⚛8.

1 Atomic structure
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Solid atoms
Until the early 1900s, scientists imagined atoms as solid spheres. This model
can explain the behavior of solids, liquids, gases and diffusion, density, and
gas pressure. However, the solid atom model could not explain how atoms join
together and chemical reactions.
1932: a new model
By 1932, scientists had developed a
new model. The model explains how
atoms join together and chemical
reactions. The model states that
atoms are made up of sub-atomic
particles. There are three types of
sub-atomic particle – protons,
neutrons, and electrons. Protons and
neutrons make up the nucleus. The
nucleus is in the center of an atom.
Electrons surround the nucleus in
shells.
Sub-atomic particles
8.1 Atomic structure 1
 Protons: they have a relative mass of 1 and a charge of 1.
Neutrons: they have a relative mass of 1 and a charge of 0.
Electrons: they have a relative mass of 1/1840 and a charge of 1.
The nucleus is very dense and holds most of the mass of the atom.
The overall charge of an atom is always zero since the negative and positive
charge cancel out because of equivalent number of protons and electrons

8.1 Atomic structure 2

 ☢8.3 Discovering the nucleus
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Testing the plum pudding model
Ernest Rutherford tested
Thompson's Plum Pudding model
which stated that: atoms are
composite objects, made of pieces
with positive and negative charge,
and that the negatively charged
electrons within the atom were very
small compared to the entire atom.
A new model for the atom
By 1911, Rutherford had created a new model that
stated:
Atoms have a central nucleus. Most of the
mass of an atom is in its
nucleus. The nucleus is positively charged.
The nucleus is surrounded by a big empty space
in which electrons move.
Rutherford’s model explained Geiger and
Marsden’s observations:

8.3 Discovering the nucleus 1

 The positive particles that bounced backward
had hit a nucleus
The positive particles that traveled straight
through the foil had passed
through empty space between nuclei.
Niels Bohr suggested that electrons existed in
shells surrounding the nucleus.

Inside the nucleus

Rutherford collected evidence. He fired positive
particles into the air. positive particles were
formed. Rutherford
realized that the positive particles came from the
nuclei of nitrogen atoms. The tiny particles were
protons.
, in 1920, Rutherford suggested that protons were
not the only
particles in the nucleus. Did nuclei also contain
particles with mass, but no charge?
By 1932, James Chadwick had an answer. His
experiments showed that nuclei contain neutrons as
well as protons.

8.3 Discovering the nucleus 2

 ⚗8.4 Protons, electrons, and the
periodic table
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Protons
The nucleus of an atom is made up of protons and neutrons. All atoms of an
element have the same number of protons.
In the periodic table, the elements are arranged in order of their
number of protons.
Electrons
Electrons revolve around an atom outside its nucleus. The electrons occupy
shells. Shells are also called energy levels, or orbits.
Each shell can hold a maximum number of electrons:
● the first shell can hold up to two electrons
● the second and onward shells can hold up to eight electrons.
The arrangement of electrons in an atom is known as the electronic structure
or electronic configuration.
Example: Lithium has three electrons. Two electrons occupy the first shell.
This shell is
full. The other electron occupies the second shell. Its configuration is 2,1

8.4 Protons, electrons, and the periodic table 1

 The number of electrons in the outermost shell of an atom also defines is
group in the periodic table.

8.4 Protons, electrons, and the periodic table 2

 ⚛8.5 Proton number, nucleon
number, and isotopes
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Proton number
The number of protons in an atom is the atom's atomic/proton number. The
elements are arranged in order of proton number. The number of protons and
electrons are equal so the proton number also tells you the number of
electrons in an atom.
Example: Proton number of Hydrogen is 1 since it only has 1 proton.
Nucleon number
Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of an atom. Particles in the
nucleus – protons, and neutrons – are called nucleons. The total number of
protons and neutrons in an atom is its nucleon number. Nucleon number is also
known as the mass number since it gives the relative mass of the atom.
Example: Mass number of Lithium is 7 since it has 3 protons and 4 neutrons.
Isotopes
Isotopes are variants of a particular chemical element which have a different
neutron number, and nucleon number. All isotopes of a given element have the
same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons in each atom.

8.5 Proton number, nucleon number, and isotopes 1

 Example: Carbon atoms have 6 protons. Carbon atoms also have 6 electrons.
Most
carbon atoms have 6 neutrons. However, some carbon atoms have 8 neutrons,
and some have 7 neutrons. The atoms with 7 and 8 neutrons are the isotopes
of carbon.

8.5 Proton number, nucleon number, and isotopes 2

 8.6 The group 1 elements
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The group 1 elements
The elements in this group are lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium K ,
rubidium (Rb), cesium (Cs), and francium (Fr). They are also called alkaline
metals. They all have 1 electron in their outermost shell.
Properties and trends
They have properties similar to most metals: conduction of heat/
electricity, luster etc.
They have low densities compared to other metals: Density increases
moving down the group.
They have low melting and boiling points: Both decrease going down the
group.
They are highly reactive with water: Reactivity with water increases going
down the group.
They are very soft and can be cut with a knife.

8.6 The group 1 elements 1

 8.7 The group 2 elements
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The Group 2 elements
Beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium are the group 2
metals and are also known as the alkaline earth metals. They all have 2
electrons in their outermost shell.
Properties and Patterns:
They have similar properties to alkaline metals in group 1.
Moderately-high melting point
They are very reactive: Reactivity (with acids and water) increases going
down the group.
Densities generally increase going down the group.
Reactions:
Calcium + water = calcium hydroxide + hydrogen
Strontium and barium react even more vigorously with water. The products
are similar:
Strontium + water = strontium hydroxide + hydrogen
Barium + water = barium hydroxide + hydrogen
Magnesium does not react vigorously with water. If you put a piece of

8.7 The group 2 elements 1

 magnesium ribbon in a test tube of cold water, tiny hydrogen bubbles form
slowly on its surface.

8.7 The group 2 elements 2