropical cyclone is a weather system that has some characteristics of a tropical
cyclone and some characteristics of an extratropical cyclone. They can form in a wide
band of latitude, from the equator to 50°. Although subtropical storms rarely attain
hurricane-force winds, they may become tropical in nature as their core warms. In the
United Kingdom and Europe, some severe northeast Atlantic cyclonic depressions are
referred to as "hurricanes," even though they rarely originate in the tropics. These
European windstorms can generate hurricane-force winds but are not given individual
names. However, two powerful extratropical cyclones that ravaged France, Germany,
and the United Kingdom in December 1999, "Lothar" and "Martin", were named due
to their unexpected power (equivalent to a category 1 or 2 hurricane). In British
Shipping Forecasts, winds of force 12 on the Beaufort scale are described as "hurricane
force."

Tornado: A Tornado (often referred to as a twister or, erroneously, a cyclone) is a

violent, dangerous, rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the
earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud.
Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, but are typically in the form of a visible
condensation funnel, whose narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled by a
cloud of debris and dust. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per
hour (177 km/h), are approximately 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles
(several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme can attain wind speeds of
more than 300 mph (480 km/h), stretch more than two miles (3 km) across, and stay on
the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).

Cyclone Laila hits India (20 th May 2010)

A powerful cyclone ravaged southeastern India on Thursday topping power lines,

damaging electrical installations and plunging a large part of coastal Andhra Pradesh
state into darkness with waves as high as 9 feet. The cyclone with strong winds of 60
miles (100 kilometers) per hour and heavy rain hit the coastal town of Bapatla and
about 250 miles (400 kilometers) southeast of Hyderabad, the state capital. Strong
winds uprooted trees and billboards which blocked roads in many places and more that
1 400 villages in six different districts were hit by power outages. There were no
immediate reports of casualties although at least 15 people were dead because of heavy
rains and strong winds over the past 24 hours. At least 55 fishermen were also reported
missing although officials ordered fishing vessels to stay in port.
Cyclone Thane

Very Severe Cyclonic Storm Thane was the strongest tropical cyclone of 2011 within
the North Indian Ocean. Thane initially developed as a tropical disturbance within the
monsoon trough to the west of Indonesia. December 25, 2011 – December 31, 2011.

Over the next couple of days the disturbance gradually developed further while
moving towards the northwest, and was declared a Depression during December 25,
before being declared Cyclonic Storm Thane during the next day. As it was named,
Thane started to turn towards the west under the influence of a subtropical ridge of
high pressure before its development slowed down during December 27, as a strong
outflow and marginally favourable sea surface temperatures fought with persistent
vertical wind shear. After its development had slowed down during December 27,
Thane became a Very Severe Cyclonic Storm during December 28, before as it
approached the Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, it weakened slightly.
Thane then made landfall early on December 30, on the north Tamil Nadu coast
between Cuddalore and Puducherry and rapidly weakened into a depression.

Cyclonic Storm Nilam

Cyclone Nilam was the deadliest tropical cyclone to directly affect South India since
Cyclone Jal in 2010. Originating from an area of low pressure over the Bay of Bengal
on October 28, the system began as a weak depression 550 km (340 mi) northeast of
Trincomalee, Sri Lanka. Over the following few days, the depression gradually
intensified into a deep depression, and subsequently a Cyclonic Storm by October 30.
It made landfall near Mahabalipuram on October 31 as a strong Cyclonic Storm with
peak winds of 85 km/h (50 mph). In Chennai's Marina Beach, strong winds pushed
piles of sand ashore and seawater reached nearly a 100 m (330 ft) inland.

More than 3000 people were evacuated around Mahabalipuram in the wake of the
storm. Schools and colleges in Chennai declared holidays until November 1 as 282
schools had been converted into relief centers. Government offices and private
organizations closed their operations by 3 p.m. to ease traffic congestion. Cyclone
shelters had been arranged in Nagapattinam and Cuddalore districts. Mahabalipuram
faced power outages and 90 trees were uprooted and two huts were damaged. While
damages to property were considerable, human casualties were very few. Nilam was
estimated to have caused huge economic losses of 200 crore (US$32 million)

Cyclone Phailin -Tropical Cyclone

Very Severe Cyclonic Storm Phailin was the second-strongest tropical cyclone ever to
make landfall in India, behind only the 1999 Odisha cyclone. Direct fatalities: 36
October 4, 2013 – October 14, 2013 , Highest winds: 260 km/h; Affected areas:
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gopalpur, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Puri, Odisha,
Category: Category 5 Hurricane (SSHS), Very Severe Cyclonic Storm (IMD)

On October 4, the Japan Meteorological Agency started to monitor a tropical

depression that had developed in the Gulf of Thailand, about 400 km (250 mi) west of
Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam. Over the next couple of days the system moved
westward within an area of low to moderate vertical wind shear before it passed over
the Malay Peninsula and moved out of the Western Pacific Basin on October 6. The
system then subsequently emerged into the Andaman Sea during the next day, before
the India Meteorological Department (IMD) started to monitor the system as
Depression BOB 04 early on October 8. During that day the system moved towards the
west-northwest into an environment for more development before the IMD reported
that the system had become a deep depression early on October 9 as it intensified and
consolidated further. The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC)
subsequently initiated advisories on the depression and designated it as Tropical
Cyclone 02B, before the system slightly weakened, as it passed near to Mayabunder in
the Andaman Islands and moved into the Bay of Bengal. After moving into the Bay of
Bengal, the system quickly reorganized as it moved along the southern edge of a
subtropical ridge of high pressure.
The IMD reported that the system had intensified into a cyclonic storm and named it
Phailin. After it was named, Phailin rapidly intensified further, and became equivalent
to a category 1 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale (SSHWS) early
on October 10. After bands of atmospheric convection had wrapped into the systems
low level circulation center and formed an eye feature. Later that day the IMD reported
that the system had become a very severe cyclonic storm, before the JTWC reported
that Phailin had become equivalent to a category 4 hurricane on the SSHWS, after it
had rapidly intensified throughout that day. Early the next day the system underwent
an eye-wall replacement cycle and formed a new eye-wall which subsequently
consolidated. After the new eye-wall had consolidated the system slightly intensified
further, with the JTWC reporting that the system had reached its peak intensity, with 1-
minute sustained wind speeds of 260 km/h (160 mph) which made it equivalent to a
category 5 hurricane on the SSHWS. Early on October 12, the system started to
weaken as it underwent a second eye-wall replacement cycle, before Phailin's eye
started rapidly to deteriorate as it moved towards the Indian coast. The system
subsequently made landfall later that day near Gopalpur in Odisha, at around 22:30
IST (17:00 UTC) as a very severe cyclonic storm. After the system made landfall, the
JTWC issued their final advisory on Phailin, before during the next day the IMD
reported that the system had weakened into a cyclonic storm.

Cyclone Hudhud - tropical cyclone

Very Severe Cyclonic Storm Hudhud was the second strongest tropical cyclone of
2014 within the North Indian Ocean, as well as the most destructive tropical cyclone in
the basin since Nargis in 2008. Hudhud originated from a low pressure system that
formed under the influence of an upper-air cyclonic circulation in the Andaman Sea on
October 6. Hudhud intensified into a cyclonic storm on October 8 and as a Severe
Cyclonic Storm on October 9. Hudhud underwent rapid deepening in the following
days and was classified as a Very Severe Cyclonic Storm by the IMD. Shortly before
landfall near Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, on October 12, Hudhud reached its
peak strength with three minute wind speeds of 175 km/h (109 mph) and a minimum
central pressure of 960 mbar (28.35 inHg). The system then drifted northwards
towards Uttar Pradesh and Nepal, causing widespread rains in both areas and heavy
snowfall in the latter.

Hudhud caused extensive damage to the city of Visakhapatnam and the neighbouring
districts of Vizianagaram and Srikakulam of Andhra Pradesh. Damages are estimated
to be at least 70000 crore (US$11 billion), with assessments still underway. At least
109 deaths have been confirmed, a majority of them from Andhra Pradesh and Nepal,
with the latter experiencing an avalanche due to the cyclone.

Cyclone Vardah

Cyclone 'Vardah' hit the Tamil Nadu capital on 12 December, 2016. It was the most
severe in two decades, that claimed at least 10 lives, flattened homes to the ground,
disabled communication lines and brought the transport system to a halt on Monday, as
it crossed Chennai's coast with heavy rain and storm. Chennai, Tiruvallur and
Kanchipuram districts were struck with heavy rain. National Disaster Response Force
(NDRF) was on the move to control the havoc. Thousands of people were evacuated.
Chennaities woke up to uprooted trees, big broken branches blocking the roads, fallen
name boards, hoardings, damaged compound walls and vehicles under fallen trees,
power cut and lack of milk supplies on Tuesday, a day after severe cyclone Vardah
ripped through the city. Chennai’s green cover faced a considerable loss as thousands
of trees were uprooted by the cyclone. It made landfall near Chennai resulting in heavy
rainfall which left the city drenched. But most people, aware of the nature's fury,
remained indoors, leaving the roads across the city virtually deserted. Not only
uprooting of trees, the winds brought down overhead cables and electricity poles.
Some trees fell collapsed on parked vehicles, damaging them. The Chennai Airport
was non-operational and no flight on Monday landed or took off from Chennai Airport
as airmen were issued a notice of the severe cyclonic storm.

The Indian Army troops were deployed for releif and rescue operations. The National
Disaster Response Force (NDRF) had kept ready eight flood rescue teams comprising
more than 250 members. Equipped with 23 inflatable rubber boats and communication
equipment, these had been pre-positioned in coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh. Eleven
flood rescue teams comprising 428 rescuers, equipped with 48 inflatable rubber boats
and communication equipment have been pre-positioned in low-lying parts of Tamil
Nadu. The Tamil Nadu government said over 7,350 people was shifted to 54 relief
camps set up in Chennai, Kanchipuram, Tiruvallur and Villupuram districts. The Tamil
Nadu government declared a holiday for all government, government-aided private
schools, colleges and other educational institutions in the affected areas. All
educational institutions in Chennai, Kanchipuram and Thiruvallur districts will
remained closed on Tuesday. It has told the private sector to allow their workers to
avail a holiday or work from home.

Earthquakes

An earthquake is a sudden movement of the Earth caused by the abrupt release of

energy that has accumulated over a long time. Most earthquakes occur at the
boundaries where the plates of the Earth’s outer layer meet. In fact, the location of
earthquakes and the kind of ruptures they produce help scientists define the plate
boundaries. Most destructive quakes, however, are caused by dislocations of the crust.
The crust may bend and then, when the stress exceeds the strength of the rocks, break
and “snap” to a new position.

It is a sudden shake of the Earth's crust caused by the tectonic plates colliding. The
vibrations may vary in magnitude. The underground point of origin of the earthquake
is called the "focus". The point directly above the focus on the surface is called the
"epicenter". Earthquakes by themselves rarely kill people or wildlife. It is usually the
secondary events that they trigger, such as building collapse, fires, tsunamis (seismic
sea waves) and volcanoes, that are actually the human disaster. Many of these could
possibly be avoided by better construction, safety systems, early warning and
evacuation planning. Earthquakes are caused by the discharge of energy accumulated
along geologic fault.

Earthquake Prediction

From a geologic perspective we can predict where most earthquakes will occur: along
the plate boundaries. We can also predict the average rate of occurrence (over millions
of years). Such predictions are not terribly useful for society, although they are not
without value since they indicate our understanding of the basic processes of
earthquakes. However, although predicting the exact time of an earthquake would be
valuable, it does not solve all of our problems.

The best preparation for earthquakes is adequate building construction. The

information scientists try to provide is the level of shaking expected in a given region.
We try to map the surficial geology, the potential size and location of earthquakes. In
essence, long-term preparation guided by predictions of the potential level of shaking
in a region is the best way to prepare for earthquakes.

There are three types of plate boundaries: Spreading zones, transform faults, and
subduction zones.

Spreading zones: At spreading zones, molten rock rises pushing two plates apart and
adding new material at their edges. Most spreading zones are found in oceans.
Transform faults are found where plates slide past one another. Earthquakes at
transform faults tend to occur at shallow depths and form fairly straight linear patterns.

Subduction zones are found where one plate overrides, or subducts, another, pushing it
downward into the mantle where it melts. Subduction zones are characterized by deep-
ocean trenches, shallow to deep earthquakes, and mountain ranges containing active
volcanoes. Geologists have found that earthquakes tend to recur along faults, which
reflect zones of weakness in the Earth’s crust. If a fault zone 2 experiences an
earthquake, there is no guarantee that all of the stress will be relieved. Another
earthquake can still occur.

Earthquakes may occur in an area before, during, and after a volcanic eruption, but
they are not the cause or result of volcanic activity; rather they are the result of the
active forces connected with the volcanic eruption. The vibrations produced by
earthquakes are detected, recorded, and measured by instruments called seismographs.
The jagged line made by a seismograph—called a seismogram—reflects the changing
intensity of the vibrations by responding to the motion of the ground surface beneath
the instrument. From the data expressed in seismograms, scientists can determine the
time, the epicenter, the focal depth, and the type of faulting of an earthquake and can
also estimate how much energy was released.

The Richter scale is the best-known scale for measuring the magnitude of earthquakes.

The scale is logarithmic, so a recording of 7, for example, indicates a disturbance with

ground motion 10 times as large as a recording of 6.

A quake of magnitude 2 is the smallest quake normally felt by people.

Earthquakes with a magnitude of 6 or more are considered major; great earthquakes

have magnitudes of 8 or more.

Initial effects of an earthquake are violent ground motions which can produce cracks
or fractures in the ground and liquefaction, where loose sandy soils with a high
moisture content separate and give the surface a consistency much like that of
quicksand. As destructive as earthquakes are, the resulting secondary effects such as
landslides, tsunamis, fires, and floods can be even more devastating.

Tsunamis

Tsunamis are waves generated by earthquakes or any large, sudden offset of the ocean
floor (caused by submarine landslides etc.). They are sometimes incorrectly called
tidal waves, they have nothing to do with the tides. A tsunami is a series of gigantic
waves that occur in the ocean or in other large bodies of water. Formed when a large
amount of water is rapidly displaced, tsunamis are often caused by an underwater
disturbance such as an earthquake, a landslide, an erupting volcano, or even a
meteorite impact. Moving outward from their initial source, the waves travel very
fast—up to 600 mph and can be as high as 60 feet and are very destructive. Obviously
they affect coastal regions and are particularly dangerous in the immediate vicinity of
an earthquake. Tsunamis can also travel across oceans, so a large earthquake along the
coast of South America can produce a tsunami that eventually travels to and damages
coastal regions of Hawaii and or Japan. As they travel across the ocean, they are very
small in height, and unnoticeable. When they reach the shore, the shallowing of the
water produces an increase in wave height. They travel about as fast as an airplane, so
we have hours to warn distant localities. But they can strike within a few minutes close
to the earthquake.

Almost all the countries situated around the Bay of Bengal were affected by the
tsunami waves in the morning hours of 26 December 2004 (between 0900 – 1030 hrs
IST). The killer waves were triggered by an earthquake measuring 8.9 on the Richter
scale that had an epicenter near the west coast of Sumatra in Indonesia. The first
recorded tsunami in India dates back to 31 December 1881. An earthquake of
magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale, with its epicenter believed to have been under the
sea off the coast of Car Nicobar Island, caused the tsunami. The last recorded tsunami
in India occurred on 26 June 1941, caused by an earthquake with magnitude exceeding
8.5. This caused extensive damage to the Andaman Islands. There are no other well-
documented records of Tsunami in India.

It was all quiet on the waterfront on the Sunday morning after Christmas in 2004 at
Kanyakumari, the famous Marina Beach in Chennai and elsewhere on the Kerala coast
and Andaman Nicober Islands. There was the excitement of a holyday with an offbeat
mood with swarms of people on the sea front: children playing cricket and man and
women on their morning work at the Marina. Elsewhere, fishermen were putting out to
sea for the day’s catch. Then all on a sudden, a curious thing happened. The
holidaymakers at Kanyakumari were awestruck when the sea receded from the shores.

In the present tsunami, India was the third country severely battered after Indonesia
and Srilanka. In India the State severely affected by tsunami are Tamilnadu,
Pondicheri, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Andaman and Nicober Island. The following
Table.1 shows the average scenario of tsunami devastation in the respective areas
(Source: DiMaRF, India-2005).
Some of the significant earthquakes:

The Latur (Killari), Maharashtra, earthquake of September 30, 1993 is the most
devastating SCR earthquake in the world. Its epicentre was located in a region
considered to be aseismic. This earthquake occurred in the typical rural setting of
India. The severity of the destruction was compounded by the nature of 4 village
settlements. While most of the engineered structures survived the earthquake, the non-
engineered ones were totally damaged.

Over 10,000 lives were lost in this earthquake and several villages were destroyed.
With a magnitude 6.3 and focal depth less than 10 km, this earthquake is similar to
other moderate events in the Australian and Canadian shields. It is suggested that the
repeat time of moderate SCR earthquakes are of the order of hundreds of thousands of
years. The recurrence interval at Latur may also be of the same order, and the recorded
human history may not document any previous earthquakes. Thus, we have very little
information about the earthquake history of such regions and the earthquakes occur as
a total surprise. This event led to several studies, giving a new perspective to seismic
hazard assessment in the peninsular India. It also led to strengthening of the seismic
network, upgrading several existing facilities. The worst earthquake in the world poses
little risk if no one lives in or uses the region that is affected. The consequences of
earthquake activity in December 2003 exemplify this point. On December 22 of that
year, a magnitude 6.5 earthquake in central California killed two people and severely
damaged 40 buildings. (see
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/eqinthenews/2003/nc40148755). Four days later, a
magnitude 6.6 earthquake near Bam, Iran, killed 30,000 people, injured another 30,000
and damaged approximately 85% of all buildings and infrastructure.

(see http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/eqinthenews/2003/uscvad/index.php).

The next day a magnitude 7.3 earthquake occurred in the southwest Pacific Ocean; it
went largely unreported.(see http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/ eqinthenews/
2003/uscwbb/ index.php).

The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the third largest earthquake in recorded history,
registering a moment magnitude of 9.1-9.3. The huge tsunamis triggered by this
earthquake cost the lives of at least 229,000 people.

The 7.6-7.7 2005 Kashmir earthquake, which cost 79,000 lives in Pakistan.

The 7.7 magnitude July 2006 Java earthquake, which also triggered tsunamis.

The 7.9 magnitude May 12, 2008 Sichuan earthquake in Sichuan Province, China.
Death toll at over 61,150 as of May 27, 2008.

Landslides

Landslides are downward flows of rock, dirt, and other materials. Landslides can cause
a great deal of damage, especially when they are large, and they are a geological
hazard of concern around the world, as they can happen anywhere and at any time. A
number of steps can be taken to prevent landslides and reduce their severity, and these
steps are often used in areas where landslides are common, such as the infamous
Devil's Slide in California.

In a landslide, the materials are dry, and can include rocks, dirt, trees, and structures
which happen to be pulled along with the falling material. Landslides are second only
to earthquakes in terms of financial loss. Landslides are a part of natural erosion
processes, but can also be influenced by human design and construction. Landslides
can be caused by earthquake, destabilization as a result of water flowing underground,
the collapse of overhanging rocks, and the simple battle with gravity. Human activities
such as heavy construction, undermining of the earth, and stripping groundcover like
plants and trees can also trigger landslides. When a landslide involves mud and wet
material, it is known as a mudslide; mudslides can follow storms and floods.

The steepness of a slope is the most significant factor that contribute to land-sliding.
Other factors such as soil type, water content, rock type, and bedding orientation
(sedimentary rocks) can influence the tendency to slide. Human landscaping can also
upset the stability of a slope. We must be careful when altering the slope of hills
(where we like to build) and insure that the region is well drained and well supported.

Surface Subsidence

In some regions, the extraction of groundwater (or petroleum) has produced tens of
feet of subsidence. If you recall, much of the available fresh water is stored beneath
Earth's surface, in the pore-spaces of rocks. We often tap those resources and drain the
water for drinking, irrigation, etc. If we pull something out of the ground, and don't
replace it the weight of the overlying material will cause subsidence.

Another cause of surface subsidence is the natural dissolution of limestone. Limestone

(which is very common in this area) slowly dissolves in water. The result is the
formation of caves. At times, the collapse of the cave roof may cause near-surface
subsidence called sink holes. Sink holes can be large and form suddenly, swallowing
human structures in the process. Most often the process is slow and the features are
more stable (on our time scales).

Landslides in India

Landslides are one of the natural hazards that affect at least 5% of land area in India
exceeding 0.49 million km2. Landslides of different types occur frequently in
geodynamically active domains in Himalaya, Northeastern India as also in stable
domains in Western Ghats and Nilgiri Hills of southern India. Some of the worst
landslides happened in India are Great Malpa Rock Avalanche of 1998, the Alaknanda
Tragedy of 1970 and Amboori landslide of Kerala of 2001, which are still fresh in the
minds of people as nightmares.

Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh Starting August 4,2012 incessant rain battered the
Northern states Of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu, triggering landslides,
cloud bursts and flash floods At least 34 people were killed and hundreds made
homeless as reported in Times of India dated 6, August 2012. A large number of
people have been affected after flash flooding of the river Bhagirathi triggered by a
cloudburst near Uttarkashi town in India’s hilly Uttarakhand state. More than 200
families living near the river were evacuated. In Uttarkashi alone, 31 people were
killed and six were still missing following heavy rains,” Twenty three workers of the
state-run UJVN Ltd’s Assi Ganga hydel project were missing following a cloudburst in
the upper hills of Uttarkashi district and were declared dead.
Avalanches

Technically, an avalanche is any amount of snow sliding down a mountainside. It can

be compared to a landslide, only with snow instead of earth. Another common term
for avalanche is “snowslide”. As an avalanche becomes nearer to the bottom of the
slope, it gains speed and power, this can cause even the smallest of snowslides to be a
major disaster.

Avalanches have always occurred in the mountainous regions of the world though
with the growth of winter-time recreations, fatalities have been on the rise since the
1950s. Avalanches claim over 150 lives each year worldwide and hundreds more are
injured or trapped following an avalanche.9Ninety percent of all avalanches occur on
moderate slopes with an angle of 30° to 45° (snow tends not to accumulate on steeper
slopes). Avalanches occur when the gravity pushing the collection of snow at the top
of the slope is greater than the strength of the snow itself. Conditions affecting
stability include the gravitational force component of the snow and resisting forces,
such as the frictional resistance of the slope or the anchoring effect of shrubs. In
general, avalanches are caused when this balance is lost and when the forces exceed
the resistance. Avalanches are rarely observed closely since they normally occur
during a short time period of one or two minutes. A change in temperature, a loud
noise, or vibrations are all that are necessary to trigger one of these snowfalls that
begin at a "starting zone." The avalanche continues downslope along the "track" and
ultimately the avalanche fans out and settles in the "runout zone."

Major Causes - Major causes of avalanches can be classified into fixed (prime
factors) and variable factors (exciting factors), such as weather conditions and the
weight of the snow cover, Avalanches occur when these factors are combined. The
types and scale of avalanches can differ depending on the combination of these
various factors and their scale. Major prime factors and exciting factors are shown in
the following table.

Internationally, the Alpine countries of France, Austria, Switzerland, and Italy

experience the greatest number of avalanches and loss of life annually. The states of
Colorado, Alaska, and Utah are the most deadly.
Volcanic Eruptions, Heat and cold waves, Climatic change: global warming, Sea
level rise, ozone depletion

Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanoes occur because the Earth’s crust is broken into 17 major tectonic plates that
are rigid but float on a hotter, softer layer in the Earth’s mantle. Within the Earth’s
mantle, temperatures are hot enough to melt rock and form a thick, flowing substance
called magma. Magma is lighter than the solid rock that surrounds it—buoyant like a
cork in water—and, being buoyant, it rises. As the plates shift, they spread apart,
collide, and/or slide past one another. Volcanoes grow because of repeated eruptions.
Most occur near the edge of plates or along the edges of continents where one plate
overlaps a second plate; this is called a seduction zone. Active volcanoes seen on land
occur where plates collide; however, most of Earth’s volcanoes are hidden from view,
occurring on the ocean floor. Volcanic eruptions occur only in certain places and do
not occur randomly. Some tend to be explosive when they erupt, whereas others tend
to be loosely flowing and nonexplosive. Some volcanoes may exhibit only one
characteristic type of eruption during an interval of activity; others may display an
entire range of types.

Types of Volcanoes

Strombolian: Huge clots of molten lava burst from the summit crater to form arcs
through the sky; lava clots combine to stream down the slopes of the volcano.

Vulcanian: A dense cloud of ash-laden gas explodes from the crater and rises high
above the peak; steaming ash forms a whitish cloud near the upper level of the cone.

Vesuvian: This type is named after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Italy in AD 79.
Great quantities of ash-laden gas are violently discharged to form a cauliflower shaped
cloud high above the volcano.

Peléan: Large quantities of gas, dust, ash, and incandescent lava fragments are blown
out of a central crater, fall back, and form avalanches that move down the volcano at
velocities as great as 100 mph.

Hawaiian: This term is used for a fissure type eruption where molten, incandescent
lava spurts on the volcano’s rift zone and feeds lava streams that flow down the
volcano, or or a central-vent eruption where a fountain of fiery lava spurts to a height
of several hundred feet or more.

Phreatic: This type of eruption is driven by explosive expanding steam—a result of

cold ground or surface water coming into contact with hot rock or magma. The
distinguishing feature of phreatic eruptions is that they only blast out fragments of
preexisting solid rock from the volcanic conduit; no new magma is erupted.

Plinian: This is the most powerful type of eruption, involving the explosive ejection of
relatively viscous lava that can send ash and volcanic gas tens of miles into the air.

Also volcanoes generally fall into one of three general categories - active, dormant,
and extinct. An active volcano is one that is currently erupting or is continues to show
signs of the possibility that it could erupt. Dormant volcanoes are those that haven't
erupted in quite some time but the signs are there that it is possible they could again in
the future. Extinct volcanoes are those that are believed to no longer have the ability to
erupt now or any time in the future.

Some volcanoes are still quite dangerous as they fall into the classification of super
volcanoes. They are believed to still have the ability to erupt and to create a great deal
of havoc and destruction if that happens. Researchers and scientists keep a very close
eye on such volcanoes to prevent a natural disaster from taking place. We can divide
volcanic hazards into short term, and long term. The short term hazards are generally
associated with immediate effects of an eruption. The long term hazards can be more
widespread and last for some time.

Primary Volcanic Hazards

Lava flows can often be avoided personally, although often structures that we build
are lost to the steady march of lava.

Pyroclastic flows are very dangerous since they travel upwards of 150 km/hr they can
seldom be outrun. They are a mixture of superheated ash, gas, and rock and level or
bury pretty whatever is in their path.

Secondary Volcanic Hazards

Lahars are probably the most dangerous. They are volcanic mudflows. They also
travel fast and are generally mixtures of water, ash, pyroclastic material. The water
may come from lakes rivers or melted ice.

Ash falls is another hazard associated with volcanic eruptions. Ash can choke people
and collapse houses. They can also cause problems for airplane engines.

Landslides are common on steep-sided volcanoes and thus represent another

secondary hazard for those that live near a volcano.

Climate changes - throughout Earth's history, large volcanic eruptions have impacted
the climate. We can see evidence for incredible volcanic eruptions such as that which
formed crater lake. These voluminous events can alter the amount of sunlight reaching
Earth by ejecting ash into the high atmosphere.

Explosive volcanic eruptions can be dangerous and deadly. The fiery clouds and hot
lava that race down mountainsides destroy nearly everything in their path, including
trees, plants, insects, and other wildlife. Ash erupting into the sky falls back onto the
Earth, creating a blanket that can suffocate plants, crops, animals, and humans. They
can also spark forest fires near the volcano. Volcanic eruptions can also affect climate
and weather patterns. Eruptions produce sulfuric acid aerosols that form a layer of haze
in the stratosphere. This haze, which can remain in the atmosphere for years, reflects
the Sun’s radiation and reduces surface temperatures. On the other hand, volcanoes
also provide many benefits to the environment. The gaseous emissions from volcanic
vents over hundreds of millions of years formed the Earth’s earliest oceans and
atmosphere, supplying the ingredients vital to evolve and sustain life.

Some of the greatest impacts (and associated risks) from volcanic eruptions occur due
to the interaction of volcanic material with the hydrosphere and atmosphere.
Volcanically induced mudflows, for instance, occur when volcanic ash and debris
interact with surface waters (or ice). When the Nevado del Ruiz volcano in Colombia
erupted in 1985 under a cap of snow and ice, the resulting mudflows killed more than
23,000 people in a very short time. However, much of the damage associated with the
1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines occurred months and even years
after the eruption, as monsoonal rains mobilized the volcanic ash left behind on the
flanks of the volcano. Atmospheric contributions from major volcanic eruptions can
also have significant global impacts affecting climate and the geochemical cycling of
various chemical elements. It is often the case that the indirect consequences of these
events can have greater economic, meteorological, agricultural, and sociological
impacts than the initial effects of the events.
Heat and Cold waves

A Heat Wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, more than the normal
maximum temperature that occurs during the summer season in the North-Western
parts of India. Heat Waves typically occur between March and June, and in some rare
cases even extend till July. The extreme temperatures and resultant atmospheric
conditions adversely affect people living in these regions as they cause physiological
stress, sometimes resulting in death.

The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has given the following criteria for Heat
Waves :

Heat Wave need not be considered till maximum temperature of a station reaches
atleast 40*C for Plains and atleast 30*C for Hilly regions

When normal maximum temperature of a station is less than or equal to 40*C Heat
Wave Departure from normal is 5*C to 6*C Severe Heat Wave Departure from normal
is 7*C or more

When normal maximum temperature of a station is more than 40*C Heat Wave
Departure from normal is 4*C to 5*C Severe Heat Wave Departure from normal is
6*C or more

When actual maximum temperature remains 45*C or more irrespective of normal

maximum temperature, heat waves should be declared. Higher daily peak temperatures
and longer, more intense heat waves are becomingly increasingly frequent globally due
to climate change. India too is feeling the impact of climate change in terms of
increased instances of heat waves which are more intense in nature with each passing
year, and have a devastating impact on human health thereby increasing the number of
heat wave casualties.

Higher daily peak temperatures and longer, more intense heat waves are becomingly
increasingly frequent globally due to climate change. India too is feeling the impact of
climate change in terms of increased instances of heat waves which are more intense in
nature with each passing year, and have a devastating impact on human health thereby
increasing the number of heat wave casualties.
Health Impacts of Heat Waves

The health impacts of Heat Waves typically involve dehydration, heat cramps, heat
exhaustion and/or heat stroke. The signs and symptoms are as follows:

Heat Cramps: Ederna (swelling) and Syncope (Fainting) generally accompanied by

fever below 39*C i.e.102*F.

Heat Exhaustion: Fatigue, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle

cramps and sweating.

Heat Stoke: Body temperatures of 40*C i.e. 104*F or more along with delirium,
seizures or coma. This is a potential fatal condition

India endured the hottest year in 2010 in recorded history even as cold wave to severe
cold wave conditions persist in north and north-west concurrently. Mean annual
temperature for the country as a whole during the last year was +0.93 deg Celsius
above the 1961-1990 average. It was slightly higher than that of the year 2009, making
2010 as the warmest year on record since 1901, an annual climate summary issued by
India Meteorological Department (IMD). The Earth's average temperature in 2010, as
in 2005, was 58.12 degrees, which is 1.12 degrees above the 20th-century average of
57 degrees. It was the 34th consecutive year that the global temperature was above
average. The last below-average year was 1976. Nine of the Earth's 10 warmest years
on record have occurred since 2001, and all 12 of the warmest years have occurred
since 1997.

Heat Wave, India.

A heat wave is a hot period, which lasts from a few days to a few weeks, and which
may be accompanied by high humidity. Severe heat waves could damage crop, and kill
from hyperthermia. If accompanied by drought, heat waves can lead to wildfires. As
per the assessment made by IMD, the 2007 extreme heat waves in India were
considered to be the fourth warmest year on record since 1901. In 2007, the annual
average air temperature over India was 0.55 0C above the averages between 1900 and
1961.1 Further, as per the assessment, eight of the ten warmest years occurred in the
decade 1997-2007. These warmest years were 2002, 2006, 2003, 2007, 1998, 2004,
1999, and 2001, in the order of warmness.

In India, the heat waves during April to June 2007 led increasingly higher
temperatures. The heat waves were observed over coastal Andhra and Telangana
during May.2 The western Himalayan region was also warmer than normal during the
last week of March and April and the first week of May 2007. As per EMDAT data,
these events claimed more than 72 lives. The heat wave raised the maximum
temperature above 57OC over the northern and central parts of India during the first 10
days of June 2007, which killed 72 people during that period. The temperature
anomalies of 2-10 June compared to the 1961 to 1990 average were higher over many
parts of India
In India Jun 6, 2012: Heat wave caused over 100 deaths in Bengal. In Bengal majority
of deaths were reported from Asansol -Durgapur belt.There had been 43 deaths from
Durgapur and Asansol belt of Burdwan. Asansol and Durgapur is having a temperature
of 47 degree Celsius. Even Midnapore (west) is having a temperature of around 44
degree celsius. Midnapore (west) recorded 18 deaths and similarly Purulia had 18
deaths, where the temperature is hovering over 46 degree. Even in Kolkata there had
been seven deaths. Five deaths were reported from Behala-Thakurpukur area. An
unidentified person died in Rabindra Sarani. The temperature in Kolkata is above 40
degree Celsius. With the heat wave continuing and the weather office yet to make any
forecast about rain, most people prefer to shut indoors and roads are comparatively
empty and even shopkeepers are downing their shutters early to keep the heat at bay.
Even lawyers at Alipore court are on cease work to beat the heat and thus the litigants
are suffering.

In April and May 2016, India experienced a major heat wave. A national record high
temperature of 51.0 °C (123.8 °F) was set in the town of Phalodi, in the state of
Rajasthan. A total of over 160 people have died and 330 million affected. There are
also water shortages. Drought has worsened the heat wave. Over 500 people had died
due to sunstroke in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. In 2017, heat waves typically set
in across India during the period from April to June, before the cooling monsoon rains
arrive. But the heat this year began a bit earlier than normal, with New Delhi recording
it hottest March in seven years,

Cold Wave

A cold wave is a weather phenomenon and refers to a rapid fall in temperature within a
24 hour period requiring substantially increased protection to agriculture, industry,
commerce, and social activities. The precise criterion for a cold wave is determined by
the rate at which the temperature falls, and the minimum to which it falls. This
minimum temperature is dependent on the geographical region and time of year

A cold wave can cause death and injury to livestock and wildlife. Exposure to cold
mandates greater caloric intake for all animals, including humans, and if a cold wave
is accompanied by heavy and persistent snow, grazing animals may be unable to reach
needed food and die of hypothermia or starvation. They often necessitate the purchase
of foodstuffs at considerable cost to farmers to feed livestock. Also leads to freezing
in water pipelines. indoor plumbing ruptures as water expands within them. Demand
for electrical power and fuels rises dramatically during such times Some metals may
become brittle at low temperatures.
Motor vehicles may fail as antifreeze fails and motor oil gels, resulting even in the
failure of the transportation system.

Fires become even more of a hazard during extreme cold. Water mains may break and
water supplies may become unreliable, making firefighting more difficult. The air
during a cold wave is typically denser and any cold air that a fire draws in is likely to
cause a more intense fire because the content of dissolved oxygen is more in the cold
water.

Cold Wave in India, 2007

In early 2007, cold wave killed two in Jaunpur in the north Indian state of Uttar
Pradesh. The cold wave continued throughout January. Cold waves in most part of
north India resulted in temperatures dropping to less than 3.5OC of the average
temperature, which claimed more than 90 people lives, especially in Uttar Pradesh.
The cold wave also prevailed in Jammu and Kashmir from 11 March to 14 March
2007. As per EMDAT data, sixty-six people were killed from the extreme cold waves.
Further, from second week of December 2007, north India was in the grip of a cold
wave. Large areas over north India recorded temperatures below normal. Forty-seven
people were killed by the cold wave in Uttar Pradesh, where cities recorded
temperatures between 0 and 5OC in 2007.

In 2012 : Indian cold wave during the winter months of 2012 killed at least 92 people
across the northern and eastern India. Although not cold by the standards of Europe
and North America, the drop in temperature has had a devastating effect on the
hundreds of thousands of homeless people in India. Most of the dead were homeless
and elderly people, living in the state of Uttar Pradesh. Other northern and eastern
states such as Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, New Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Tripura were also affected by this cold snap. New
Delhi has also been gripped by cold weather, with the temperature dipping to 7oC on
the Christmas Day.

Climatic Change: Global warming, Sea Level rise, Ozone Depletion

Over the past 50 years, humans have changed natural ecosystems more rapidly and
extensively than in any comparable period in human history. This transformation of
the planet has contributed to substantial net gains in health, well-being and economic
development. But, not all regions and groups of people have benefited equally from
this process.

Approximately 60% of the benefits that the global ecosystem provides to support life
on Earth (such as fresh water, clean air and a relatively stable climate) are being
degraded or used unsustainably. In the report, scientists warn that harmful
consequences of this degradation to human health are already being felt and could
grow significantly worse over the next 50 years.
Impacts of Air pollution

The issues like global climate change and stratospheric ozone depletion and acid rain
are due to the effect of air pollution. Air is one of the five essentials (air, water, food,
heat and light) for the human beings. Man breaths nearly 22 thousand times in a day
and inhales approximately 15 kg of air per day. Generally human beings can live for 5
weeks without any food, 5 days without any water but not even 5 minutes without air.
This highlights how atmospheric air quality is vital for our survival. The effect of air
pollutants become dangerous when the atmospheric conditions lead to Atmospheric
Inversion (Temperature inversion) wherein occurs temperature increase with increase
in altitude unlike normal lapse rate in temperature with altitude. Such conditions
favour concentration of pollutants instead of dilution.

Global Climate Change

Global Warming is caused by trapping of infrared radiation by green house gases

(GHG).Human induced global warming is real and increasing. Over 100 years, mean
surface temperature of earth has increased by 0.60C

Global ground surface temperature change between 1500-2000 years

Ice cores are an excellent source of information on past global climates and
atmospheric composition. Antarctic ice cores indicate low concentrations of CO2 and
CH4 during glacial periods and high concentrations during inter-glacials. GHG have
an important role in changes in global temperature. Both ice cores and measured
atmospheric data show a 30% increase in CO2 above pre industrial levels during the
past two centuries (360 ppm by volume) (Carbon dioxide Information Analysis
Centre)

Sources of global Methane emissions

Natural sources - 23.5%
Fossil fuels - 20.4%
Ruminants - 17.3%
Rice - 12.2%
Biomass burning - 8.2%
Landfill - 8.2%
Other - 10.2%
> 75% of current global methane emissions come from anthropogenic sources

Data on CH4 concentrating in ice cores indicate a value of 750 ppbv during the pre
industrial period of the past 10,000 year. Highest value detected was 800 ppbv during
the past 40,000 years. Concentrations have increased by 145% during the past two
centuries (1800-2000 ppbv) Stratospheric O3 depletion is believed to have caused a
global cooling effect since 1980. Over the past 40 years temperature increase is 0.2-
0.30C. Warming in the 20th century is greater than any time during the past 400-600
years. Seven of the 10 warmest years in 20th century occurred in 1990's-1998 was
highest.

Other evidences
Mountain glaciers the world over are receding

Arctic ice park has lost 40% of the thickness over the past 4 decades
Global sea level rise

Projected climate change impact

Populations of many species that are already threatened will be at great risk - stress
due to change of climate and land use change that fragment the habitats.

Species composition and dominance will be altered - ecosystem change, critically

endangered species will become extinct without adaptation.

Terrestrial ecosystems appear to be storing increasing quantities of carbon

productivity.

Arid and semi-arid areas (dry forests, wood lands and rangelands)-the available soil
moisture and biomass productivity is expected to decrease.

The global average surface temperature is projected to increase by 1.4-5.80C over to

period 1990-2100.

Global average water vapour concentration and precipitation are projected to increase
during 21st century with greater variations year to year.

Occurrence of extreme events such as hot days, intense precipitation, droughts,

cyclones, hurricane, storms etc., is projected to increase.

3rd Assessment Report (IPCC, 2001) provides finding on global climate change
projections,

An increasing body of observations gives a collective picture of warming world and

other changes in climate system

Global average surface temperature increased by about 0.60C

Past 4 decades temperature have risen in the lowest 8 km of the atmosphere
Snow cover and ice extent have decreased

Global average sea level has risen and ocean heat content has increased (0.09-0.88
meters between 1990-2100)

Concentration of GHG and radiative forcing have continue to increase as a result of

human activity

Confidence in the ability of models to project future climate has increased.

Climate Change and World Agriculture

Increased CO2 concentration - Direct and indirect effects on photosynthesis

A doubling of CO2 may increase the photosynthesis rate by 30-100% depending on

other environmental conditions - temperature and available moisture.
In general CO2 enrichment will benefit temperature and humid tropical agriculture
more than that in semi-arid tropics

Effects in C3 and C4 plant types in different regions (C3 plants - wheat, rice soyabean
etc.)

C3 photosynthetic pathway - first product in their biochemical sequence of reaction

has three carbon atoms

C3 species respond positively to increased CO2 because it tends to suppress rates and
photorespiration

C4 plants - Maize, sorghum, sugarcane and millet etc., (those in which first product
has four carbon atoms)

Although more efficient photosynthetically water current levels of CO2, these plants
are less responsive to increased CO2 levels than C3 plant

C3 crops in temperate and subtropical regions could also benefit from decreased weed
infestation

14 of the world’s 17 most troublesome terrestrial weed species are C4 plants

Different response of C3 and C4 crops may encourage change in area sown

Actual amount of increase in usable yield is important - controlled conditions optimal

temperature and moisture, the yield increase was substantial 36% for C3 plants (wheat,
rice, barley and sunflower) under a doubling of ambient CO2 concentration.
Only limited studies are available verifying the temperature and rainfall
Change in yield quality due to increase in CO2.

N2 content may decrease, C may increase, reduces protein levels, and nutritional level
may decrease - chain reaction.

Effects on water use

Increase in CO2 will affect the opening and closure of stomata through which CO2 is
absorbed and water vapour is released.

Water requirement may decrease - transpiration may decrease - water use efficiency
may increase.

Doubling of CO2 concentration causes 40% decrease in stomatal aperture in both C3

and C4 plants - 23-46% decrease on transpiration - uncertainty prevails because of the
greater leaf are produced due to increased CO2
10-50% increase in yield for C3 plants and 10% increase for C4 plants.
Effect of increased temperature

Growth rate - Increase in temperature above optimum generally lead to lower yields
in cereals and higher yield of root crops and rangeland/grass land

May increase higher rates of evaporation and decrease moisture availability

Growing seasons - May extend the growing season available for plants and decrease
the growing period required by crop for maturation. If the increases in temperature is
limited to 2-3oC - extend growing season in mid and high latitude regions

Yield - Depends on determinate or indeterminate effect on crop. Cold regions may

enhance yield of cereals crops.

Live stock -Performance of farm animals could be detrimental to production

Available moisture - Mid latitudes evaporation increase by about 5% for each degree
C - substantial increased demand for irrigation. More studies are required on all
aspects of climate change and effect on soil moisture, soil fertility, pests diseases etc.,

Sea Level Rise -Soon after the ice age reached the maximum, glaciers started melting
and released vast quantities of water into the sea. Consequently sea level started rising,
and has risen about 130 m in the last 18,000 years. The rate of sea level rise in time,
however, has not been uniform; initially it was very fast, and then it slowed down.
Most of the sea level rise, therefore, took place between 18,000 and 6,000 years before
present.

Since 3,000 years before present till the end of the 19th century (1900 AD), sea level
was practically constant, and did not raise much. The rate of sea level rise during this
period was a mere 0.1 to 0.2 mm per year. Since 1900 AD, however, sea level has been
rising more rapidly, at the rate of 1 to 2 mm per year. These numbers in millimetre do
not appear large and daunting, but when accumulated say over a period of a century
they do assume a menacing proportion. In the last 100 years since 1900 AD, sea level
has risen by 20 cm, which is not insignificant. Results of TOPEX/Poseidon satellite
altimetry observations show that since 1993, sea level is rising at the rate of 3.1 mm
per year.

If the current rate of sea level rise, as ascertained from satellite altimetry, remains
constant at 3.1 mm per year then by 2100 AD the rise would be 310 mm or 31 cm. If
this current rate of sea level rise were to remain unchanged indefinitely, there is not
really much cause for concern for the near future. The current rate however, is
extremely unlikely to remain constant for the next one hundred years. The calculated
projection of sea level rise by 31 cm by the year 2100 AD, therefore, is far too naïve.
Moreover, we know that the intensifying anthropogenic global warming would
considerably accelerate the rise of sea level through two main processes: increased
pace of widespread melting of glacial ice, and thermal expansion of sea water.
Everyone understands rise in sea level due to melting of glacial ice but the
phenomenon of sea level rise due to thermal expansion, although quite simple, may
be somewhat unknown. An explanation of thermal expansion, which is essentially a
property of any matter, solid or gas or liquid, to expand when heated. Sea water, which
has a huge capacity to absorb heat, is no different, and expands in volume upon
heating, thus raising sea level. If sea water temperature rises by say 1oC by 2100 AD,
resultant rise in sea level could reach 40 cm. A near complete melting of all the
mountain glaciers of the world would make sea level rise by about 35 cm, which could
well happen by 2100 AD if global warming continues unabated. So a combination of
these two factors alone could raise sea level by 75 cm by 2100 AD.

Maximum possible rise of sea level

In order to determine the maximum height sea level could rise to, we need to discuss
the total volume of ice present on our planet earth, which could completely melt. The
Antarctic landmass of 13.6 million square km holds 30.1 million cubic km of ice,
which constitutes about 91.5 per cent of the total ice on earth. Greenland and the
Arctic contain 2.6 million cubic km of ice, which constitutes 8 percent of the total.
Himalayan, Alpine and other ice caps, ice fields and valley glaciers combined, carry
0.2 million cubic km of ice, which makes up the rest 0.55 percent. The total volume of
glacial ice of the world is thus 32.9 million cubic km. If all these glacial ice melts the
world oceans spread over a total area of 362 million square km will rise by a maximum
of 80.4 m. i.e. for every 400 cubic km of glacial ice melted, the sea level would rise by
1 mm.

The obvious question that arises now is how long sea level would take to rise to the
maximum possible limit of another 80 m. We are aware that after the last glacial
maximum, since 18,000 years before present, sea level rose by 80 m in about 8,000
years. The rise was thus an even one meter in a hundred years, a rate of rise identical to
our projection for the twenty first century. Based on this rate we can as well say that
another 8,000 years will elapse before sea level rises to the maximum. This logic may
not be correct though for the simple reason that anthropogenic global warming has
utterly disturbed the global climate, which in turn has provided the momentum for an
accelerated pace of melting of glacial ice. If the rate of melting of glacial ice doubles,
which is a real possibility, and then remains steady, which is unlikely, 80 m rise could
happen in the next 4,000 years. If the rate of melting of glacial ice continues to
increase after doubling, sea level may rise to its maximum potential even sooner, but
certainly not before a couple of millennia.

Sea level rise and coastal inundation

Sea level rise will devastate the low-lying coastal areas of the entire world. Mainland
India, endowed with a long coast line of 5,700 km will not escape the wrath of the
seas. The total length of the Indian coast line is actually much longer at 7,500 km when
all the island territories of Andaman and Nicobar, and Lakshadweep are taken into
account. A 1 m rise in sea level say by 2100 AD will practically submerge the entire
Lakshadweep group of islands and absolutely nothing can be done to save them. Let
me therefore concentrate on the threats to the mainland of India, where in the absence
of any preventive measures, a 1 m rise in sea level would inundate 5,763 square km of
coastal land, and render 7 million people homeless.

The northern most part of the east coast of India, where the many distributaries of the
Ganges and the Brahmaputra have created the vast delta, in fact the largest delta of the
world, which unfortunately is barely above sea level, is the most vulnerable. Bulk of
this Ganges-Brahmaputra deltaic system is situated in Bangladesh, and the rest in the
Indian state of West-Bengal, which thus is the most vulnerable state in India. The
riverine Orissa that lies immediately to the south of West-Bengal is also very
vulnerable, for the deltas it hosts, created by the Subarnarekha, the Budhabalanga, the
Baitarani, the Brahmani, the Mahanadi and her distributaries, and the Rusikulya, in a
traverse from the north to the south. Further south along the east coast appear the huge
deltas laid by the Godavari and Krishna river systems, and the Penner in the state of
Andhra Pradesh, followed by the Cauvery delta of the southernmost state of Tamil
Nadu. All these deltas being low-lying are vulnerable to inundation when sea level
rises. Although the west coast of India does not host large deltas, is not immune from
the threats of sea level rise. Kutch region of Gujarat, greater Bombay and southern
parts of Kerala will be utterly devastated by the rising seas.

1m rise of sea level will inundate 1,810 square km of land in Gujarat, 1,220 square km
in West-Bengal, 670 square km in Tamil Nadu, 550 square km in Andhra Pradesh, 480
square km in Orissa, 410 square km in Maharashtra, 290 square km in Karnataka, 160
square km in Goa, and 120 square km in Kerala.

IPCC estimates around 18 cm rise - 2030 year

58 cm rise - 2090 year

The countries going to be affected due to rise in sea levels are Bangladesh, Egypt,
Thailand, China, Denmark, Louisiana, Indonesia etc. Overall the effects are going to
be complex.

Stratospheric ozone depletion

Stratospheric ozone depletion is a concern because the ozone layer in the stratosphere
keeps 95-99% of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation from striking the earth. A number of
consequences can result from increased levels of UV (ultraviolet radiation) striking the
earth, including: genetic damage, eye damage and damage to marine life. Increased
UV radiation in the lower atmosphere, called the troposphere, can result in increased
amounts of photochemical smog. Photochemical smog is already a health hazard in
many of the world's largest cities.

The decrease of stratospheric ozone was first reported in 1974 and the decrease was
quickly linked to the increasing presence of a class of manmade compounds called
CFC's or Chlorofluorocarbons. Many countries of the world have moved to reduce the
use of CFC's but because of the slow rate of air mixing between the lower and upper
atmosphere it is theorized that stratospheric CFC's will stay at a significant level well
into the next century.
Stratospheric ozone depletion has become very much a controversial political and
economic issue as well as a complex scientific issue. Major and minor sources of
chlorine, and factors which affect ozone levels are still being sorted out among a great
deal of media-generated excitement and misinformation; but the link between CFC's
and Ozone depletion, and the major factors creating the antarctic ozone hole, are
considered by most researchers to be well established facts. Scientific models of the
atmosphere are being constructed in order to assist scientists in looking for other
factors in Ozone depletion, evaluate their importance and predict what may happen to
our atmosphere in the future.

The Ozone Layer: This profile (Figure given ) shows how the amount of ozone (O3)
varies with height in the atmosphere. Note that most of the ozone is in the lower
stratosphere, at an altitude of about 20-25 kilometers (12-15 miles) above sea level.
This is the so-called "ozone layer." It acts as a shield by absorbing biologically active
ultraviolet light (called UV-

from the sun. If the ozone layer is depleted, more of this UV-B radiation reaches the
surface of the earth. Increased exposure to UV-B has harmful effects on plants and
animals, including humans. The chlorine and bromine in human-produced chemicals
such as the ones known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons are depleting ozone
in the stratosphere. The figure shows a simplified cycle of reactions in which chlorine
(Cl) destroys ozone (O3).

Sources of Ozone layer depleting Gases

In the stratosphere, the region of the atmosphere between about 10 and 50 kilometers
(6-30 miles) above the Earth's surface, ozone (O3) plays a vital role by absorbing
harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Stratospheric ozone is threatened by some
of the human-made gases that have been released into the atmosphere, including those
known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Each CFC can able to destroy one lakh
molecules of Ozone.

Once widely used as propellants in spray cans, refrigerants, electronics cleaning

agents, and in foam and insulating products, the CFCs had been hailed as the "wonder
chemicals." But the very properties that make them useful - chemical inertness, non-
toxicity, insolubility in water - also make them resistant to removal in the lower
atmosphere.

CFCs are mixed worldwide by the large-scale motions of the atmosphere and survive
until, after 1-2 years, they reach the stratosphere and are broken down by ultraviolet
radiation. The chlorine atoms within them are released and directly attack ozone. In the
process of destroying ozone, the chlorine atoms are regenerated and begin to attack
other ozone molecules... and so on, for thousands of cycles before the chlorine atoms
are removed from the stratosphere by other processes.

Arctic Ozone Layer Still Thinning

In March 1997, the ozone layer over the Arctic suffered its most severe depletions to
date. Despite actions to reduce the chemicals that are damaging the earth's ozone layer,
ozone loss in the Arctic continues, and is particularly severe in the late winter and
early spring. Over Southern Canada, the ozone layer appears to have stabilized,
however, it remains below normal, and there is no direct evidence of recovery.
Environment Canada scientists have observed significant ozone loss in the Arctic, up
to 45% during the late 1990s. Industrial chemicals in the atmosphere are the major
cause of ozone thinning. However, these chemicals account for only about half of the
ozone loss in the Arctic. Scientists suspect that other factors, such as climate change,
may be altering the Arctic atmosphere, making it more susceptible to ozone loss.

Increased ozone depletion could be damaging to sensitive Arctic life forms. Ozone loss
over the Arctic could also reduce ozone levels over southern Canada as ozone is
redistributed to lower latitudes during the spring. Unusual ozone losses have occurred
over the Arctic in six out of the last nine years with the most significant depletions
occurring in the late 1990s. In 1997, losses up to 45% were recorded during the early
spring. This has been significantly higher than depletions over the rest of Canada,
where ozone values have decreased by an average of about 6% since the late 1970s,
with greater losses of about 8 to 10% in the springtime. Over southern Canada, ozone
depletion appears to have stabilized at these levels.

Scientists are concerned that over the next 10 to 20 years, Arctic ozone depletion could
become as frequent and possibly as severe as that over the Antarctic. The ozone hole in
the Antarctic has grown in extent every year since 1979 and has now reached record
proportions. In 2003, it covered nearly 28 million sq kms, with depletions of up to
70%. The ozone hole now extends over populated areas at the tip of South America. In
the Arctic, however, weather conditions are more variable than those in the Antarctic,
and the ozone layer is not expected to develop a large stationery "hole" each spring.

How will Arctic ozone thinning affect us?

The sun's rays are naturally weaker in the Arctic, due to the high sun angles in the far
north, and levels of UV are normally very low. If considerable ozone loss occurs, UV
could rise to levels as high as those encountered in southern Canada, and Arctic
residents would have to take steps to protect them. UV reflecting off snow and ice
could become a particular concern.

Vegetation and wildlife in the Arctic have evolved under very low levels of UV, and
may have only limited natural protection against over exposure. They may prove to be
extremely sensitive to high UV levels. Large Arctic depletions could also have
repercussions for ozone levels elsewhere. In years when ozone loss over the Arctic is
particularly severe, there may also be some reduction of ozone levels over southern
Canada as ozone is redistributed by winds in the upper atmosphere. Indeed, the polar
regions, with their unique atmospheric processes, may hold the key to how much
ozone depletion will eventually occur globally.
Why is ozone depletion so severe at the pole?

The severe ozone loss in the Polar Regions is a result of the unusual weather
conditions that develop during the winter and early spring. With the arrival of winter, a
swirling vortex of winds forms around the polar region and isolates the polar air. The
air inside this vortex becomes very cold during the 24-hour winter darkness. If the
temperatures in the vortex drop to -80oC or below, some gases in the upper
atmosphere freeze into an unusual type of ice cloud, known as a polar stratospheric
cloud. These clouds increase ozone loss by speeding up the process of ozone
destruction. Any additional cooling of the upper atmosphere will increase the number
of these ozone-destroying ice clouds.

In recent years, temperatures in the upper atmosphere have been falling, even as those
at the earth's surface are rising. Scientists are concerned that climate change may be
the cause. Greenhouse gases, such as CO2, cause warming at the earth's surface.
However, during the polar night, these gases cause a cooling of the upper atmosphere
and lead to increased ozone depletion.

Technologies, policies, and measures to mitigate the projected changes

Long-lived chlorofluorocarbons are being replaced by shorter live halocarbons, which

are environmentally more being or by non-halogen-containing chemicals. The
substitutes include hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). However, even these shorter-lived chemicals are only
transitional substitutes because the HCFCs still lead to ozone destruction, and all of
these contribute to global warming.
.

Unit 9 : Man Made Disasters- Nuclear disasters, chemical disasters, biological

disasters, building fire, coal fire, forest fire, oil fire, air pollution, water pollution,
deforestation, industrial waste water pollution, road accidents, rail accidents, air
accidents, sea accidents.
Manmade Disaster - Building fire, coal fire, oil fire, forest fire and
deforestation

Manmade Disaster

Rise in population, rapid urbanization and industrialization, development within high-

risk zones, environmental degradation, and climate change aggravates the
vulnerabilities to various kinds of disasters. Due to inadequate disaster preparedness,
communities, and animals are at increased risk from many kinds of human-induced
hazards arising from accidents (industrial, road, air, rail, on river or sea, building
collapse, fires, mine flooding, oil spills, etc.). Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and
Nuclear (CBRN) hazards rank very high in among the human-induced risks. Terrorist
activities and secondary incidents add to these risks and call for adequate preparedness
and planning.

Fire Risk

Fires can start due to human activities or from natural causes. Forest fires can start
from either natural causes or human activity or from a combination of both. The most
common fires are the residential and non-residential structural fires caused usually by
human activities. Most industrial and chemical fires are triggered by human activity.
They are sometimes caused by human errors, faulty designs, or mechanical failures.
Fire can also be the secondary effect of a disaster like earthquake. Secondary fires
after a disaster like earthquakes constitute a substantial and heavy risk. Damage to
natural gas systems during an earthquake can lead to major fires and explosions.
Damages to electrical systems during a disaster can ignite major fires. The growth of
fire-services in the country has been on an ad-hoc basis and needs to be
professionalized. Varying risk scenarios need different types of equipment. The risk
varies with geographical location such as hilly area, coastal-area, desert– area, and
with different types of residential (medium/ low-rise/ high-rise) buildings, industrial,
commercial area or a combination of these.

Building Fires

Buildings-fires are the most common among the fire disasters. Increasing population,
increased population in closely built small houses or in multi-storeyed buildings in
cities, increase the fire hazard. Unnecessary accumulation of combustible or
inflammable articles or hazardous material add to the danger. Lack of water or
equipment for firefighting allows the fires to burn fiercely. Hot and dry seasons add to
the possibility of fires as also the careless use of electrical equipment, naked wires and
loose joints. An electric short-circuit or a spark is often responsible for large-scale fire
disasters are reported every summer from many cities. A large number of building fires
owe their origin to the residents smoking in bed and falling asleep while smoking.
Accidents in kitchens are also among the major causes of fire in buildings.
In their start and further spread, the fires in buildings are as varied as the buildings
themselves. For example, buildings can house residential units or apartments, hotels,
schools, colleges, hospitals, hostels, laboratories, business houses, industrial
establishments and factories, stores and shops. Buildings may be closely situated in a
colony or be independent bunglows or farmhouses with considerable vacant area
around. Buildings could also be multi-storeyed. Heating systems and air-conditioning
plants, especially in large and tall multi-storeyed buildings add to the fire hazard. The
air conditioning ducts offer easy path for fumes, gases and smoke to be conveyed to
other parts of the building quickly and false ceilings of inflammable material add to the
hazard. In fact, choking due, to smoke-or-soot is the cause for the majority of deaths in
a fire incident. As indicated above, the electric installations and the wiring can cause
fire in buildings when these get heated due to overload.

People often do not realize that putting extra electrical load above the permissible limit
causes overheating or break in the insulation in the electrical equipment which can
either result in a spark or explosion or burn due to overheating.

Coal Fires

Coal is a common and cheap source of energy and is utilized through the process of
burning. But this property of coal makes it a hazardous substance when large amounts
of coal burn accidentally and without much control on the resultant coal fire. Thus,
coal fire can occur either in large stocks of coal (coal pits or coal dumps) or in coal
mines below the ground surface. Therefore, the coal mining areas such as those in
Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh are prone to
such disasters.

Coal fires generally get started through negligence or ignition of combustible gases.
Sometimes, soft coal (especially in deep mines or big dumps) gets so hot due to gases
that it may itself start a coal fire (without an external source of fire or ignition)
particularly when the atmosphere around is very hot and dry. Such occurrences are
called "self- ignition".

In many areas of coal mines (e.g., Jharia in Bihar), there are underground fires burning
in coal mines for decades and travelling along the coal-bearing areas below the ground.
Such instances transmit considerable heat to the ground surface which often cracks and
emits gases and smoke which heat and pollute the area and make it unfit for living.
Thus, coal fires burning inside coal mines cause, double destruction - firstly by
destroying the coal inside the mine and secondly by making the area on the ground
surface hot, polluted and unfit for living.

Coal fires are a serious problem because hazards to health and safety and the
environment include toxic fumes, reigniting grass, brush, or forest fires, and
subsidence of surface infrastructure such as roads, pipelines, electric lines, bridge
supports, buildings and homes. Whether started by humans or by natural causes, coal
seam fires continue to burn for decades or even centuries until either the fuel source is
exhausted; a permanent groundwater table is encountered; the depth of the burn
becomes greater than the ground’s capacity to subside and vent; or humans intervene.
Because they burn underground, coal seam fires are extremely difficult and costly to
extinguish, and are unlikely to be suppressed by rainfall. There are strong similarities
between coal fires and peat fires.

Coal seam fires can be divided into near-surface fires, in which seams extend to the
surface and the oxygen required for their ignition comes from the atmosphere, and
fires in deep underground mines, where the oxygen comes from the ventilation. Mine
fires may begin as a result of an industrial accident, generally involving a gas
explosion. Historically, some mine fires were started when bootleg mining was
stopped by authorities, usually by blowing the mine up. Many recent mine fires have
started from people burning trash in a landfill that was in proximity to abandoned coal
mines, including the much publicized Centralia, Pennsylvania fire, which has been
burning since 1962. Of the hundreds of mine fires in the United States burning today,
most are found in the state of Pennsylvania.

Some fires along coal seams are natural occurrences. Some coals may self-ignite at
temperatures as low as 40 °C (104 °F) for brown coal in the right conditions of
moisture and grain size. The fire usually begins a few decimeters inside the coal at a
depth in which the permeability of the coal allows the inflow of air but in which the
ventilation does not remove the heat which is generated.

Oil Fires

Inflammable liquids such as kerosene oil, diesel, petrol, spirit, liquor, ghee, other oils,
paints, tar and certain chemicals are prone to fires which can be grouped together in
the category of "oil fires". Such liquids catch fire easily through naked flame or an
electric spark.

Then they burn on the surface and spread out, thus spreading the flame's as well. If the
oil is in a container, there could be the vapours of the oil and these are also
inflammable. This could lead to an explosion in the container. In fact, many such
inflammable liquids are also prone to self-ignition because they undergo oxidation on
coming in contact with the oxygen in the air. This heats the liquid. If the temperature
rises enough, the "flash point" is reached when the liquid starts burning by itself.
Therefore, such hazardous liquids of oils are stored carefully away from residential
areas or crowded places. Further, good air circulation, cooling and ventilation is to be
ensured to avoid the danger of oil fires. Petrol storage depots, airports, and oil tankers
are/particularly vulnerable sites.

Oil well fire

Oil well fires are oil wells, commonly oil gushers that have caught on fire, and burn
uncontrollably. Oil well fires can be the result of human actions, such as accidents or
arson or natural events, such as lightning. They can exist on a small scale, such as an
oil field spill catching fire, or on a huge scale, as in geyser-like jets of flames from
ignited high pressure oil wells.
An oil well on fire in Iraq

The Kuwaiti oil fires were a result of the scorched earth policy of Iraqi military forces
retreating from Kuwait in 1991 after conquering the country but being driven out by
Coalition military forces (Gulf War).The resulting fires burned out of control because
of the dangers of sending in firefighting crews. Land mines had been placed in areas
around the oil wells, and a military cleaning of the areas was necessary before the fires
could be put out. Somewhere around 6 million barrels (950,000 m3) of oil were lost
each day. Eventually, privately contracted crews extinguished the fires, at a total cost
of US$1.5 billion to Kuwait. By that time, however, the fires had burned for months,
causing widespread pollution.

Surat, Jan 5, 2013

Surat, Jan 5 (DNN)- A major fire broke out at a petrol storage tank of state-owned
Indian Oil Corporation's (IOC) Hazira terminal in Gujarat. No casualty was reported
immediately. Local authorities and the company rushed fire tenders to douse the fire.
Officials said the fire was reported around afternoon at one of IOC's five petrol storage
tanks at the Hazira depot. The tank had almost 5,000 kilolitre of petrol, half of its
capacity, when it caught fire. This is the second major fire at IOC storage depots since
2009. On October 29, 2009, a fire broke out at its Jaipur terminal which was blamed
on non-observance of normal safety procedures. The Jaipur depot fire raged for 11
days, killed 11 people and resulted in losses worth Rs. 280 crore.

Jaipur Oil Depot Fire, 2009

The Jaipur oil depot fire broke out on 29 October 2009 at 7:30 PM (IST) at the Indian
Oil Corporation (IOC) oil depot's giant tank holding 8,000 kilolitres (280,000 cu ft) of
oil, in Sitapura Industrial Area on the outskirts of Jaipur, Rajasthan, killing 12 people
and injuring over 200. The blaze continued to rage out of control for over a week after
it started and during the period half a million people were evacuated from the area. The
oil depot is about 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) south of the city of Jaipur. The incident
occurred when petrol was being transferred from the Indian Oil Corporation's oil depot
to a pipeline. There were at least 40 IOC employees at the terminal, situated close to
the Jaipur International Airport) when it caught fire with an explosion. The Met
department recorded a tremor measuring 2.3 on the Richter scale around the time the
first explosion at 7:36 pm which resulted in shattering of glass windows nearly 3
kilometres (1.9 mi) from the accident site. The fire still raged on 31 October 2009, in
the Indian Oil Corporation Depot, at Jaipur, after a defective pipe line leak that set fire
to 50,000 kilolitres (1,800,000 cu ft) of diesel and petrol out of the storage tanks at the
IOC Depot. By then, the accident had already claimed 11 lives and seriously injured
more than 150.

Gas Fires

The increasing use of cooking gas in houses and hotels both in cylinders and through
pipes is indeed a fire hazard. This gas is also used in cars in some cases. Compressed
Natural Gas (CNG) is being introduced in a big way in public buses. These gases are
mostly supplied in compressed form and transported by trucks. Some industrial gases
are also inflammable. All these constitute a widespread fire hazard.

Forest Fires

Forest constitutes the largest, complex and most important natural resource, mostly
dominated by trees, the diversity and size of which vary in different parts of the world.

The most common hazard in forests is forests fire. Forests fires are as old as the
forests themselves. They pose a threat not only to the forest wealth but also to the
entire regime to fauna and flora seriously disturbing the bio-diversity and the ecology
and environment of a region. During summer, when there is no rain for months, the
forests become littered with dry senescent leaves and twinges, which could burst into
flames ignited by the slightest spark. The Himalayan forests, particularly, Garhwal
Himalayas have been burning regularly during the last few summers, with colossal
loss of vegetation cover of that region.

Causes of Forest Fire

Forest fires are caused by Natural causes as well as Manmade causes

Natural causes- Many forest fires start from natural causes such as lightning which
set trees on fire. However, rain extinguishes such fireswithout causing much damage.
High atmospheric temperatures and dryness (low humidity) offer favorable
circumstance for a fire to start.

Manmade causes- Fire is caused when a source of fire like naked flame, cigarette or
bidi, electric spark or any source of ignition comes into contact with inflammable
material.

Classification of Forest Fire

Forest fire can broadly be classified into three categories;

Natural or controlled forest fire.

Forest fires caused by heat generated in the litter and other biomes in summer through
carelessness of people (human neglect) and

Forest fires purposely caused by local inhabitants.

Types of Forest Fire
There are two types of forest fire i) Surface Fire and ii) Crown Fire

Surface Fire-A forest fire may burn primarily as a surface fire, spreading along the
ground as the surface litter (senescent leaves and twigs and dry grasses etc) on the
forest floor and is engulfed by the spreading flames.

Crown Fire- The other type of forest fire is a crown fire in which the crown of trees
and shrubs burn, often sustained by a surface fire. A crown fire is particularly very
dangerous in a coniferous forest because resinous material given off burning logs burn
furiously. On hill slopes, if the fire starts downhill, it spreads up fast as heated air
adjacent to a slope tends to flow up the slope spreading flames along with it. If the fire
starts uphill, there is less likelihood of it spreading downwards.

Vulnerability

The youngest mountain ranges of Himalayas are the most vulnerable stretches of the
world susceptible to forest fires. The forests of Western are more frequently
vulnerable to forest fires as compared to those in Eastern Himalayas. This is because
forests of Eastern Himalayas grow in high rain density. With large scale expansion of
chirr (Pine) forests in many areas of the Himalayas the frequency and intensity of
forest fires has increased.

Preparedness and Mitigation Measures

Forest fires are usually seasonal. They usually start in the dry season and can be
prevented by adequate precautions. Successive Five Year Plans have provided funds
for forests fighting. During the British period, fire was prevented in the summer
through removal of forest litter all along the forest boundary. This was called "Forest
Fire Line" This line used to prevent fire breaking into the forest from one
compartment to another. The collected litter was burnt in isolation. Generally, the fire
spreads only if there is continuous supply of fuel (Dry vegetation) along its path. The
best way to control a forest fire is therefore, to prevent it from spreading, which can be
done by creating firebreaks in the shape of small clearings of ditches in the forests.

Precautions
The followings are the important precautions against fire:

To keep the source of fire or source of ignition separated from combustible and
inflammable material.

To keep the source of fire under watch and control.

Not allow combustible or inflammable material to pile up unnecessarily and to stock

the same as per procedure recommended for safe storage of such combustible or
inflammable material.
To adopt safe practices in areas near forests viz. factories, coalmines, oil stores,
chemical plants and even in household kitchens.

To incorporate fire reducing and firefighting techniques and equipment while planning
a building or coal mining operation.

In case of forest fires, the volunteer teams are essential not only for firefighting but
also to keep watch on the start of forest and sound an alert

To arrange firefighting drills frequently.

Impacts of Forest Fires on Biological Environment

Forest fires also pose serious health hazards by producing smoke and noxious gases,
as the events in Indonesia after the forest fires on the islands of Sumatra and Borneo in
1977 have shown. The burning of vegetation gives off not only carbon dioxide but
also a host of other, noxious gases (Green house gases) such as carbon monoxide,
methane, hydrocarbons, nitric oxide and nitrous oxide, that lead to global warming
and ozone layer depletion. Consequently, thousands of people suffered from serious
respiratory problems due to these toxic gases. Burning forests and grasslands also add
to already serious threat of global warming. Recent measurement suggest that biomass
burning may be a significant global source of methyl bromide, which is an ozone
depleting chemical.

Deforestation

Deforestation is the permanent destruction of indigenous forests and woodlands. The

term does not include the removal of industrial forests such as plantations of gums or
pines. Deforestation has resulted in the reduction of indigenous forests to four-fifths of
their pre-agricultural area. Indigenous forests now cover 21% of the earth's land
surface.
The World Resources Institute regards deforestation as one of the world's most
pressing land-use problems. An area of forest equal to 20 football or rugby fields is
lost every minute. Currently, 12 million hectares of forests are cleared annually.
Almost all of this deforestation occurs in the moist forests and open woodlands of the
tropics. At this rate all moist tropical forest could be lost by the year 2050, except for
isolated areas in Amazonia, the Zaire basin, as well as a few protected areas within
reserves and parks. Some countries such as Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Costa Rica, and Sri
Lanka are likely to lose all their tropical forests in near future if no conservation steps
are taken. South Africa's climate is such that less than 0.5% of its surface area is
covered with indigenous forest - great care should be taken to conserve the little we
have.

General causes of deforestation

Deforestation is brought about by the following:
Conversion of forests and woodlands to agricultural land to feed growing numbers of
people;

Development of cash crops and cattle ranching, both of which earn money for tropical
countries;

Commercial logging (which supplies the world market with woods such as meranti,
teak, mahogany and ebony) destroys trees as well as opening up forests for agriculture;

Felling of trees for firewood and building material; the heavy lopping of foliage for
fodder; and heavy browsing of saplings by domestic animals like goats.

To compound the problem, the poor soils of the humid tropics do not support
agriculture for long. Thus people are often forced to move on and clear more forests in
order to maintain production.

Population Growth and deforestation

The World Wide Forest Report found that when the Roman Empire was in control of
Europe, 90% of the continent was forested. Today 500,000 hectors vanish in a single
week ("Logging is the Major Cause of Global Deforestation"). There is no one easy
answer as there are many causes at the root of deforestation. One is overpopulation in
cities and developing countries. Population is continually growing in the third world.
Some had land until increases in population forced them off it and they became
landless peasants that are forced to look for land in the untouched forests. This
movement to the forests is in some ways a result of government pressures. In place of
implementing programs to help the poor these governments concentrate on the
cheapest, easiest, way to keep poverty out of sight and give the poor no other choice
but to force other species out and themselves in. According to Norman Myers, bad
land tenure, a shortage of modern agricultural tools, and government neglect of
subsistence farmers have put an influx of human interference in the forests. The poor
are pushed in further and further and destroy more every time they must move on.

What the poor do in the forests is the most devastating. In attempts to settle farmland,
the poor become "shifted cultivators" and resort to using slash and burn methods of
tree removal. Slashing and burning involves, trees are cut down and the remains are
burned. The ash is used as a fertilizer and the land is then used for farming or cattle
grazing, however, the soil that is cleared in slash and burn is left infertile; the nutrients
in the soil are quickly absorbed by surrounding organisms. The farmers must move on
sometimes to other areas and repeat this process and worthy land and trees become
scarce. For farmers in places like Brazil, slash and burn methods are the only way to
effectively clear land of parasites and unwanted organisms; chemical means
contaminate water and soil and farmers continue to turn to slashing and burning
("Slash and Burn Agriculture").

Logging and Deforestation

The small farmer plays a big role, but it is modern industry that too cuts down the
trees. The logging industry is fueled by the need for disposable products. 11 million
acres a year are cut for commercial and property industries. Peter Heller found that
McDonald’ needs 800 square miles of trees to make the amount of paper they need for
a year’ supply of packaging, Entity Mission found that British Columbia manufactures
500,000 pairs of chopsticks a day, and the demand for fuel wood is so high that
predictions say that there will be a shortage by the year 2000. Logging does too have
its repercussions. The logging industry not only tries to accomplish all this but it even
indirectly helps the "shifted cultivators" and others to do more damage. The roads that
the loggers build to access the forests and generate hydroelectric power create an easy
way for many people to try to manipulate the forest resources. The amount of damage
that this adds to the forests can not be measured nor can that of the illegal logging.
Some importers may even be buying illegally logged wood and not even have known
it.

Cattle Grazing and Deforestation

Another of the more devastating forces behind deforestation is cattle grazing. With the
international growth of fast food chains this seems to be an evident factor in the
clearing of trees today. Large corporations looking to buy beef for hamburger and even
pet food seek cheap prices and are finding them with the growth of cattle grazing. As
the burger giants of industrialized society are making high demands for more beef,
more forests are being torn down. Statistics from less than a decade ago, 1989, indicate
that 15,000 km squared of forests are used expressly for the purpose of cattle grazing.
Once the trees are gone and the land is often overgrazed. In some places the
government wants this to happen. Cattle grazing are big profit that can’t be turned
down.

Other Causes

Beyond the major causes of deforestation lie some supplementary ones that too stack
the odds against forests around the globe. Acid rain and the building of dams have
their share of harmful effects. The race to produce cash crops such as fruit, spices,
sugar tobacco, soap, rubber, paper, and cloth has given cause to many to try to farm
them by using soil and other products that can be retrieved by destroying the forests.
Even those in industrialized countries may participate in the destruction of forests in
the 3rd world. The need for products in industrialized countries drives production in
other poorer, less developed countries. This production is at the cost of the trees and
the services that they provide.

Consequences of Deforestation

Deforestation presents multiple societal and environmental problems. The immediate

and long-term consequences of global deforestation are almost certain to jeopardize
life on Earth, as we know it. Some of these consequences include: loss of biodiversity;
the destruction of forest-based-societies; and climatic disruption.
Alteration of local and global climates through disruption of:

The carbon cycle. Forests act as a major carbon store because carbon dioxide (CO2)
is taken up from the atmosphere and used to produce the carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins that make up the tree/plants. When forests are cleared, and the trees are either
burnt or rot, this carbon is released as CO2. This leads to an increase in the
atmospheric CO2

concentration. CO2 is the major contributor to the greenhouse effect. Because of this,
forest is referred as sink of CO2. It is estimated that deforestation contributes one-third
of all CO2 releases caused by people.

The water cycle. Trees draw ground water up through their roots and release it into
the atmosphere (transpiration). In Amazonia over half of all the water circulating
through the region's ecosystem remains within the plants. With removal of part of the
forest, the region cannot hold as much water. The effect of this could be a drier
climate.

Soil erosion ;With the loss of a protective cover of vegetation more soil is lost.
Silting of water courses, lakes and dams: This occurs as a result of soil erosion.

e)Extinction of species which depend on the forest for survival. Forests contain more
than half of all species on our planet - as the habitat of these species is destroyed, so
the number of species declines.

Desertification: The causes of desertification are complex, but deforestation is one of

the contributing factors.

Erosion

The problem is that once forests have been cut down, essential nutrients are washed
out of the soil all-together. This leads to soil erosion. As of now, about 80% of the
soils in the humid tropics are acidic and infertile. When there are no trees to keep the
soil in place, the soil becomes ripe for erosion. It dries and cracks under the sun’s heat.
Once the soil temperature exceeds 25ºC degrees centigrade, volatile nutrient
ingredients like nitrogen can be lost, further reducing the fertility of the remaining soil.
Furthermore, rainfall washes remaining nutrients into rivers. This means that
replanting trees will not necessarily help to solve the problems of deforestation; by the
time the trees have matured, the soil might be completely stripped of essential
nutrients. Eventually, cultivation in the forest regions will be impossible, and the land
will be useless. The soil erosion will lead to permanent impoverishment of huge land
areas.

The social impact of soil erosion can be quite severe. Those who settle into the forest
regions are forced to move every year or so due to soil erosion. They find areas where
they can cultivate. When those areas are no longer good for growing, they move to
another region.
Flooding

Flooding is a quite serious consequence of deforestation. Clearing the forest

dramatically increases the surface run-off from rainfall, mainly because a greater
proportion of the rain reaches the ground due to a lack of vegetation which would suck
up the excess rainfall. "Tropical forests can receive as much rain in an hour as London
would expect in a wet month, and a single storm has been measured as removing 185
tonnes of topsoil per hectare". In tropical regions where the forests are dense, flooding
is not as serious a problem because there is vegetation to absorb the rainfall. It is in
areas where there is little vegetation that there is a problem. Hence, to avoid the
disastrous effects of flooding, tropical forests need to remain dense and lush.

Climate Change

Although all consequences of deforestation are potentially serious, perhaps the most
serious consequence is that of climate change due to the loss of trees. Earth has an
atmosphere which contains a variety of gases, all in a delicate balance, to ensure life
on Earth. One of these gases in Earth’s atmosphere is carbon dioxide; a gas which
helps moderate heat loss to outer space. Insulating gases such as carbon dioxide are
called "greenhouse gasses because their function is much like that of the glass in a
greenhouse: they allow solar heat into the system, but discourage its escape". Other
greenhouse gases include methane, chlorofluorocarbons, nitrous oxide, and ozone. If
there are additional greenhouse gases, there will be a gradual increase in temperature
on Earth’s surface. This could lead to changes in weather patterns, sea levels, and other
cycles in nature that directly affect life on Earth.

The process of greenhouse gas increase is quite simple. Carbon dioxide levels increase
for a number of reasons; but one of the main factors contributing to the increase of
carbon levels is decay of woody material. The only way to help moderate the levels of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is through plant life. Alive plants and trees absorb
the carbon dioxide from decaying plants and trees. With a decrease in trees and plant
life (due to deforestation) it is much harder to moderate these levels. Ultimately, the
amount of carbon will increase due to a lack of plant life present to keep the carbon
dioxide levels in check. This whole process leads to an "albedo effect which reflects
more heat and light back into the atmosphere than would be the case if the sun shone
on green trees?". The bottom line is that the increase in the carbon level and other
greenhouse gas levels into the atmosphere leads to an increase in temperature, and
eventually a change in climate and weather.

Wild fire

A wildfire is any uncontrolled fire that occurs in the countryside or a wilderness area.
Other names such as brush fire, bushfire, forest fire, grass fire, hill fire, peat fire,
vegetation fire, and wildland fire may be used to describe the same phenomenon
depending on the type of vegetation being burned. A wildfire differs from other fires
by its extensive size, the speed at which it can spread out from its original source, and
its ability to change direction unexpectedly and to jump gaps, such as roads, rivers and
fire breaks. Wildfires are characterized in terms of the cause of ignition, their physical
properties such as speed of propagation, the combustible material present, and the
effect of weather on the fire.

Wildfires occur on every continent except Antarctica. Fossil records and human
history contain accounts of wildfires, as wildfires can occur in periodic intervals.
Wildfires can cause extensive damage, both to property and human life, but they also
have various beneficial effects on wilderness areas. Some plant species depend on the
effects of fire for growth and reproduction, although large wildfires may also have
negative ecological effects. Strategies of wildfire prevention, detection, and
suppression have varied over the years, and international wildfire management experts
encourage further development of technology and research. One of the more
controversial techniques is controlled burning: permitting or even igniting smaller fires
to minimize the amount of flammable material available for a potential wildfire. While
some wildfires burn in remote forested regions, they can cause extensive destruction of
homes and other property located in the wild land-urban interface: a zone of transition
between developed areas and undeveloped wilderness.

Types of Wild fires

Ground fires are fed by subterranean roots, duff and other buried organic matter. This
fuel type is especially susceptible to ignition due to spotting. Ground fires typically
burn by smoldering, and can burn slowly for days to months, such as peat fires in
Kalimantan and Eastern Sumatra, Indonesia, which resulted from a rice land creation
project that unintentionally drained and dried the peat.

Crawling or surface fires are fueled by low-lying vegetation such as leaf and timber
litter, debris, grass, and low-lying shrubbery.

Ladder fires consume material between low-level vegetation and tree canopies,
such as small trees, downed logs, and vines. Kudzu, Old World climbing fern, and
other invasive plants that scale trees may also encourage ladder fires.

Crown, canopy, or aerial fires burn suspended material at the canopy level, such as
tall trees, vines, and mosses. The ignition of a crown fire, termed crowning, is
dependent on the density of the suspended material, canopy height, canopy continuity,
and sufficient surface and ladder fires in order to reach the tree crowns. For example,
ground-clearing fires lit by humans can spread into the Amazon rain forest, damaging
ecosystems not particularly suited for heat or arid conditions.

Man Made Disasters II : Air pollution, water pollution, industrial waste water
pollution deforestation

Air pollution: It is defined as the excessive concentration of foreign material in the

atmosphere, which affects the health of individuals and also causes damage to the
property.
Distinct categories of air pollution:

Personal air pollution: exposure to dust, fumes and gases to which an individual
exposes himself when he indulges in smoking like cigarette, cigar. Looks pose little
problem, but potential hazard is serious. So give up smoking.

Occupational air pollution: exposure to potentially harmful concentrations of

aerosols, vapours and gases in their working environment.

Community air pollution: most complex of the three varieties since it involves a
varied assortment of pollution sources and contaminants, meteorological factors, also
social, economic and health effects. Affects total environment say plants, animals etc.

London Episodes, 1873-1963

The industrial revolution in the 19th century saw the set in of air pollution in Europe
on a large scale. The industries and the households relied heavily on coal for heating
and cooking. Due to burning of coal for heat during the winter months, emissions of
smoke and sulphur dioxide were much greater in winters than they were during the
summer months. Smoke particles trapped in the fog gave it a yellow/black colour and
this smog often settled over cities for many days.

The effects of smog on human health were evident, particularly when smog persisted
for several days. Many people suffered respiratory problems and increased deaths
were recorded, notably those relating to bronchial causes. The smog-related deaths
were first recorded in London in 1873, when it killed 500 people. In 1880, the toll was
more than 1000. London had one of its worst experiences of smog in December 1892.
It lasted for three days and resulted in about 1000 deaths. Despite gradual
improvements in air quality during the 20th century, eight air pollution episodes
occurred in London between 1948 and 1962. The December 1952 episode is the major
episode in the history of air pollution.

The “Killer Smog” began on Thursday, Dec. 4, 1952 as a high-pressure air mass
created a subsidence temperature inversion over southern England. With the
particulate and SO2 levels going up due to extensive use of coal as fuel for space
heating and electric production, the fog turned black. At the same time the high-
pressure area stalled and became stationary. The build up of pollutants combined with
the fog resulted in essentially zero visibility. Within a matter of three days, the
pollutants were concentrated enough to cause deaths. The old and respiratory affected
died first, but younger people exposed to the outside atmosphere were also affected.
The maximum daily SO2 concentration recorded at that time was 1.34 ppm (about
4000 µg/m3, standard SO2 conc. in clean dry atmosphere is 0.0002 ppm) and smoke
levels were 4.46 mg/m3. The Great London Smog lasted for five days and lifted on 9th
Dec, resulting in about 4000 deaths.

Bhopal Disaster, 1984

In the mid night of 2nd - 3rd December 1984, in a densely populated area of Bhopal,
Central India, a poisonous vapor burst from the tall stacks of the Union Carbide
pesticide plant. About forty tons of toxic gases had leaked from the Carbides Bhopal
plant and spread throughout the city. The cause was the contamination of Methyl
Isocyanate (MIC) storage tank with water carrying catalytic material. Residents of the
city awoke to clouds of suffocating gas, unaware of the magnitude of the devastation,
which had engulfed them. The city of Bhopal was immediately turned into a city of
dead bodies, and the whole place smelled of burning chilli peppers. Of the million
people living in Bhopal at that time, more than 2,000 died immediately (one fourth of
actual figures) and as many as 300,000 were injured. In addition, about 7,000 animals
were affected, of which about 1000 were killed. The precise number of deaths still
remains a mystery till date. The degree of injury was so high that about 30% of the
injured were unable to return to their jobs. Among the survivors, most of them still
suffer agonizing pain from the disastrous effects of the massive poisoning while there
are still apprehensions of the future generations being affected. The Bhopal Disaster
was the worst episode in the history of industrial air pollution.

Donora Fog, 1948

Horror visited the US Steel company town of Donora on the Halloween night of 1948,
when a temperature inversion descended on the town. Fluoride emissions from the
Donora Zinc Works smelting operation and other sources containing sulphur, carbon
monoxide and heavy metal dusts were trapped by weather conditions, causing 20
deaths within 14 hours.

Cold ground and high-pressure conditions intensified the elevated inversion of the
anticyclone that arrived in the region. The situation was aggravated by local conditions
of meteorology, industrial pollutant emissions and peculiar terrain of the area. The
meteorological conditions and the geographical characteristics of the area produced a
strong temperature inversion with a temperature gradient as high as 33oC/km. The fog
was held close to the ground by the stability of the elevated inversion layer. During the
third and fourth days of the episode, as ambient levels of pollutants escalated, almost
half of the population of 14,000 people became ill. Almost 43 % of the population in
Donora and Webster, PA experienced the effects of the smog. Most of the affected
were above the age group of 60 years and above (29% of this group were seriously
affected). The health effects were mainly symptoms affecting the lung, and in
particular, upper respiratory symptoms such as nasal discharge, constriction of the
throat, or sore throat were experienced.

Meuse Valley, 1930

An episode occurred in the first week of December 1930, when a thick mist lay over
large parts of Belgium. On December 3rd, 4th and 5th, several thousand cases of acute
pulmonary attacks occurred in the densely populated valley of the Meuse, east of
Liege, resulting in 60 deaths. Post episode investigations led to the conclusion that the
cause was poisonous products in the waste gas of the many factories in the valley, in
conjunction with unusual climatic conditions. During that time, the day temperature
was a little above freezing point while at night it measured up to 10oC below, while the
wind speed was only 1-3km/hr. It was impossible to indicate any definite substance or
chemical compound as the cause, but the investigators were of the opinion that the
disaster in all probability had been brought about by sulphur dioxide (SO2) or
oxidation products of that compound, of which quantities were found in the factory
smoke. The investigation also looked into the question of fluorine intoxication,
however its role is doubtful. The cases of illness were reported after the mist had lasted
about 2 days. It was estimated that the total number of cases was several thousands. In
three days, there were 60 deaths, of which fifty-six were in the eastern half of the
valley and only four deaths were reported from the west of Engis. The area around
Engis was the worst affected.

Mexico, Poza Rica, 1950

A catastrophic exposure episode involving the release of large quantities of hydrogen

sulfide occurred in Poza Rica, Mexico in November 1950. Poza Rica, a city of 22,000
people located about 210 km northeast of Mexico City, was then the centre of Mexicos
leading oil-producing district and the site of several oil field installations, including a
sulphur-recovery plant. An early morning malfunction of the waste gas flare resulted
in the release of large quantities of unburned hydrogen sulfide into the atmosphere.
The unburned gas, aided by a low-level temperature inversion and light early morning
breezes, was carried to the residential area adjacent to the plant area. Residents of the
area succumbed while attempting to leave the area and assisting stricken neighbours.
Within a matter of 3 hours, 320 persons were hospitalised and 22 were killed.

Darkening effect of Taj Mahal

Taj Mahal is a white marble stone mausoleum. Recently it was observed that the walls
of Taj Mahal has become darkened and disfigured due to air pollution from nearby
Mathura Oil refinery. The acid rain reacts with marble stone (CaCO3) to produce
calcium sulphate, causing darkening and disfigurement.

In the Yucatan peninsula in Mexico, and in places in South America, ancient Mayan
Pyramids are being destroyed by the acid rain. Temples, murals, and ancient
inscriptions which had previously survived for centuries are now showing severe signs
of corrosion. Even books, manuscripts, paintings, and sculpture are being affected in
museums and libraries, where the ventilation system cannot eliminate the acid particles
from the air which circulates in the building. In some parts of Poland, trains are
required to run slowly, as the tracks are badly damaged due to corrosion caused by
acid rainfall.

Water Pollution

Water is considered polluted when it is altered in composition or condition so that it

becomes less suitable for any or all of the functions and purposes for which it would be
suitable in its natural state. This definition includes changes in the physical, chemical
and biological properties of water, or such discharges of liquid, gaseous or solid
substances into water as will or are likely to create nuisances or render such water
harmful to public health, safety or welfare, or to domestic, commercial, industrial,
agricultural, fish or other aquatic life. It also includes changes in temperatures, due to
the discharge of hot water.

Industrial wastewater pollution

During the past few decades, Indian industries have registered a quantum jump, which
has contributed to high economic growth but simultaneously it has also given rise to
severe environmental pollution. A number of industries produce large volume of
effluents requiring proper disposal. Lack of suitable treatment technologies and
disposal facilities is a major hindrance to industrial expansion. The recycling options
of industrial effluents includes land application, use in irrigation, forestry, application
to constructed wetlands or artificial marshlands. Sometimes, industries produce highly
toxic effluents, which can neither be thrown into water bodies nor used for agricultural
purpose as the toxic element may enter the food chain through plants, animals and fish.
However, effluents of some industries have useful characteristics and have the
potential to improve soil productivity. This effective management of wastes brings
economic benefits and protects fragile ecosystems from degradation. Thus, the
following are the objectives for utilization of industrial effluents for agricultural
purposes.

Increasing demand of water for agricultural purposes

Irrigation to crops in areas where water is scarce

Recycle it as irrigation water due to its possible nutrient value.

Disposal problem of industrial effluents.

Increasing pollution problem.

Classification of industries

To understand the severity of pollution from a particular industry, it is necessary to

categorize the industries/ projects in three broad categories viz. Red, Orange and Green
in decreasing order of severity of pollution.

‘Red’ represents highly polluting industries

‘Green’ represents marginally polluting units and

‘Orange’ categories are moderately polluting industries.

In our country, Paper and pulp mills, Sugar mills, distilleries, tanneries, pharmaceutical
industries, fertilizers industries etc are the highly polluting red category. However, the
effects of these industries on soil and water can be generalized as most of these wastes
are rich in inorganic compounds like Na, K, Ca, Mg, SO4, nutrients besides organic
impurities.

(Please ref. lecture no. 18. SECTION Pollution case studies for water pollution
and industrial wastewater pollution)

10 Worst Man Made Disasters of All Time

Mankind has frequently created catastrophes that devastate the environment and taken
lives. The 10 worst man-made disasters of all time are difficult to determine with so
many blunders. However, excluding the loss of life resulting from war, terrorism or
transportation disaster, this list includes the incidents that have had the most affect on
people and the environment.

London’s Killer Fog

The Al-Mishraq Fire: Another of the 10 worst man-made disasters of all time was the
Al-Mishraq fire on June 24, 2003. This fire at an Iraqi sulfur plant burned for about a

month releasing sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. Sulfur dioxide can kill people by
causing respiratory problems and also creates acid rain which destroys crops.

3. The Nuclear Power Plant Explosion in Chernobyl, Russia: On April 26th 1986,
the Chernobyl Plant in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic had a major meltdown
which resulted in the atmospheric release of radioactive material four hundred times
more radioactive than Hiroshima. Since the accident there have been countless
children with birth defects, a sickening increase of cancer sufferers and many other
health issues as well. It is estimated that the disaster could result in nearly 100,000
fatal cancers, and the area won’t be safe for any activity, including farming for up to
200 years.

The Kuwait Oil Fires: The Gulf War oil spill is the largest oil spill in history making
it one of the 10 worst man-made disasters of all time. In 1991, following the invasion
of Kuwait, Hussein sent men in to blow up the Kuwait oil wells. They managed to set
over 600 ablaze and these burned for over seven months. The oil spill that resulted
from the fires caused considerable environmental damage.

The Destruction of the Aral Sea: The Aral Sea was one of the four largest lakes at
one point in time. However, in the 1960’s, the Soviet Union diverted the waters from
the rivers that fed the lake to irrigation projects. The sea has now shrunk by 90 percent
and the salt and sandstorms that the devastation created kill plant life and have
negative consequences for hundreds of miles around.
The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill: On March 24, 1989, the American oil tanker the Exxon
Valdez collided with the Bligh Reef. This created an oil spill with far reaching
consequences in the Prince William Sound in Alaska. Over 11 million gallons of oil
spilled over nearly 500 miles polluting the coastline. Over a quarter million birds were
killed and countless other wildlife. Over 11,000 people aided in the clean up process.

Dioxin Pollution: On July 10, 1976 in Meda, Italy, a reactor in the ICMESA chemical
company exploded. This led to a toxic cloud of dioxin being released into the
atmosphere. Dioxin is one of the most toxic chemicals known to man. While no one
died as a direct result of the accident, many children were affected by the serious skin
disease chloracne from the accident.

The Love Canal: In the 1940’s a strange smell enveloped the area around the Love

Canal near Niagara Falls. Residents also began to notice an odd seepage leaking into
their yards and people began to fall ill. In addition, many women began to have
miscarriages and give birth to babies with birth defects. Upon inspection, it was
discovered that there was over 21,000 tons of toxic industrial waste buried below the
surface of the town by a local company.

The Union Carbide Gas Leak: On the night of December 2, 1984, the Union Carbide
pesticide plant in Bhopal, India began to leak methyl isocyanate gas and other
poisonous toxins into the atmosphere. Over 500,000 were exposed and there were up
to 15,000 deaths at that time. In addition, more than 20,000 people have died since the
accident from gas-related diseases.

The Three Mile Island Nuclear Explosion: In Harrisburg, PA on March 28, 1979,
the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor experienced a partial core meltdown. While little
radiation was released from the accident thanks to a working containment system, this
accident became the rallying call for fears about the nuclear power industry. Livestock
deaths, premature deaths and birth defects have been attributed to the nuclear melt-
down. Man can have a devastating effect on the environment and the 10 worst man-
made disasters of all time have had a negative effect on the environment for decades
afterwards. Frequently these disasters are related to poor industrial oversight within
developing countries. However, even with regulation a catastrophe can strike

Road accidents, Rail accidents, Air accidents, Sea accidents

Accident:

An unfortunate incident that happens unexpectedly and unintentionally, typically

resulting in damage or injury.

Common Causes of all type of Accidents

Shortcuts
Overconfidence
Poor, or Lack Of Housekeeping
Starting a Task Before Getting All Necessary Information
Neglecting Safety Procedures
Mental Distractions

Lack of Preparation

Road accidents

India has overtaken China's killing fields. "Nearly 1.05 lakh people die in road
accidents in India. It is the highest in the world," Brahm Dutt, secretary of the
department of road transport and highways (India) said.

Most common causes of accident

Determining the causes of the accident is important for the victim, as it has a direct
bearing on whether he or she is eligible to receive compensation. Here are some of the
most common causes of accident for road crashes. Road accidents are common. While
many of them are minor fender-benders, others are major mishaps, often even leading
to fatalities. The most common cause of accident in road mishaps is human error.

Here are some of the most common causes of accident for road crashes:

Substance abuse: Substance abuse such as consumption of alcohol, recreational and

prescription drugs is a major offender when it comes to road accidents.

Speeding: Speeding accounts for nearly a quarter of all automobile accidents.

Road layout and conditions: The road itself could be one of the causes of accident.
Many roads have well-known 'blind spots', where drivers coming from one side cannot
see vehicles coming from the other direction until it are too late. Also, roads become
slippery during rain, snow, hail, etc. As they wear, they develop cracks and patholes.

Vehicle failure: Breakdown of the mechanical components in a vehicle is another

reason behind road accidents. The most common mechanical failures involve damage
to the tyres and their associated components. In addition, break, axle, and steering
wheel failures are associated with accidents.

Driver's fault: Some accidents are caused purely due to the driver's mistake.
Distractions, such as talking on the phone or to co-passengers, calming children or pets
in the backseat, or trying to retrieve fallen items are common causes of accident.
Aggressive driving and disregarding traffic rules also fall in this category. In a major
roadside accident, involving a passenger bus and an oil tanker, 32 people have been
killed and several others injured, in Sindh province (near Nooriabad town, about 80
km from Hyderabad city) on Sunday, January 23, 2011.
Preventive measure for road accident:
1.Pull into traffic slowly. Stop, Look, Listen.
2.Watch for red light runners.
3.Keep at least one hand on the steering wheel.
4.Watch for kids.
5.Perform engine maintenance regularly.
6.Scan 12 seconds ahead.
7.Look backwards when backing out.
8.Do not tailgate.

Train/railroad accidents:

Trains offer one of the cheapest, safest and most convenient modes of transportation.
However, just like any other form of transportation, the trains are also prone to getting
accidents. These accidents are normally rare with most of them being very tragic.
These cause severe injuries and multiple deaths.

Common causes of train accidents:

Mechanical failure: Mechanical failures like broken lights and problems with the
engine are the major causes of the accidents that are caused by trains. To avoid this,
the train should be inspected thoroughly on a regular basis by professionals to ensure
everything is in order.
Human error: This can either be from the driver of the train or miscommunication by
the person who handles the lines trains use. Other mistakes can include inappropriate
cargo and overloading of cargo.Trains usually travel on different time schedules and
this can be confused causing a greasily head on collision. Improperly managed tracks
etc. Trains running in excessive speeds and Improper linking of train cars, Improper
loading and storage of toxic and dangerous materials also some of the human errors.

Weather conditions: Can also cause the accidents. For instance, if it is raining
heavily, the engineers and the operators can be derailed from performing their duties
because they cannot see the trains ahead.

Train Crashes: This could be single crashes where the train is removed from the
tracks by force; it could be a collision between two trains on the same track; or it could
be a collision with another vehicle like a car or with pedestrians.

The most common causes of Railroad crashes are:

Poor design of railroad crossing leading to limited operator vision

Failure to blow horns at required distances

Trains running beyond speed limits

Failure to trim plants and vegetations that obscure train paths

Malfunctioning crossing arms, warning bells and warning lights

Absence of crossing guards at dangerous intersections, especially at locations where

there is a history of previous crashes
Toxic Exposure: Collisions and crashes are not the only danger that people should
look out for in trains. Dangerous chemicals and other toxic materials could be
transported through trains and a crash could expose not only the passengers, but the
nearby communities as well. It could lead to different types of illnesses that could
affect the lungs, skin, heart and other internal organs. Most often, these diseases need
lifetime treatment.

Preventive measure for train accident:

Never walk on or along railroad tracks—trespassing is illegal!

Always look out for warning signs and signals.

Always assume there is a train coming, as trains can run on any track at any time.

Be aware that trains cannot stop quickly. The average freight train traveling 55 miles
per hour takes a mile or more to stop.

Only cross tracks at designated crossing areas, and always look both ways before
crossing.

Never try to beat a train across the tracks. There is no reason to risk your life for a few
extra minutes.

If you’re in a vehicle, don’t stop on the tracks. Before you cross, make sure there is
enough room for your vehicle on the other side. There should be at least 15 feet
between the end of your vehicle and the tracks.

If your vehicle stalls on a crossing, get everyone out immediately. Stand far away from
the tracks, even if you don’t see a train. Then call the emergency notification number
posted on or near the crossing, or call local law enforcement.

Be aware that some vehicles, like school buses, commercial buses and trucks carrying
hazardous materials, must always come to a full stop at railroad crossings. (State laws
vary.)

It might look easy and fun in the movies, but it is extremely dangerous to attempt to
jump on board a moving train. A minor slip could lead to a lost limb or even death.

Air accidents

An aviation accident is the worst nightmare of every pilot or passenger that has ever
ridden in an aircraft. Although air travel is one of the safest forms of transportation,
accidents do happen with dramatic and terrifying results. The causes of these aviation
accidents vary greatly depending on specific circumstances and problems that may
develop during the flight process. The chances of an aircraft crashing due to
mechanical problems is statistically very low but given the wide publicity generated by
the media, it appears that statistics can appear to be quite misleading. In reality, human
error is the primary contributor to more than 70 percent of all commercial airplane
accidents. Pilot error is a far more likely cause of an airplane crash than mechanical
failure or bad weather conditions.
Descent and landing accidents

There are five stages of the descent and landing process. These include descent,
approach, landing, go-around or aborted landing, and taxi. When a problem occurs
during any of the five steps, an accident could result. Descent and landing accidents
account for 36 percent of all general aviation mishaps and the most common type of
accident. Takeoff mishaps, mechanical failures, pilot errors, fuel mismanagement, and
poor weather are only some of the many plights that can lead to injuries or death in the
sky. When flight crew and pilots do their jobs correctly, aviation accidents are much
less likely to occur. Although not all accidents result in death, there is an increased
likelihood of injury and fatalities may occur.

Common causes for air accidents:

Pilot Error

Half of all plane crashes are caused by pilot error.

Mechanical Error

The second most common cause of plane crashes is mechanical error, which accounts
for about 22% of all aviation accidents.
Weather

Around 12% of all plane crashes are caused by weather conditions.

Sabotage

Plane crashes that are caused by sabotage draw the most media attention, but they only
account for about 9% of total plane crashes. Some sabotaged flights crash because of
hijackers, and of course the most notable examples are the three flights that were
hijacked on September 11th.

Other Human Error

The bulk of the remaining plane crashes, about 7%, are caused by other kinds of
human errors. Some plane crashes are inadvertently caused by air traffic controllers.
Preventive measure for air accident:
Proposed precautions against airliner sabotage

Stress on airworthiness and plane maintenance

Steps to curtail accidents due to bad weather

Improvement of traffic control and landing aids

Improving aviation safety systems and improving services

o New Air Navigation System

o Enhancing air traffic services

Improving airspace
Airspace on sea
Airspace around airports
Improving airports

Improving major airports in large cities

Improving airport safety technology

Strengthening supervision system for air transport companies

Improving the skills of aviation workers

Improving guidance on accident prevention of small aircraft

Sea accident:

According to insurers’ statistics, 80% of oil tanker accidents which cause oil spills at
sea are a result of human errors: badly handled manoeuvres, neglected maintenance,
insufficient checking of systems, lack of communication between crew members,
fatigue, or an inadequate response to a minor incident causing it to escalate into a
major accident. From a more practical point of view, analysis of the circumstances
surrounding accidents demonstrates the high proportion of spills due to groundings and
collisions.

Causes of sea accidents:

Collisions are generally due to manoeuvring errors, especially in poor visibility and/or
busy shipping traffic areas, often made worse by high winds, challenging currents and
bad weather.

Grounding : Equipment failure is a more common cause of groundings than of

collisions. Grounding of the Sea Empress at the entrance to Milford Haven port, Wales
(Great Britain) is one such example. The Sea Empress oil spill occurred on 15
February 1996. Over the course of a week, 73,000 tons of crude oil spilled into the sea.
The spill occurred within the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park - one of Europe's
most important and sensitive wildlife and marine conservation areas.

Oil spills

Oil wastes that enter the ocean come from many sources, some being accidental spills
or leaks, and some being the results of chronic and careless habits in the use of oil and
oil products. Most waste oil in the ocean consists of oily storm water drainage from
cities and farms, untreated waste disposal from factories and industrial facilities, and
unregulated recreational boating.

It is estimated that approximately 706 million gallons of waste oil enter the ocean
every year, with over half coming from land drainage and waste disposal; for example,
from the improper disposal of used motor oil. Offshore drilling and production
operations and spills or leaks from ships or tankers typically contribute less than 8
percent of the total. The remainder comes from routine maintenance of ships (nearly
20 percent), hydrocarbon particles from onshore air pollution (about 13 percent), and
natural seepage from the seafloor (over 8 percent).

The reasons for oil spills are

Ship groundings

Improper Transporting

Pipeline breaks

Overfilling of gas tanks

Leaking underground storage tanks

Parking lots during rain storms

Bilge pumping from ships

People making mistakes or being careless.

Equipment breaking down.

Examples of oil spills in India

o 1994, June14 - Indian authorities began siphoning off 700 tons of oil from the Sea
Transporter, a 6,000-ton Greek cargo ship which had been anchored off Aguada after it
ran aground following a cyclone on June 5.

2005,March 25 - Goa –110 tonnes oil spilled. By comparison, the wreck of number of
large spills (over 206,500 gallons) averaged 24.1 per year from 1970 to 1979, but
decreased to 6.9 per year from 1990 onwards.

Effect of oil spills

Effects of oil spills on habitats

One of the areas that is most obviously affected after an oil spill is the shoreline. The
oil washes up on the beaches coating the sand, rocks, and plants with oily residue.
When the sand is covered with oil it can't support the vegetation that normally would
grow there. Wildlife may eat the contaminated vegetation and become sick or die.

Economic effects

The local economy is affected by an oil spill. Recreational areas that are covered with
oil are not appealing to tourists and towns that depend on tourism can find themselves
in a difficult financial situation.
Effects of spills on wildlife
Probably one of the areas of greatest concern is the effect of the oil spill on wildlife.

From the smallest plankton to the largest whale, all marine life is impacted by an oil
spill.
Behavioral changes
Blindness

Damage to internal organs

Spread to other habitats
Sores
Stress

Effects of oil on the ocean

Although the big oil spills from offshore drilling get a lot of attention, there are
millions of gallons of oil dumped into the world's oceans every year from other
sources.

Coral reef impact

Oil may impact coral reefs in a negative way. These reefs are not only beautiful, they
provide a habitat for many sea creatures.

Preventive measure for sea accident:

Working system and preparation

Planning for cargo oil operations

Pre-safety meeting

Effective communication

Promote techniques of hazard prediction training

Preparation of Watch schedule & pic of oil transfer operations

Have a complete meeting beforehand with terminal

Cargo oil transfer check lists

Ship / Shore safety checklist

Pre arrival checks

Transfer of duty in conscientious manner

Check operational conditions and training of crew

Unit 10 : Disaster Management- Effect to migrate natural disaster at national and

global levels. International strategy for disaster reduction. Concept of disaster
management, national disaster management framework; financial arrangements; role of
NGOs, community - based organizations and media. Central, state, district and local
administration; Armed forces in disaster response; Disaster response; Police and other
organizations.

Disaster Management - Efforts to mitigate natural disasters at National and

Global levels; International strategy for Disaster reduction; Concept of Disaster
management; National disaster management framework and financial
arrangements

The National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) provides a framework and direction
to the government agencies for all phases of disaster management cycle. The NDMP is
a “dynamic document” in the sense that it will be periodically improved keeping up
with the global best practices and knowledge base in disaster management. It is in
accordance with the provisions of the Disaster Management Act 2005. Relevant
agencies – central or state – will carry out disaster management activities in different
phases in the disaster-affected areas depending on the type and scale of disaster.

Within each state, the state government is primarily responsible for disaster and the
State Government can seek assistance from the Central Government. The NDMP
provides a framework covering all aspects of the disaster management cycle. It covers
disaster risk reduction, mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery, and betterment
reconstruction.

Disaster risk management is the systematic process of using administrative decisions,

organization, operational skills and capacities to implement policies, strategies and
coping capacities of the society and communities to lessen the impacts of natural
hazards and related environmental and technological disasters.

UNISDR proposed the following definition for the term Disaster Management
(2015b):

“The organization, planning and application of measures preparing for,

responding to and, initial recovery from disasters.”

Disaster Management (DM Act, 2005)

“A continuous and integrated process of planning, organising, coordinating and

implementing measures which are necessary or expedient" for the following: 1)
Prevention of danger or threat of any disaster, 2) Mitigation or reduction of risk of any
disaster or its severity or consequences, 3) Capacity-building, 4) Preparedness to deal
with any disaster, 5) Prompt response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster,
6) Assessing the severity or magnitude of effects of any disaster 7) Evacuation, rescue
and relief, and 8) Rehabilitation and reconstruction.”

Levels of Disasters

The disaster management and its planning at various tiers must take into account the
vulnerability of disaster-affected area, and the capacity of the authorities to deal with
the situation.

Level-L1: The level of disaster that can be managed within the capabilities and
resources at the District level. However, the state authorities will remain in readiness to
provide assistance if needed.

Level-L2: This signifies the disaster situations that require assistance and active
mobilization of resources at the state level and deployment of state level agencies for
disaster management. The central agencies must remain vigilant for immediate
deployment if required by the state.
Level-L3: This corresponds to a nearly catastrophic situation or a very large-scale
disaster that overwhelms the State and District authorities.

Efforts to mitigate natural disasters at national and global levels

National Levels

India has been traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its unique
geo-climatic conditions. Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have
been a recurrent phenomena. About 60% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of
various intensities; over 40 million hectares is prone to floods; about 8% of the total
area is prone to cyclones and 68% of the area is susceptible to drought. In the decade
1990-2000, an average of about 4344 people lost their lives and about 30 million
people were affected by disasters every year. The loss in terms of private, community
and public assets has been astronomical.

At the global level, there has been considerable concern over natural disasters. Even as
substantial scientific and material progress is made, the loss of lives and property due
to disasters has not decreased. In fact, the human toll and economic losses have
mounted. It was in this background that the United Nations General Assembly, in 1989
declared the decade 1990-2000 as the International Decade for Natural Disaster.
Reduction with the objective to reduce loss of lives and property and restrict socio-
economic damage through concerted international action, especially in developing
countries.

At the national level, the Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal Ministry for all matters
concerning disaster management. The Central Relief Commissioner (CRC) in the
Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal officer to coordinate relief operations for natural
disasters. The CRC receives information relating to forecasting/warning of a natural
calamity from India Meteorological Department (IMD) or from Central Water
Commission of Ministry of Water Resources on a continuing basis. The
Ministries/Departments/Organizations concerned with the primary and secondary
functions relating to the management of disasters include:

India Meteorological Department,

Central Water Commission,

Ministry of Home Affairs,

Ministry of Defense,

Ministry of Finance,

Ministry of Rural Development,

Ministry of Urban Development,

Department of Communications,

Ministry of Health,

Ministry of Water Resources,

Department of Agriculture & Cooperation.

Ministry of Power, Department of Civil Supplies,

Ministry of Railways,

Ministry of Information and Broadcasting,

Department of Surface Transport,

Ministry of Social Justice,

Department of Women and Child Development,

Ministry of Environment and Forest, & Climate change

Each Ministry/Department/Organization nominate their nodal officer to the Crisis

Management Group chaired by Central Relief Commissioner. The nodal officer is
responsible for preparing sectoral Action Plan/Emergency Support Function Plan for
managing disasters.

National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC)

The NCMC gives direction to the Crisis Management Group as deemed necessary. The
Secretary, Ministry of Home Affairs is responsible for ensuring that all developments
are brought to the notice of the NCMC promptly. The NCMC can give directions to
any Ministry/Department/Organization for specific action needed for meeting the crisis
situation.

Crisis Management Group

The Central Relief Commissioner in the Ministry of Home Affairs is the Chairman of
the CMG, consisting of senior officers (called nodal officers) from various concerned
Ministries. The CMG’s functions are to review every year contingency plans

formulated by various Ministries/Departments/Organizations in their respective

sectors, measures required for dealing with a natural disasters, coordinate the activities
of the Central Ministries and the State Governments in relation to disaster
preparedness and relief and to obtain information from the nodal officers on measures
relating to above. The CMG, in the event of a natural disaster, meets frequently to
review the relief operations and extend all possible assistance required by the affected
States to overcome the situation effectively. The Resident Commissioner of the
affected State is also associated with such meetings.

Control Room (Emergency Operation Room)

An Emergency Operations Center (Control Room) exists in the nodal Ministry of

Home Affairs, which functions round the clock, to assist the Central Relief
Commissioner in the discharge of his duties. The activities of the Control Room
include collection and transmission of information concerning natural calamity and
relief, keeping close contact with governments of the affected States, interaction with
other Central Ministries/Departments/Organizations in connection with relief,
maintaining records containing all relevant information relating to action points and
contact points in Central Ministries etc., keeping up-to-date details of all concerned
officers at the Central and State levels.
GLOBAL LEVELS
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

The UNDP was established in 1965 during the UN Decade of Development to conduct
investigations into private investment in developing countries, to explore the natural
resources of those countries, and to train the local population in development activities
such as mining and manufacturing. Historically, the UNDP was not considered an
agency on the forefront of the crisis and disaster management scene because, while
they worked on development issues, they did not focus specifically on emergency
response systems, considered to be the focal point of crisis and disaster management
for many years.

The UNDP feels that vulnerability to disasters is strongly linked to a lack of or weak
infrastructure, poor environmental policy, misuse of land, and rising populations in
areas that are prone to repeat disasters. In many cases, these disasters can literally set a
country back years, if not decades, in terms of development achievement. For instance,
the president of Honduras has declared that the country has gone back to early 1950’s
levels of development due to the devastating effects of Hurricane Mitch. UNDP
currently dedicates over 40% of its resources to emergency relief operations.

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA)

The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) was
created under the UN Secretary-General’s Program for Reform in 1998, to
accommodate the needs of victims of disasters and emergencies. Their specific role in
the broad range of disaster management tasks is to coordinate assistance provided by
the UN system in emergencies that exceed the capacity and mandate of any individual
agency. The OCHA response to disasters can be categorized under three main
groupings, including the coordination of the international humanitarian response, the
provision of support and policy development to the humanitarian community, and the
advocating of humanitarian issues to ensure that that the overall direction of relief
reflects the general needs of recovery and peace-building.

The Disaster Response System, established by OCHA, monitors the onset of natural
and technological disasters on a constant basis. This system includes the training of the
assessment teams before disasters strike, as well as evaluations conducted post-
disaster. When a disaster is identified, the OCHA response is activated, and a situation
report is generated to provide the international response community with detailed
disaster-specific information (which includes damage caused, actions taken, needs
assessed, and current assistance being provided). OCHA may then, if deemed
necessary, deploy a UN Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team to
assist in the coordination of relief activities and help assess damages and needs.

The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)

In the situations of disaster or armed conflict where this is the case, UNICEF is well
poised to serve an immediate role as aid-provider to its specific target groups. This
rapid response is important, because young mothers and children are often the most
marginalized groups in terms of aid received. UNICEF works on a regular basis to
ensure that children have access to education, healthcare, safety, and protected child
rights. In the response and recovery periods of humanitarian emergencies, it is these
roles that are merely expanded to suit the rapidly extended requirements of victims. In
countries where UNICEF has not yet established a permanent presence, the form of aid
is virtually the same, however the timing and delivery are affected and reconstruction
is not nearly as comprehensive.

UNICEF maintains that humanitarian assistance should include programs aimed

specifically for child victims. Relief projects generally work to provide a rapidly
needed response in the form of immunizations, water and sanitation, nutrition,
education and health. Women are recipients of this aid as well, because UNICEF
considers them to be vital in the care ofchildren. UNICEF also works through recovery
and reconstruction projects, providing for the basic rights of children. UNICEF is
currently working in 161 countries.
The World Food Programme (WFP)

In rapid onset events such as natural disasters, WFP is activated, as a major player in
the response to the immediate nutritional needs of the victims. Food is transported to
the affected location and delivered to storage and distribution centers. The distribution
is carried out according to pre-established needs-assessments performed by OCHA and
UNDP. WFP distributes food through contracted NGOs who have vast experience and
technical skills required to plan and implement such projects of transportation, storage
and distribution. The principal partners in their planning and implementation are the
host governments (who must request the aid of WFP to begin with, unless the situation
is a complex humanitarian emergency where there is no established government, and
the UN Secretary General makes the request). WFP works closely with all responding
UN agencies to coordinate an effective and broad reaching response, as food
requirements are so closely linked to every other vital need of victims.

World Health Organization (WHO)

In the event of a disaster, WHO responds in several ways that address the health of
victims. Most importantly, it provides ongoing monitoring of diseases traditionally
observed within the unsanitary conditions of disaster aftermath. WHO also provides
technical assistance to the responding agencies and host governments who are
establishing disaster medical capabilities, and serves as constant source of expertise as
needs arise.

NATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY (NDMA)

The Government of India established the NDMA in 2005, headed by the Prime
Minister. Under the DM Act 2005, the NDMA, as the apex body for disaster
management, shall have the responsibility for laying down the policies, plans, and
guidelines for disaster management for ensuring timely and effective response to
disaster. The guidelines of NDMA will assist the Central Ministries, Departments, and
States to formulate their respective DM plans. It will approve the National Disaster
Management Plans and DM plans of the Central Ministries / Departments. It will take
such other measures, as it may consider necessary, for the prevention of disasters, or
mitigation, or preparedness and capacity building, for dealing with a threatening
disaster situation or disaster. Central Ministries / Departments and State Governments
will extend necessary cooperation and assistance to NDMA for carrying out its
mandate. It will oversee the provision and application of funds for mitigation and
preparedness measures.

NDMA has the power to authorise the Departments or authorities concerned, to make
emergency procurement of provisions or materials for rescue and relief in a threatening
disaster situation or disaster. The general superintendence, direction, and control of the
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is vested in and will be exercised by the
NDMA. The National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) works within the
framework of broad policies and guidelines laid down by the NDMA. The NDMA has
the mandate to deal with all types of disasters – natural or human-induced. However,
other emergencies such as terrorism (counter-insurgency), law and order situations,
hijacking, air accidents, CBRN weapon systems, which require the close involvement
of the security forces and/or intelligence agencies, and other incidents such as mine
disasters, port and harbour emergencies, forest fires, oilfield fires and oil spills will be
handled by the National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC). Nevertheless,
NDMA may formulate guidelines and facilitate training and preparedness activities in
respect of CBRN emergencies.
Concepts of disaster management

Pre-Independence, droughts and famines were the biggest killers in India. The situation
has changed due to a combination of factors like irrigation development, food security
measures. Floods, cyclones, droughts, landslides, avalanches and earthquakes are some
of the major natural disasters that repeatedly and increasingly affect the country.

Disaster Management Cycle

Disaster Risk Management includes sum total of all activities, programmes and
measures which can be taken up before, during and after a disaster with the purpose to
avoid a disaster, reduce its impact or recover from its losses.
1. Before a disaster (pre-disaster)

Such risk reduction measures taken under this stage are termed as mitigation and preparedness activities.

2. During a disaster (disaster occurrence)

Initiatives taken to ensure that the needs and provisions of victims are met and suffering is minimized.
Activities taken under this stage are called emergency response activities.

3. After a disaster (post-disaster)

Initiatives taken in response to a disaster with a purpose to achieve early recovery and rehabilitation of
affected communities, immediately after a disaster strikes. These are called as response and recovery
activities.

In 1989, the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed the decade 1999-2000 as the
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR). At the World Conference on Natural
Disaster Reduction in the city of Yokohama, Japan in 1994, deep concern was expressed at the
continuing human suffering and disruption of development due to natural disasters and a Yokohama
Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safe World was developed. This was a definitive step in Disaster
Mitigation and Preparedness Planning.

Basic concepts of Emergency Management - The basic concept suggests that the same management
strategies can be applied to all emergencies. Emergencies do not just appear one day, rather they exist
throughout time and have a life-cycle of occurrence, and hence the management strategy should match
the phases of an emergency in order to mitigate, prepare, respond and recover from its effect. There are
four phases in Emergency Management

Mitigation,
Preparedness,
Response and
Recovery

The four phases are visualized as having a circular relationship to each other (Emergency Management
Cycle). The activities in one phase may overlap those in the previous one. Comprehensive and
integrated approach is in general adopted to the development of disaster management arrangements.
Disaster management arrangements are developed in accordance with these concepts.

The four broad approaches are :

all hazards approach
comprehensive approach
all agencies approach and
a prepared community

The ‘all hazards approach’

The all hazards approach refers to the development of arrangements for managing the large range of
possible effects of risks and disasters. This concept is useful to the extent that a large range of risks can
cause similar consequences, and such measures as warning, evacuation, medical services and
community recovery will be required during and following emergencies. Many risks will, however,
require specific response and recovery measures, and will almost certainly require specific prevention
and mitigation measures.

The comprehensive approach

The comprehensive approach, which embraces synergies and efficiencies across prevention,
preparedness, response and recovery, provides an overarching framework for disaster management in
general and disaster response in particular. Whilst this plan focuses exclusively on response, it is
understood that response occurs within a continuum that includes prevention and preparedness as well
as recovery. This Annexure complements the plan by defining the elements of a comprehensive
approach.

The ‘all agencies approach’

The ‘all agencies approach’ recognises that no single agency can prepare for, and deal with the
disruption to community life and infrastructure that can result from a disaster event.

The ‘all agencies approach’ involves effectively coordinating the activities of the large number of
organizations and agencies that are required to contribute to the PPRR spectrum within and across all
levels of Government.

The ‘all agencies approach’ recognizes the need for coordination arrangements, containing input of
Australian government, State and Local governments, to be articulated and set within a legislative and
public policy framework. The arrangements must reflect the disaster management responsibilities of all
agencies within the context of community safety and sustainability. All agencies need to have an
understanding of the disaster management policy frameworks and arrangements that apply in their areas
of responsibility. Some agencies will have a primary role in only one of the components of the PPRR
spectrum, but most can be expected to have a secondary or support role in others.

A prepared community

In a disaster situation, individual and community “self-help” can often provide the most readily
available and effective relief, as assistance from external sources may be limited or delayed by other
demands on resources. Local government and community organisations provide the basis for organising
effective and immediately available community resources.

Local volunteer organisations, when effectively integrated into local disaster management arrangements,
can be of vital assistance in giving access to community resources and expertise, and also act as a link in
the essential information chain between Local government, disaster management agencies and the
community.
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction

The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) was created in December 1999. The
successor to the secretariat of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, it was established
to ensure the implementation of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (General Assembly
(GA) resolution 54/219). UNISDR is led by a United Nations Special Representative of the Secretary-
General for Disaster Risk Reduction (SRSG) and has over 100 staff located in its headquarters in
Geneva, Switzerland, 5 regional offices (Africa: Nairobi, the Americas: Panama City, Arab States:
Cairo, Asia-Pacific: Bangkok and Europe: Brussels) and other field presences in Addis Ababa, Almaty,
Bonn, Incheon, Kobe, New York-UN Headquarters, Rio de Janeiro and Suva. UNISDR is part of the
United Nations Secretariat and its functions span the social, economic, environmental as well as
humanitarian fields. UNISDR supports the implementation, follow-up and review of the Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction adopted by the Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk
Reduction on 18 March 2015 in Sendai, Japan. UNISDR coordinates international efforts in Disaster
Risk Reduction (DRR) and guide, monitor as well as report regularly on the progress of the
implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, following the Hyogo Framework
for Action. It convenes the biennial Global Platform on Disaster Risk Reduction with leaders and
decision makers to advance risk reduction policies and supports the establishment of regional, national
and thematic platforms.

Financial arrangements

The policy and the f u n d i n g m e c h a n i s m f o r provision of relief assistance to those affected by

natural calamities is clearly laid down. These are reviewed by the Finance

Commission appointed by the Government of India every five years. The Finance Commission makes
recommendation regarding the division of tax and non-tax revenues between the Central and the State
Governments and also regarding policy for provision of relief assistance and their share of expenditure
thereon. A Calamity Relief Fund (CRF) has been set up in each State as per the recommendations of the
Eleventh Finance Commission. The size of the Calamity Relief Fund has been fixed by the finance
Commission after taking into account the expenditure on relief and rehabilitation over the past 10 years.
The Government of India contributes 75% of the corpus of the Calamity Relief Fund in each State. 25%
is contributed to by the State. Relief assistance to those affected by natural calamities is granted from the
CRF. Overall norms for relief assistance are laid down by a national committee with representatives of
States as members. Different States can have State- specific norms to be recommended by State level
committee under the Chief Secretary. Where the calamity is of such proportion that the funds available
in the CRF will not be sufficient for provision of relief, the State seeks assistance from the National
Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF) - a fund created at the Central Government level. When such
requests are received, the requirements are assessed by a team from the Central Government and
thereafter the assessed requirements are cleared by a High Level Committee chaired by the Deputy
Prime Minister. In brief, the institutional arrangements for response and relief are well- established and
have proved to be robust and effective.

At the State level, response, relief and rehabilitation are handled by Departments of Relief &
Rehabilitation. The State Crisis Management Committee set up under the Chairmanship of Chief
Secretary who is the highest executive functionary in the State. All the concerned Departments and
organizations of the State and Central Government Departments located in the State are represented in
this Committee. This Committee reviews the action taken for response and relief and gives
guidelines/directions as necessary. A control room is established under the Relief Commissioner. The
control room is in constant touch with the climate monitoring/forecasting agencies and monitors the
action being taken by various age.

When a disaster strikes, the Authority will coordinate disaster management activities.
Ensuring adequate preparedness at all levels in order to meet disasters.
Coordinating response to a disaster when it strikes.
Coordination of post disaster relief and rehabilitation.

State Disaster Response Fund

The State Disaster Response Fund shall be used only for meeting the expenditure for providing
immediate relief to the victims of cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire, flood, tsunami, hailstorm,
landslide, avalanche, cloud burst, pest attack, frost and cold wave. While the state can draw from State
Disaster Response Fund for the emergency response and relief, there are provisions to adjust a portion
of the expense against funds released from National Disaster Response Fund between the fiscal in which
National Disaster Response Fund is released and the expenses incurred by state in the previous fiscal
under State Disaster Response Fund. The state-specific disasters within the local context in the State,
which are not included in the notified list of disasters eligible for assistance from State Disaster
Response Fund and National Disaster Response Fund, can be met from State Disaster Response Fund
within the limit of 10 percent of the annual funds allocation of the State Disaster Response Fund.

Role of NGOs, community-based organizations, and media on disaster Management, Central,

State, District and local Administration

NGOs are organizations that are nonprofit making, voluntary and independent of government, engaged
in activities concerning various societal and developmental issues. The NGO sector has always been
very vibrant in India, and is based on the concept of volunteerism and care for the fellow citizens.
NGOs play a significant role in slow onset disasters such as droughts, through work that is
developmental and at the same time reduces risk as well as responding to the relief needs. Many
organizations also undertake disaster management (DM) activities, as a core area of ongoing work in the
case of some agencies while some others participate only in post disaster response when the
communities they work with face sudden emergencies. A very large number of NGOs, both
international and national, have significantly large field presence that often extend across a number of
states. They are well organized in terms of operations, administration and finances. Their work is
complemented by local and community based organizations, which are more spontaneous and informal
in nature, and work at the grass-root levels often from within communities.

The coordination of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) among themselves and with government
agencies has been improving over the years and NGOs have made significant contributions in most of
the recent disasters. The number of internationally operating NGOs is estimated at 40,000. National
numbers are even higher: Russia has 277,000 NGOs; India is estimated to have around 3.3 million
NGOs in year 2009 that is one NGO for less than 400 Indians, and many times the number of primary
schools and primary health centres in India. After the Indian Ocean Tsunami in December 2004, in
Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu, more than 500 NGOs responding to the Tsunami came together as the
NGO Coordination and Resource Centre (NCRC) to collect, collate, and share information.

Role of NGOs in Disaster Preparedness General Action Points for NGOs

i. The potential of utilizing existing organizational networks like SHGs, youth groups, farmers groups,
village health committees, village education committees, etc for creating greater public awareness on
strengthening disaster preparedness at the local levels can be explored by NGOs very effectively.

The NGOs can contribute immensely as facilitators to introduce the thematic expertise and good
practices as well as results of action research, policy interventions and knowledge management in the
implementation of government programmes through large social mobilization exercises.

Role of NGOs for Persons with Disabilities (PWDs)

i. When resource mapping is carried out, resources specific to PWDs should also be identified. These
may include accessible disabled-friendly drinking water and sanitation sources, accessible disabled-
friendly shelters, volunteers to provide physical and psychological support, rehabilitation centres,
emergency healthcare and hospital services for injured persons, special schools or schools that include
children with disabilities, etc. NGOs must address the specific needs of PWDs during the preparedness
phase. They should prepare a resource inventory taking into consideration three areas of disability:
physical, sensory (hearing, speech, vision) and mental or intellectual.

During Preparedness phase, NGOs should advocate for participatory processes to plan for possible
relief camp locations in the event of disaster. All locations including existing social institutions such as
schools, large halls, community multi-purpose centres or stadia that may be used as shelter sites, should
be made accessible to all community members using the universal standard design of accessibility (such
as building ramps, installing handrails, modifying water and sanitation sources and making other
necessary disabled friendly modifications) to ensure that the sites will be accessible to all. PWDs should
be included in this participatory consultative process to ensure that their needs are adequately addressed.

NGOs at National, State and District level

NGOs will play following roles for disaster preparedness at national, state, district and community level
by

Facilitate formation of NGO taskforces and other task forces and participate in the same. They will
advocate for formal and institutionalized engagement and develop protocols for consultative status with
NDMA, Planning Commission, Finance Commission, National Executive Committee, SDMA, State
Planning Boards, State Executive Committees and such other bodies.

Assist in development, piloting, validation and updating of national level contingency and preparedness
plans.

Facilitate and participate in training and mock drills of different stakeholders and facilitate detailed
assessment of current needs and capacities at state levels.
Establish linkages with authorities for hazard monitoring and provide last mile connectivity for early
warning dissemination.

Facilitate & establish mechanisms for public information broadcasting before & during disasters;
collect, manage & process data during & after disaster; and research & promote good practice
development / adoption.

Community Based Organizations (CBO)

CBO is all such organization, institutions or congregation of people, which have local area/village based
presence, maturity and structural arrangements. These are owned and managed by members. They are
formal, legal entity or informal registered organizations maintaining separate books of accounts,
systems and ways of working. They have group identity membership. They should not be affiliated to
any religious, political or parties/groups. Effective and successful disaster reduction initiatives are often
attributed to the spontaneous participation of the communities and involvement of the people. In most
cases, it is observed that the community initiatives produce results so long as there are external supports
from the government, nongovernment and/or international organizations. The term “Community-Based
Disaster Management” (CBDM) received attention in the development field in the 1980s, although
community-based disaster initiatives were already on-going in different parts of the world in formal or
informal ways. It was mainly the nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), which were conducting the
CBDM projects at different scales and with different stakeholders. In due course, selected donor
agencies, international NGOs, and regional/ international organizations initiated different CBDM
programmes, and thus the activities received national and international attention.

For decades, it was a common notion that grass-roots/community initiatives were the responsibilities of
the NGOs. Thus, there were very few attempts made to incorporate the CBDM initiatives in national-
level policy or international-level commitments. Consequently, the major challenges of the CBDM
were:

1) sustainability of the efforts at the community level, and

2) in-corporation of CBDM issues at the policy level.

To be effective and to create a sustainable impact, the application of the CBDM must go beyond the
initiative of communities, NGOs and a handful of local governments. As part of an advocacy for more
responsive and effective governance, national and state level governments should look at integrating
CBDM in their policy and implementing procedures.

The United Nations Centre for Regional Development (UNCRD) Disaster Management Planning
Hyogo Office has incorporated CBDM as its main emphasis area of operation under the overall
organizational mandate of sustainable regional development and human security. To study the
sustainability issues of CBDM, the UNCRD Hyogo Office has formulated a three-year project, with
specific emphasis on the Asian region. This User’s Guide is the first step in the process of
institutionalization of CBDM.

The purpose of the Guide is to provide a simplified and general set of guidelines and tools for different
users: Policymakers, National Disaster Managers, Local Disaster Managers, Trainers, and Community
Workers. This User’s Guide is based on the selected experiences from Asian countries, and attempts
have been made to generalize it for wider application. We understand very clearly that each country and
community has its own local characteristic with different social, economic, political, religious, and
cultural context. Therefore, the User’s Guide needs to be adopted to the local context.

Role of media in Disaster management

The media can educate and forewarn the people about the consequences of their dangerous actions and
operations. The impending occurrence of some natural disasters whether induced by the Man’ actions or
otherwise, can now be known sufficiently in advance, thanks to the advances in science and technology.
The media, by communicating the information to the people and the concerned authorities sufficiently
in advance, can enable them to take the necessary steps to prevent and minimize the losses of lives and
property.

While the disaster is on, the media can also play the role of relaying the measures that are being taken
and monitoring them, cautioning the affected or to be affected people about the Do’s and Don’t s, of
scotching rumors and preventing panic and confusion, of establishing contacts, of identifying the needy
spots and focusing attention on them, and generally by assisting the authorities, voluntary organizations
and volunteers in reaching, informing and assuring the affected ones of the assistance and the measures
taken, for their relief. During the onslaught of the disaster, what is of utmost importance is to keep the
morale of the people high, to create self-confidence in them, to prevent panic and to maintain order by
assuring and making available the necessary help readily and quickly. The media can help, in many
ways in ensuring these conditions.

What media do?

The media can educate the public’s about disaster prevention and preparedness. The media can link
scientists, disaster mitigation officials and the public. The media can provide analytical materials for
future prevention. The media can remove the myth that disaster is caused by God’s wrath. The role of
the media is to provide a vital link among the people and the state. The media must help to co-ordinate
government activities and operations so that both the receivers and givers of information they publish
are served adequately. There should be no shortfalls or serious contradictions within the media. The
media need to have proper liaison and lack of it could lead to destruction, disaster, and duplication of
efforts leading to wastage of public funds. The media should provide the nation with useful important
information on the state of the country as well as the outside world.

Role of local media

Local media have not been exempted to lack of skills, structure and capacity to adequately cover
disaster news. What makes it even worse is the sour relationship that the media has with law
enforcement agents, and disaster management units. The two have never enjoyed a good marriage. The
media and disaster management agencies need each other to perform their functions better. Information
needs to be presented responsibly and timely. The media should not just report on what has happened
and what is being done. The media should analyse what is not being done and prescribes what should be
done.

Role of Central, State, District and local Administration on disasters Management

In general, the basis for disaster works implementation depends on two categories of disaster-related
data:

I. Pre-disaster baseline data about the country and risks; and

Post-disaster real-time data about the impact of a disaster and the resources available to combat it.

Components of a National Disaster Management Information System

Hazard Assessment Mapping

Vulnerability Assessment
Demographic Distribution
Infrastructure, Lifelines and Critical Facilities
Logistics and Transportation Routes
Human and Material Response Resources
Communication Facilities
The usage of Disaster Management Information Systems (DMIS) would be in 3 contexts

Preparedness planning, (2) Mitigation and Response & (3) Recovery As an

example let us consider earthquake

Inventory of Activities for Earthquake I. Planning and Preparation

Identification of Earthquake Prone Areas
Identification of Problems
Identification and Mobilization of Resources
Command and Control
Advance Preparatory Action

II. After an Earthquake

The primary relief functions of the Central Government would relate to:

Maintenance of uninterrupted communication;

Wide publicity for disaster preparedness and relief measures through TV, AIR and Newspapers;

Transport with particular reference to evacuation and movement of essential commodities and
petroleum products;

Ensuring availability of essential commodities at reasonable prices particularly the commodities through
the Public Distribution System;

Ensuring availability of medicines, vaccine and drugs;

Preservation and restoration of physical communication links;

Investments in infrastructure such as building shelters, temporary latrines, road, electricity etc.

Mobilisation of financial resources.

The secondary functions of the Central Government which supplement the States’ relief efforts are:

Relief, rehabilitation and restoration through military aid to civil authorities;

Contingency plans for crops, cattle preservation nutrition and health measures;
Technical and technological inputs for provision of drinking water;

Technical assistance in the water budgeting and water management for various uses; and

Coordination of the activities of the State agencies and voluntary agencies.

Disaster management system in India

In Government of India, the Ministry of Agriculture is the nodal ministry for disaster management.
There are many other ministries involved in the disaster response operations. The following table shows
the Nodal Ministries/ Departments of the Government of India.

Departments and Ministries of the Govt. of India responsible for Disaster Management Disaster
Nodal Ministries
The management mechanism of the country includes
Integrated Administrative Machinery,

National Contingency Action Plan - identify initiatives by various agencies, Department of

Agriculture & Cooperation - the Nodal Department,

Central Relief Commissioner - Chief Nodal Officer at National level, State/District

Contingency Plans and
Relief Manuals.

National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC) under Cabinet Secretary,

Crisis Management Group (CMG) under Central Relief Commissioner, Group of Ministers, Group of
Secretaries and

High Level Committees - Need base, Department of Agriculture & Cooperation – the Nodal Department
Coordinates National and International efforts, Operation of Krishi Control Room.

National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC) Crisis Management Group

Control Room (Emergency Operation Room): An Emergency Operations Center (Control Room)
exists in the nodal Ministry of Home Affairs, which functions round the clock, to assist the Central
Relief Commissioner in the discharge of his duties. The activities of the Control Room include
collection and transmission of information concerning natural calamity and relief, keeping close contact
with governments of the affected States, interaction with other Central
Ministries/Departments/Organizations in connection with relief, maintaining records containing all
relevant information relating to action points and contact points in Central Ministries etc., keeping up-
to-date details of all concerned officers at the Central and State levels.

Contingency Action Plan

State Relief Manuals: Each State Government has relief manuals/codes which identify that role of each
officer in the State for managing the natural disasters. These are reviewed and updated periodically
based on the experience of managing the disasters and the need of the State.

Funding mechanisms
The efforts of the Government and non-governmental organizations for response and relief are
coordinated by the Collector/Dy. Commissioner. The District Magistrate/Collector and Coordination
Committee under him reviews preparedness measures prior to an impending hazard and coordinate
response when the hazard strikes. As all the Departments of the State Government and district level
report to the Collector, there is an effective coordination mechanism ensuring holistic response.

Some major Institutes in India

Disaster Management Institute, Bhopal, M.P.

Disaster Mitigation Institute, Ahmedabad, Gujarat

Environment Protection Training and Research Institute, Hyderabad

Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority (GSDMA):

Joint Assistance Centre, Gurgaon, Haryana

Centre for Disaster Management (CDM), Pune, Maharastra

Sikkim Manipal University of Health, Medical and Technological Sciences, Tadong,Gangtok, Sikkim

PRT Institute of Post Graduate Environmental Education & Research, New

Delhi
Central Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi

Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi

National Civil Defence College, Nagpur, Maharastra

Role of Central, State, District and Local administration in disaster management

The country has an integrated administrative machinery for management of disasters at the National,
State, District and Sub-District levels. The basic responsibility of undertaking rescue, relief and
rehabilitation measures in the event of natural disasters, as at present, is that of the State Governments
concerned. The Central Government supplements the efforts of the States by providing financial and
logistic support.
Central Level

The dimensions of response at the level of the Central Government are determined in accordance with
the existing policy of financing relief expenditure and keeping in view the factors like:

the gravity of a natural disaster;

the scale of the relief operation necessary; and

the requirements of Central assistance for augmenting financial resources and logistic support at the
disposal of the State Government.

The Contingency Action Plan (CAP) identifies initiatives required to be taken by various Central
Ministries and Public Departments in the wake of natural calamities. It sets down the procedures and
determines the focal points in the administrative machinery to facilitate launching of relief and rescue
operations without delay.

The Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal Ministry for coordination of relief and response and overall
natural disaster management, and the Department of Agriculture & Cooperation is the nodal Ministry
for drought management. Other Ministries are assigned the responsibility of providing emergency
support in case of disasters that fall in their purview as indicated in Table.

Nodal Ministry for Management / Mitigation of Different Disasters

The following decision-making and standing bodies are responsible for disaster management at the
Central level:

Union Cabinet, headed by the Prime Minister.

Empowered Group of Ministers, headed by the Deputy Prime Minister

National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC), under the chairmanship of the Cabinet Secretary.

Crisis Management Group (CMG): under the chairmanship of the Central Relief Commissioner
comprising senior officers from the various Ministries and other concerned Departments which reviews
contingency plans, measures required for dealing with a natural disaster, and co-ordinates the activities
of the Central Ministries and the State Governments in relation to disaster preparedness response and
relief.

Technical Organizations, such as the Indian Meteorological Department (cyclone/earthquake), Central

Water Commission (floods), Building and Material Promotion Council (construction laws), Bureau of
Indian Standards (norms), Defence Research & Development Organization (nuclear/biological),
Directorate General Civil Defence provide specific technical support to coordination of disaster
response and management functions.

The setting up of a National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is being contemplated by the
Ministry of Home Affairs as the proposed apex structure within the government for the purpose.
Amongst other major organizational initiatives, it is proposed to:

establish a specialised and earmarked response team for dealing with nuclear/ biological/chemical
disasters;

establish search and rescue teams in each State;

strengthen communication systems in the North Eastern Region.

State Government

The responsibility to cope with natural disasters is essentially that of the State Government. The role of
the Central Government is supportive in terms of supplementation of physical and financial resources.
The Chief Secretary of the State heads a state level committee which is in overall charge of the relief
operations in the State and the Relief Commissioners who are in charge of the relief and rehabilitation
measures in the wake of natural disasters in their States function under the overall direction and control
of the state level committee. In many states, Secretary, Department of Revenue, is also in-charge of
relief. State Governments usually have relief manuals and the districts have their contingency plan that
is updated from time to time.
Contingency Action Plan

State Relief Manuals: Each State Government has relief manuals/codes which identify that role of each
officer in the State for managing the natural disasters. These are reviewed and updated periodically
based on the experience of managing the disasters and the need of the State.

State-level disaster management - basic institutional framework District

and Local Level

The district administration is the focal point for implementation of all governmental plans and activities.
The actual day-to-day function of administering relief is the responsibility of the Collector/ District
Magistrate/Deputy Commissioner who exercises coordinating and supervising powers over all
departments at the district level. Though it may not be a common phenomenon, there exists by and large
in districts also a district level relief committee consisting of officials and non- officials.

The 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments recognise Panchayati Raj Institutions as ‘Institutions of
self- government’. The amendment has also laid down necessary guidelines for the structure of their
composition, powers, functions, devolution of finances, regular holding of elections and reservation of
seats for weaker sections including women. These local bodies can be effective instruments in tackling
disasters through early warning system, relief distribution, providing shelter to the victims, medical
assistance etc.

Other than the national, state, district and local levels, there are various institutional stakeholders who
are involved in disaster management at various levels in the country. These include the police and para-
military forces, civil defence and home-guards, fire services, ex-servicemen, nongovernment
organisations (NGOs), public and private sector enterprises, media and HAM operators, all of whom
have important roles to play.

Armed forces in Disaster response; Disaster response: Police and other organizations

Armed Force and Police in Disaster Response Police as

first responder:

The onslaught of the unsparing Tsunami on December 26, 2004 was unprecedented and
unimaginable, catching us unawares in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands. This was a classic case
where the police personnel were themselves sufferers of the Tsunami yet had to cast away tremors
of the horrific spell from their minds and take over the role as first responders to manage the
Disaster. The experience has brought about a paradigm shift in the role of Police, adding yet
another important dimension of Disaster Management apart from law and order maintenance and
prevention and detection of crime. Police Wireless, the solitary life-line to the Southern Group of
Islands, suffered badly and communication links to several Islands were snapped. The experience
has brought about newer insights into the need to upgrade our communication systems to
overcome the geographical constraints in the form of isolated and dispersed islands.
Maintaining basic resources at all locations with regular training and rehearsals to carry out search
& rescue operations to save the injured and to dispose of the dead bodies to prevent spread of
epidemics, mapping of vulnerable areas and escape routes, building mechanisms of early warning,
educating the public in safety measures, etc. are added components to the Police functioning. The
role of Police becomes very eminent as a law and order interface vis-à-vis the social welfare
assistance to the community with a human face. The psyche of the members of the Police Force is
to be fine-tuned to the needs during such times. A strong police presence in both situations (natural
and manmade) can help ease victims' fears and help prevent others from taking advantage of the
disaster situation. In the following situations, their role is crucial as stated.

Crowd Control

Disaster situations draw in crowds. There will be some people hoping for a glimpse of the
unfolding drama. Family members and friends of the victims will be show up, hoping to glean
information about their loved ones. The people involved in the situation will also be milling
around, sometimes while injured or in shock. The police will cordon off areas and work to keep
crowds under control.

Public Safety

Officers might go from house to house searching for the injured or needy. They can offer
transportation, emergency medical care, and be a bridge between citizens and rescue personnel.
They can check the credentials to see if someone really needs to be in the area. They can warn
people when electric wires are on the ground, when dangerous pests are lurking around or when
unstable people are nearby.

Directing Traffic

Many disasters wipe out infrastructures such as electricity, making an unsafe situation for both
traffic and pedestrians. The police can close unsafe roads where downed wires, trees or flood
situations might make travel unsafe. They can direct citizens through non-working traffic lights.
They can re-route random traffic to safer roads and try to keep out all unnecessary traffic away.
They can put roadblocks in the areas where the crisis is still underway.

Organizing Search Teams

Disaster situations often lead to family members being separated from each other. Elderly and
single people are at risk if they have no one to check on them. If these citizens randomly
wander around, chaos can result. The police can set up search teams and put together systems
where loved ones can check on each other. They can set up command centers where the victims
and family can be reunited. They can also work with emergency personnel to list the various
medical facilities used for treating sick or injured people.

Looters
Unfortunately, there are always those who will take advantage of a chaotic situation. When
people are evacuated from their homes or neighborhoods, houses are left unsupervised and
opportunities to commit crime can be rampant. Police presence can help to ensure that looting
doesn't happen. When looting does occur, the police will be ready to apprehend and arrest the
suspects.

Envisaged role of IAF in disaster management

From the underlying fact associated with each disaster, the role of armed forces can be well
understood. But for the intervention of Indian Air Force, the death toll in each disaster would
have been much higher. The role played by IAF during a spate of disasters affecting the
Northern States in particular and the country in general is commendable. The details of airlift of
essential life sustaining commodities, and evacuation of personnel & civilians airlifted by
Transport and Helicopter fleet of IAF during few of the disasters which struck the country is
enumerated below

Importance & Role of IAF in Disaster Management

The military resources of any country are probably those best organized and managed to
provide support to a full range of public services such as public works, communications,
transport, health and emergency medical services, rescue and support activities. They can react
quickly and respond rapidly in a fully self contained, self-sufficient and highly mobile fashion.
Defence personnel are well trained in the individual skills necessary to perform their
professional and functional activities and are practical in collaboration and coordinated action
under an integrated/flexible management system. Thus there is enormous potential inherent in
defence organizations to serve as an additional instrument for effective delivery of
emergencyassistance. The rehabilitation effort at Urusa village near Uri which was done
exclusively by IAF is an apt example of co-ordinated operation launched for rescue and
rehabilitation of the earthquake victims.
Analysis and Capacity Building in IAF

Consequent to the enactment of the Disaster Management Act 2005, by the Parliament. The
existing system of disaster management in the country is in the process of undergoing a
transformation from a relief-oriented approach to a more comprehensive emphasis on disaster
management. There has been a gradual process of evolution and growth and a determined effort
to overcome the perceived weaknesses in the system. This has also been strengthened by the
widespread concern at the devastation caused by disasters in recent years and the resolve to
prevent it future.
Constitutional and Legal Framework

Organizational Structures/Institutional Mechanisms

Funding and Infrastructure Support

Preparedness Measure

Disaster Response And Role Of The Armed Forces

In disaster situations, relief, rescue and response operations have to be undertaken immediately
and in the most appropriate manner. The development oriented civil administration is presently
not well equipped for undertake large scale disaster response activities in the event of major and
wide spread disasters. The Indian Armed Forces are one of the most dedicated, professional and
modernized armed forces in the world. They have made rapid strides in technology
development and are adequately equipped with the necessary technical competence, man power
and material resources to undertake any major disaster rescue and response operations. The
Armed Forces are always in a state of operational readiness to move quickly to any disaster
affected area and their ability to work under adverse ground & climatic conditions is of
immense help to any civil authority during disaster situations. So far in India, the role' played
by the Armed Forces & other specialized forces during disaster rescue and response operations
has been exemplary. In view of increased frequency of disasters, the Armed Forces will
continue to play a major role in providing rescue and response operations in the disaster
situations in the years to come. Since the Government of India has decided to implement the
Incident Command System (ICS) with in the Indian system of disaster management, there is a
greater need for institutionalizing the Incident Command systems and strengthening
professional approach towards disaster response activities in addition to emerging coordination
and cooperation between various agencies and organizations. The Armed Forces and other
specialized forces have to be mandated to play an important role in disaster rescue and response
operations. The Armed Forces & other Para-military forces during disaster response operations
in which their services can be better utilized. It also indicates the necessary guidelines to the
civil authorities while utilizing the services of the Armed Forces persolll1el and various
measures to ensure greater co-ordination and enhance efficiency during disaster response
operations.

International Humanitarian Assistance by the Military

The year 2005 saw a considerable increase in the involvement by the military in international
relief assistance in natural disasters, in particular in the Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami
as well as the South Asia Earthquake. These two major disasters tested not only the
international coordination system, but also the cooperation among nations in the region. It is
therefore necessary to achieve a clear understanding of key issues relevant to military assistance
in support of humanitarian emergency operations and evolve plans and arrangements in support
of the effort. For this it is necessary to identify the key issues affecting military assistance in
support of humanitarian emergency operations.
Methodology for nations to assist in emergencies.
The nature of emergencies.
Issues of coordination in extending assistance for emergencies.
Suggestions to improve emergency response

Disaster Response and Role of Armed Forces, Para-Military and Other Specialized Forces
Disaster Response Management is a Multi-Agency function coordinated at a nodal point for
effective delivery of relief to the victims of a disaster. The community is always the first
responder to a disaster situation being proximate to disaster sites. However, devastations caused
by disasters resulting in disruption of essential infrastructure and services limit the coping
capacity of the community to the situation. The capability of an affected community is required
to be reinforced by the Civil Administration who look for a cadre of specialists, trained,
disciplined and dedicated personnel who can render relief and response services in best of the
manner in worst of the situations. The armed forces and central paramilitary forces are found to
be the most suited for such situations.

The devastating natural calamities cause situations of chaos and require adept handling by the
response agencies. The demanding tasks have to be performed in most difficult situations and
therefore the need for assistance of armed and para military forces arise. The Armed
Forces/Central Para Military Forces have traditionally been always responding to the need to
render yeomen service to the affected. In a country with enormous dimensions and a
geographical variety like India, emergency/disaster situations and natural calamites calls for the
Armed Forces/Central Para Military Forces involved in rescue and relief work as these are
spread all across the country and equipped with all wherewithals to meet the requirement. The
effectiveness of disaster response largely depends on the swift alacrity to which the response
and relief measures are mounted. A trigger mechanism for response, which demands alertness
and being active all times are considered to be the essential elements. Armed Forces and
Central Para Military Forces who meet these requirements are called upon to assist the civil
administration in evacuation and shifting of people to the safer places, rescue of stranded
people, setting up of relief camps, distribution of essential commodities and providing other
logistical support such as restoration of communication, road and bridges among other things.

The Central Government has invariably deployed the Air Force helicopter/Army boats, Army
columns, Central Para Military Forces and Medical Teams from the Armed Forces to assist the
affected States in rescue and relief operations. Military aircrafts have always been used in
transportation of essential commodities from far of places in short span of time. The
Government of India has also deployed naval ships, military aircrafts, mobile hospitals etc. to
render assistance to the neighboring countries hit by natural calamities. Prompt mobilization of
essential commodities and other resources for disaster response has been forte of Armed
Forces/Central Para Military Forces.

For the reasons stated above, whether it was devastating Bhuj earthquake of 26th January 2001
or Tsunami of December 26th, 2004, the Armed Forces/Central Para Military Forces were the
first one to respond to the situations and assist the civil administration in providing succor to the
affected people.

Realizing the importance of service rendered by the Armed Forces/Central Para Military
Forces, the Government of India has decided to set up National Disaster Response Force
(NDRF) consisting of 8 battalions of Central Police Forces. There will be a total of 144
specialist response teams consisting of 45 personnel each. 72 of these 144 specialist response
teams will also be trained and equipped for responding to nuclear, biological and chemical
related emergencies. One team in each battalion will also be trained in deep sea diving for the
purpose of search and rescue during floods and cyclones. The process for training and
equipping of NDRF is already under progress.

Organizations in Disaster Response

When contributing to relief efforts through financial gifts or by donating relief supplies, it's
important that you do your own careful research first, and give to reputable, well-established
relief organization. This will ensure that your gift makes the best possible impact toward relief.
Here are a few trustworthy organizations to consider. Small Grants Programme (SGP), funded
by the United Nation Development Program (UNDP), Global Environment Facility (GEF),
seeks to support initiatives, which demonstrate community-based innovative, gender sensitive,
participatory approaches and lessons learned from other development projects that lead to
reduce threats to the local and global environment.

The GEF SGP was launched in 1991 by United Nations Development Program (UNDP) to
assist developing countries in fulfilling their commitment towards the protection of the global
environment. The Programme is sourced with a belief that global environmental problems can
only be addressed adequately if local people are involved in planning, decision making and
sharing roles and responsibilities at all levels. Even with small amounts of funding communities
can undertake activities, which will make "Significant Difference" in their Livelihoods and
environment. GEF UNDP SGP is currently working in 114 countries worldwide. The program
started in India from the year 1996-1997.

The UNDP and Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Government of India (GOI)
administers Small Grants Programme (SGP). It is being implemented by Centre for
Environment Education (CEE) as the National Host Institution (NHI) since September 2000.
CEE is a national level institution supported by Ministry of Environment and Forest,
Government of India as a centre of excellence, and affiliated to the Nehru Foundation for
Development, Ahmedabad. CEE has its presence felt in all the states and Union Territories of
India through a local network of 7 regional offices and 23 field offices across the country. So
far SGP has supported 303 projects across various geographical locations across the country
and in five thematic areas including Climate Change and biodiversity. The emphasis is more on
establishing low cost, low external input and easy to manage technologies and social
mechanisms.

American Red Cross

The American Red Cross is a humanitarian organization led by volunteers, providing relief to
victims of disasters. The American Red Cross also helps to prevent, prepare for, and respond to
emergencies. Clara Barton founded the Red Cross in 1881.

Episcopal Relief and Development

Episcopal Relief and Development provides ongoing emergency relief and assistance after
disasters, rebuilds communities, and helps children and families overcome poverty. The
organization was established in 1940 by the Episcopal Church in the United States.
Salvation Army

The Salvation Army assists Americans seeking the basic necessities of life–food, shelter, and
warmth. They also have disaster response teams "on call" to serve at all disasters and civil
disorders which place a community or its populace at risk. William Booth originally established
the The Christian Mission, which became The Salvation Army in 1878.

World Vision

World Vision is a Christian relief and development organization dedicated to helping children
and their communities worldwide reach their full potential by tackling the causes of poverty.
World Vision was founded by Bob Pierce in 1950 to provide long-term care for children in
crisis and developed its first child sponsorship program in Korea in 1953.
The International Relief Friendship Foundation (IRFF) has the fundamental goal of
assisting agencies involved in responding to the needs of a community after disaster strikes.
When a disaster hits, IRFF mobilizes a volunteer group from universities, businesses, youth
groups, women’s organizations, and religious groups. IRFF also provides direct support and
emergency services immediately following a disaster such as blankets, food, clothing, and relief
kits.

The Lutheran Disaster Response (LDR) provides for immediate disaster response, in both
natural and technological disasters, long-term rebuilding efforts, and support for preparedness
planning through synods, districts, and social ministry organizations. The disasters to which
LDR responds are those in which needs outstrip available local resources. LDR provides for the
coordination of 6,000 volunteers annually. In addition, LDR provides crisis counseling, support
groups, mental health assistance, and pastoral care through its accredited social service
agencies.

Mennonite Disaster Services assists disaster victims by providing volunteer personnel to clean
up and remove debris from damaged and destroyed homes and personal property and to repair
or rebuild homes. Special emphasis is placed on assisting those less able to help themselves,
such as the elderly and handicapped.

The National Emergency Response Team (NERT) meets the basic human needs of shelter,
food, and clothing during times of crisis and disaster. NERT provides Emergency Mobile
Trailer units (EMTUs), which are self-contained, modest living units for up to 8-10 people, to
places where disaster occurs. When EMTUs are not in use, they serve as mobile teaching units
used in Emergency Preparedness programs in communities.

The National Organization for Victim Assistance provides social and mental health services
for individuals and families who experience major trauma after disaster, including critical
incident debriefings.

The Nazarene Disaster Response provides clean-up and rebuilding assistance, especially to
the elderly, disabled, widowed, and those least able to help themselves. In addition, a National
Crisis Counseling Coordinator works into the recovery phase by assisting with the emotional
needs of disaster victims.
The REACT International provides emergency communication facilities for other agencies
through its national network of Citizens Band radio operators and volunteer teams. REACT
teams are encouraged to become part of their local disaster preparedness plan. Furthermore,
they are encouraged to take first aid training and to become proficient in communications in
time of disaster.

The Salvation Army provides emergency assistance including mass and mobile feeding,
temporary shelter, counseling, missing person services, medical assistance, and distribution of
donated goods including food, clothing, and household items. It also provides referrals to
government and private agencies for special services.

International Conventions (hard law) on Disaster management Miscellaneous

conventions/ agreements

Tampere Convention on the Provision of Telecommunication Resources for Disaster

Mitigation and Relief Operations, 1999

The Tampere Convention is a treaty aimed at facilitating the use of telecommunication

resources and assistance for disaster mitigation and relief. It establishes an international
framework for states to cooperate among themselves and with non-state entities and
intergovernmental organizations. It is binding on the States who have signed or acceded and
ratified to it. So far (September 2007), only 37 States have ratified the Tampere Convention.
Among other things, the convention seeks to simplify and strengthen the
procedures by which international disaster responders may bring telecommunications
equipment across borders during and after an emergency and use them in their operations. It
requires state parties to reduce or remove regulatory barriers and to confer the necessary
privileges, immunities, and facilities for international relief providers. However, the convention
also recognizes the sovereign interests of state parties, providing substantial flexibility as to
how to carry out their obligations and ensuring that they maintain primary authority in relief
coordination in their own borders.

UN Specific Conventions
1. UN Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, 1946

The UN Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations was adopted by the
GA in 1946 and entered into force the same year. It currently has 153 States party to it
(September 2007). The Convention elaborates further on articles 104 and 105 of the Charter of
the United Nations in view of determining and clarifying the legal status, rights, privileges and
immunities of the United Nations and its personnel as are necessary for the fulfillment of their
function. The Convention determines I) the jurisdictional personality of the organisation (legal
personality), II) the status of property, funds and assets of the UN,

the facilities in respect of communications (conditions for the use of official communications,
use of codes, etc.), IV) the status of the representatives of Member States (while exercising
functions in relation to the organisation); V) the status of officials of the organisation; VI) the
status of experts on mission for the UN, VII) the rules applying to the UN Laissez-Passer (LP);
and VIII) the specific rules regarding the settlement of disputes "arising out of contracts or
other disputes of a private law character to which the UN is a party; and disputes involving any
official of the UN who by reason of his official position enjoys immunity, if immunity has not
been waived by the Secretary-General".

2. EUR-OPA Major Hazards Agreement (Partial Agreement on the Prevention of,

Protection Against, and Organization of Relief in Major Natural and Technological
Disasters), 1987

The "EUR-OPA Major Hazards Agreement" is an intergovernmental platform for cooperation -

part of the Council of Europe - in the field of major natural and technological disasters between
Eastern Europe, the South of the Mediterranean and Western Europe. Its field of competence
covers the major natural and technological disasters knowledge, prevention, risk management,
post-crisis analysis and rehabilitation. It was set up by the Committee of Ministers of the
Council of Europe in 1987 (see attached Resolution (87)2) and has to date 25 Member States.
The main objectives of the "EUROPA Major Hazards Agreement" are to reinforce and promote
co-operation between Member States in a multi-disciplinary context to ensure better prevention,
protection and organization of relief in the event of major natural or technological disasters by
calling upon present day resources and knowledge to ensure an efficient and interdependent
management of major disasters. It is worth mentioning that the "EUR-OPA Major Hazards
Agreement" is a so-called "partial agreement", which is a terminology used within the Council
of Europe to distinguish them from "conventions" and "agreements" which are formal
international treaties. "Partial agreements" are merely a particular form of cooperation within
the Organization, not an international treaty. They allow member States of the Council of
Europe to abstain from participating in a certain activity advocated by other member States.
From a statutory point of view, a partial agreement remains an activity of the Organization in
the same way as other programme activities, except that a partial agreement has its own budget
and working methods, which are determined solely by the members of the partial agreement.

3. ASEAN Agreement on Disaster Management and Emergency Assistance, 2005

All ten ASEAN Member Countries signed the Agreement on 26 July 2005 in Vientiane, Lao
PDR. However, the Agreement will only enter into force after all of the ten countries ratify it.
So far (September 2007) four countries, namely Malaysia, Lao PDR, Myanmar and Thailand
have ratified the Agreement. Once entered into force, the Agreement will to provide a
framework for the development of operational procedures to respond collectively and
expeditiously to disasters. The Agreement includes general provisions on disaster risk
identification, assessment and monitoring, on disaster prevention and mitigation, on
preparedness, emergency response and rehabilitation as well as specific provisions for the
movement of relief assistance, expedited customs and immigration clearance, etc. The
Agreement also provides for the establishment of an ASEAN Coordination Centre for
Humanitarian Assistance (AHA-Centre) for the purpose of facilitating cooperation and
coordination among the parties and with relevant UN and international organizations. It also
includes provisions for setting up an ASEAN Disaster Management and Emergency Relief
Fund, administered by the ASEAN Secretariat.

4. Inter-American Convention to Facilitate Disaster Assistance, 1991

The Inter-American Convention to Facilitate Disaster Assistance provides rules for situations in
which countries request, receive, offer, or provide aid related to a natural or man-made disaster.
Only a three of the OAS countries (Panama, Peru, and Uruguay) have become parties to this
treaty so far (September 2007). The Convention was adopted in 1991 and entered into force in
1996 for the states, which ratified it.