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SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES 1999-01-0908
Ilya Kolmanovsky
Ford Research Laboratories
400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Tel: (724) 776-4841 Fax: (724) 776-5760
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ISSN 0148-7191
Copyright 1999 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
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1999-01-0908
Ilya Kolmanovsky
Ford Research Laboratories
1
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tends down to 10000 RPM shaft speed and pressure HEAT TRANSFER EFFECTS
ratios close to unity. This is illustrated in Figure 1. As a
result, standard interpolation methods (polynomial A second problem associated with the low speed region
regression, look-up tables) generally fail to produce rea- of the maps is caused by the heat conduction from the
sonable results outside of the region where experimental hot lubricating oil to the cool compressor end. At higher
data is available. In fact, because of the nonlinear nature speeds, the conduction can reverse and go from the hot
of the compressor and turbine characteristics even inter- air to the lubricating oil. This heat added to the air is mea-
polation through lookup tables has been found to cause sured by the temperature sensors measuring the temper-
unacceptable performance in simulations. ature rise of the air and used to calculate the work input
In this paper we will present a number of different curve and hence the efficiency of the compressor and the effi-
fitting methods for turbochargers which allow a more ciency of the turbine. It makes the compressor look worse
compact implementation of the turbocharger submodel. because apparently more turbine work is required than is
Special emphasis will be on the abilities of the different really used. The same effect makes the turbine look bet-
methods to extrapolate the performance characteristics ter. This problem is worst at low speeds because of the
into regions which are usually not mapped, but which are higher temperature differences. With relatively large
encountered during normal operation of the engine. First areas, higher temperature drops and low flow rates, the
we'll provide some insight into the limitations of experi- backplate and compressor housing are relatively efficient
heat exchangers. This effect can be seen on the com-
mental turbocharger mapping.
pressor maps which all show efficiency collapsing at low
pressure ratios. This is not true aero performance. On the
LIMITATIONS OF EXPERIMENTAL
turbine maps, the opposite effect of the turbine looking
TURBOCHARGER MAPPING better than it really is is apparent. Again this is not true
aerodynamic performance. Lower speeds would show
Whenever the choice is given, one should obviously aim
the heat transfer effect as more extreme. This means that
for extending the range of available experimental data,
the predicted transient performance would be in error if
rather than trying to predict/extrapolate the behavior out-
the maps were used without correction because the tur-
side of the given range (unless good models of the
bine work to drive the compressor is overestimated and
underlying physics are available, in which case a few
more work is actually available to accelerate the rotor.
experimentally measured data points may suffice to char-
The heat transfer problem is not easily overcome without
acterize a large operating region and experimental devel-
separate turbine, bearing and compressor dynamome-
opment time can thus be reduced). With regard to
ters. When these are in use, the compressor mapping
extending the range of experimental mapping of turbo-
method could be adjusted to control the temperature dif-
charger units on a flow bench (in particular, lower turbine
ferences driving the heat transfer so that it could be
speeds and lower mass flow rates), two problems arise,
largely eliminated. However, different oil temperatures
which would require significant effort to work around. The
may require different bearings to be used and either of
following is an explanation provided by David Flaxington
these two changes would affect the turbine maps. This is
[2], at the time working at Allied Signal - Garrett.
a problem the turbocharger manufacturers are well aware
of, but simple solutions presently don't appear to be avail-
FLOW SENSOR ACCURACY able.
2
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is specified in kJ/kg/K, W in kg/sec and T01,T02 are in K through the compressor [13]. Thus, from equation (10)
then units of P are kW. For an isentropic process the tem- we obtain
perature ratio can be related to the pressure ratio using
the relation, (11)
C2
Cθ2 U2
(3)
To account for the fact that the compression process is
not isentropic, the compressor isentropic efficiency, 0 ≤
ηc,is ≤ 1, is introduced and defined as the ratio of theoret-
ical (isentropic) temperature rise and actual temperature
ω
rise:
3
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(16)
4
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(19) (23)
where the implicit assumptions of constant temperature where Uc is the compressor blade tip speed
and absence of EGR are without loss of generality. Using
Model I, the compressor flow Wc is simply given by
(24)
The normalized compressor flow rate Φ is defined by
(20)
Using Model II, an additional state variable must be intro-
duced based on the momentum equation for the air mass
mc in the tube connecting the compressor outlet and the (25)
intake manifold. With pc denoting the compressor outlet and the inlet Mach number M introduced by
pressure, and A and l representing the cross sectional
area and length respectively of the connecting tube, the
momentum equation is given by
(26)
The head parameter Ψ and compressor efficiency ηc are
(21) then expressed as functions of Φ and M in the following
hence way:
(22) (27)
Depending on the geometry of the intake assembly, the
addition of this state variable can increase the model stiff-
ness considerably. Model stiffness refers to the ratio of
smallest to largest eigenvalue of the linearization around (28)
a given operating point, or, equivalently, to the difference
of time scales in the system’s dynamics. Dynamic models The coefficients k and a are determined through a least
for the complete engine dynamics can be found in, e.g., squares fit on experimental data. Since equation (27) is
[5]-[8]. Using typical values for A and l, say A=50cm2 and invertible, this compressor model is also capable of
l=20cm, at a nominal operating point (fuel=1.5 kg/hr, describing the compressor flow as a function of pressure
load=40Nm, no EGR), the range of eigenvalues of the lin- ratio (Model I) by
5
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(29)
Depending on the model chosen, the output is then given
by
(30)
(33)
or by
This model is expressed in the form of Model II and can-
not easily be inverted to a Model I form. Whatever finite
period of time is needed for determining the sign of the
square root term in the inversion (during which the sign
(31) may be incorrect, and if a globally stable sign detection
algorithm can be found at all) will more than likely be
Due to the particular choice of basis functions, namely unacceptable in dynamic simulations.
rational polynomials, this method is effective in describing
both the flat speedlines at low flow rates, as well as the Zero Slope Line method (ZSLM) – Another model for the
almost vertical speedlines at high compressor speeds. compressor flow map was developed in an internal publi-
The functional form (27) has a singularity at Φ=k3. Only cation [7]. It describes the compressor flow parameter, φ,
the curve to the left of this asymptote is used. During sim- as a function of pressure ratio, r, and speed parameter,
ulations, care must be taken to avoid crossing this singu- (Model I). First, the curve connecting the maximum
larity during the numerical integration. mass flows on each speedline (also referred to as the
Even though the model is not entirely physics-based, zero-slope line) is characterized by a quadratic in :
equation (31) shows that extrapolation to low compressor
speeds and low mass flow rates causes the resulting
pressure ratio to decrease continuously to unity for zero
mass flow, which is exactly what one would expect to (34)
happen physically. The only constraint on the curve fitting
where rp,top are the values of the pressure ratio corre-
parameters is that k3>0 for all compressor speeds.
sponding to φtop. Then, in order to capture the steep
slope of the speedlines near the choke limit, the speed-
Mueller method – In his Master's Thesis [8], Martin
lines to the right of the zero-slope line are modeled as
Mueller from DTU derives a compressor model from first
exponentials:
principles, incorporating the underlying physical princi-
ples as well as the compressor assembly geometry. The
models thus derived can predict the compressor charac-
teristics surprisingly well. However, once experimental
data is available, still better accuracy can always be (35)
achieved by appropriate curve fitting.
for rp,< rp,top and are linearly extended to the left of the
Based on physical considerations, Mueller proposes to zero-slope line:
model Ψ as a quadratic function in Φ:
(32) (36)
This model is claimed to be generic, however, the param- where the parameter α is modeled as a constant, or as a
eters A, B, and C are known to be speed dependent and function of :
the way in which this speed dependence is modeled is
again a design choice. The obvious choice is to model A,
B, and C as linear or quadratic in Uc. However, Mueller (37)
observes that this choice does not lead to a generic
model because it fails to give satisfactory results for Neural networks – Neural networks are becoming
some of the compressor types under investigation. It increasingly popular for a wide range of applications,
turns out that, rather than fitting A, B, and C indepen- including curve fitting, system identification, etc. The use
dently, it is advantageous to exploit one more observa- of neural networks for representing turbocharger charac-
tion, namely that the curve connecting the maximum teristics is reported in [4], among others. However, even
mass flows Wc,top on each speedline is typically a qua- though neural networks are claimed to be universal func-
dratic function in Uc. This then leads to the following tion approximators, which they are in even a quite gen-
parametrization: eral sense, finding the right structure and coefficients
requires some amount of trial and error.
6
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In [4], a network with one hidden layer and five neurons is zation method (also referred to as network training)
used to represent a compressor flow map in the form of needs to be computationally very efficient and have built-
model II, i.e., pressure ratio is fitted as a function of mass in mechanisms for escaping from local minima. Over the
flow and compressor rotational speed. A network with nu past couple of years, the issue of computational speed
inputs (nu=2 in this case), one hidden layer containing nn has improved significantly compared to the initial back-
neurons and ny outputs (ny=1 for now) would mathemat- propagation algorithms, which are a type of gradient
ically be represented by descent method. Commercially available software, such
as The Mathworks' Neural Network Toolbox [1], imple-
ment a number of different second order methods, such
as Levenberg-Marquardt, which are orders of magnitude
(38) faster than gradient descent based backpropagation
methods.
where b and W are coefficient vectors and matrices
respectively, and the function f is the neuron transfer The issue of global convergence on the other hand, has
function (basis function) typically of the form not been solved with the same level of success. The
crude method is simply to start the optimization many
times from different, semi-randomly generated initial con-
(39) ditions (knowledge about the output range allows one to
restrict some coefficients to a sensible range). However,
In general, such a network requires a total of this can be quite tedious. A large number of trials with 4
(nu+ny+1)*nn+ ny coefficients to be fitted. A network with and 5-node networks for the model I compressor map
2 inputs, 5 hidden neurons and 1 output would therefore revealed that about one out of ten times the resulting net-
have 21 parameters to be fitted, the same network with work starts to look acceptable, but a sufficiently accurate
two outputs would have 27 coefficients. Considering the fit was not obtained. A more systematic way of dealing
fact that a typical compressor map is specified by 25-40 with local minima was developed by Puskorias and Feld-
points, this is a large number of coefficients. Of course, if kamp [9] and, undoubtedly, more exist; however, a
one given network is used to fit a family of compressor review of the neural network literature is beyond the
maps, the ratio of data points to coefficients improves scope of this paper.
substantially.
The conclusion is that for a generic compressor charac-
Here we have used a smaller network to fit the compres- teristics curve fitting method, neural networks are very
sor maps; in fact, both mass flow map and efficiency are well suited for models of type II, but appear not to be
represented in one single network with two inputs and suited for models of type I (or, at least, it is not straightfor-
two outputs. For a compressor map in the form of model ward to find the right structure and training procedure,
II, i.e., pressure ratio is fitted as a function of mass flow and significant manual modifications of the mapping data
and compressor rotational speed, 3 and 4-node net- are required).
works with 17 and 22 coefficients respectively gave
excellent results for the compressor pressure ratio (see CURVE FITTING RESULTS FOR THREE
Figure 7). The problem of fitting a compressor model of DIFFERENT COMPRESSORS
type I, i.e., compressor mass flow as a function of pres-
sure ratio and compressor speed, proved much more dif- In this section we present the curve fitting results on
ficult - practically impossible actually. Any combination of three compressors from two different manufacturers for
3-5 neurons and one or two hidden layers was tried up to the methods discussed sofar. The compressors are iden-
10 times, with initial coefficients generated in a partially tified here only as compressors 1,2, and 3. In Figures 4-
random way without success. The problem here is that 7, the curve fitting methods are applied to the compres-
the fit through the mapped data points may have to be sor flow map for three compressors used for engine dis-
less than optimal in order to get sensible extrapolation placements in the range from 1.1 to 2.4 liter. The data
results. This type of behavior is difficult to enforce in a supplied by the manufacturer is indicated by the solid
generic structure such as a neural network. Even the lines - the speedlines cover speeds in the range of 90 -
addition of "artificial" mapping points in the surge region 230 kRPM. Superimposed onto the manufacturer's data
and at low compressor speeds, or the deletion of the pos- are the results of the curve fits (dashed lines), extended
itive slope speedline segments was without success. down to very low turbine speeds (10kRPM, 30kRPM, and
Of course, with an increasing number of neurons and lay- 60kRPM) and pressure ratios or mass flows. The exten-
ers, the optimization problem to determine the best coef- sion of the maps gives an indication as to whether the
ficients increases in dimensionality and number of local curve fits produce sensible results in extrapolation. Espe-
extrema. This means that the optimization process will cially for lower turbine speeds, this is important, because
take longer, and at the same time, it may become more they represent operating conditions which are frequently
difficult to find a sufficiently good initialization because of encountered.
the larger number of local minima. Therefore, the optimi-
7
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It can be noted that all methods yield quite similar results Compressor 1
for the lower speed lines of the supplied compressor 2.8 18
maps. Also, except for the neural network approach, each
2.6
method has difficulties describing the highest speed lines
for at least one of the given compressors. The extensions 2.4 16
pressure ratio
2.2
the left, yield very different results depending on the
2 14
curve fitting method chosen. This was to be expected
180000
since the methods of Jensen & Kristensen and ZSLM 1.8
12
require the speed lines to be strictly monotonic. However,
1.6
160000
for use in mean value control oriented engine models,
any of the proposed extensions will work since they all 1.4 9 140000
Finally, Mueller's method applied to compressors 2 and 3 mean eror 0.021426%, std 0.059537
3
In order to validate the extrapolation results to the lower
speed lines, all the compressor fits were repeated and 18
supplied with the manufacturer's data excluding the low-
2.5
est speed line. All methods showed acceptable results for
pressure ratio
16
the extrapolated lowest speedline. In fact, the methods by 200000
Jensen & Kristensen and Mueller yielded almost identical 2 14
results compared to the fits where all the original data 180000
were used for curve fitting. 12
160000
1.5 10
140000
CURVE FITTING OF COMPRESSOR 120000
6
EFFICIENCY 3
1
100000
1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
scaled mass flow parameter
One method for describing the compressor isentropic mean eror -0.217840%, std 0.094753
efficiency was already given in equation (28). It models
the efficiency as a quadratic function of the compressor
flow rate, with coefficients depending on the speed Compressor 3
parameter. For compressor 1, the corresponding effi- 23
3.5
ciency fit is shown in Figure (8)
21
Alternatively, if the compressor flow is represented using 3
a neural network, the network can be augmented with a
19
pressure ratio
8
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Compressor 1 Compressor 1
2.4 2.4
pressure ratio
pressure ratio
2.2 2.2
2 2
180000 18 180000
1.8 1.8
1.6 1.6
12 160000 160000
Compressor 2
Compressor 2
compressor data
compressor data 3 curve fit
curve fit zero slope line
3
2.5
pressure ratio
2.5
pressure ratio
200000
200000
20 2
2
180000
180000
160000
12 160000 1.5
18 140000
1.5 10
140000 120000
120000 100000
6
3 100000 1 3 6 10 12 14 16 18 20
16 1
14 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
1 scaled mass flow parameter
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
scaled mass flow parameter mean error = -5.47799 % , std = 0.0031010
mean eror 0.041969%, std 0.060226
Compressor 3
Compressor 3
3.5 compressor data
3.5 compressor data curve fit
curve fit zero slope line
3
3
pressure ratio
pressure ratio
2.5 230000
2.5 230000
210000
210000 23 2
2 190000
190000
21 170000
170000
1.5 150000
1.5 11 150000 19
9 130000
130000 110000
6 110000 17 90000
3 90000
15
13 1 1 3 6 9 11 13 15
23 17
21
19
1 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.2 scaled mass flow parameter
scaled mass flow parameter mean error = 0.114804 % , std = 0.00070898
mean eror 0.189370%, std 0.055547
Figure 5. Curve fits for three different compressors Figure 6. Curve fits for three different comprressors
using curve fitting method proposed by compressors using curve fitting method
Mueller [8] proposed in [7].
9
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Compressor 1 Compressor 1
0.8
2.8 compressor data
curve fit
0.75
2.6 18
2.4 0.7
Compressor efficiency
16
pressure ratio
2.2 0.65
2
0.6 180000
14
180000 120000
1.8 140000160000
0.55
12
1.6 90000
160000
0.5
1.4 9 140000
6 120000 0.45
1.2
3
1 90000
1 0.4
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
scaled mass flow parameter Scaled mass flow parameter
mean eror 0.002116%, std 0.016118
Figure 8. Compressor efficienc curve fit for compressor
1 using curve fitting method proposed by
Jensen & Kristensen [5].
Compressor 2
compressor data
curve fit Compressor 1
3 0.8
20
0.7
2.5 18
pressure ratio
Compressor efficiency
0.6 180000
120000 140000
160000
16 200000
90000
2 0.5
14 180000
0.4
12
160000
1.5 10
140000
0.3
6 120000
3
1 100000
0.2
1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
scaled mass flow parameter
mean eror -0.004643%, std 0.014558 0.1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Scaled mass flow parameter
10
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If W is specified in kg/sec, cp in kJ/kg/K, and T in K then Typically, the turbine model is used during simulations to
P is in kW. For a given pressure ratio across the turbine, calculate turbine power and mass flow rate given inlet
the outlet temperature can be computed assuming isen- and outlet pressure values and turbocharger speed. The
tropic expansion, turbocharger speed and inlet pressure are usually state
variables whose behavior is determined by differential
equations based on compressor-turbine power balance
and ideal gas law respectively. The turbine outlet pres-
(42) sure is a function of the flow restriction of the exhaust
In order to account for the fact that the expansion through system assembly downstream of the turbine. Ideally, it is
the turbine is not isentropic, the turbine (total-to-static) equal to atmospheric. As a consequence of this use of
isentropic efficiency is introduced and defined as the model, it is convenient to express the turbine charac-
teristics in the same form as the compressor Model I, i.e.,
the turbine mass flow is expressed as a function of tur-
bine pressure ratio and rotational speed.
(43)
The turbocharger manufacturer characterizes the mass
where T2,is is the temperature of the exhaust gas leaving flow rate and isentropic efficiency over a certain operat-
the turbine if the expansion were isentropic. Note that the ing range (typically for turbine speeds between 100
turbine outlet temperature is evaluated as static, because kRPM and 180 kRPM and pressure ratio between 0.3
no use can be made of the kinetic energy left in the and 0.8) on a flow stand and supplies the information in
exhaust gas at the turbine outlet. table form. For turbines with variable inlet geometry
Using equation (42) and the above defined isentropic effi- (generically abbreviated as VGT - variable geometry tur-
ciency, we obtain the following expression for the turbine bochargers), an additional input for these maps is the
power: inlet geometry setting ϑvgt
Again, we'll use the scaled mass flow parameter, φ, and
turbine speed parameter, , and neglect differences
between static and stagnation pressures and tempera-
(44) tures:
The turbine outlet temperature T02 is given by
(48)
(45) The use of these parameters eliminates the dependence
Similar to the analysis done for the compressor, it is pos- of the performance maps on inlet conditions (Tin and pin).
sible to obtain more insight into various terms that com- These maps are now only a function of speed parameter,
prise the above equation. From Euler's equation for the pressure ratio across the turbine, and, if applicable, VGT
turbine rotor we obtain setting ϑvgt:
(46)
(49)
where ∆hideal is the ideal (or isentropic) enthalpy drop
across the turbine, Cθ1 is the tangential velocity compo- and
nent of the flow at the entry to the rotor and U1 is the
velocity of the turbine rotor at the point where the flow
enters. Assuming that there is no swirl at the turbine out- (50)
let we obtain Cθ2 = 0, and ∆hideal = U1Cθ1. Similar to
where U/C is the blade-speed ratio [13], defined as
the compressor slip factor, the ratio Cθ1/U1 is a function
of several variables, e.g. the number of rotor blades. Con-
sequently, in the ideal case
(51)
(47) and D denotes the turbine blade diameter. Note that the
is proportional to the square of the turbo speed. Of blade speed ratio is a function of pressure ratio and
course, various sources of energy losses (accounted for speed parameter, and hence no new independent vari-
by the turbine efficiency) do introduce the dependence on ables are introduced.
the turbine mass flow rate. See [13] for more details.
11
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It should be noted that the manufacturer supplied data on turbine flow, not only do we know that the expansion is
turbine characteristics is not as representative of actual not isentropic, but we also know the isentropic efficiency.
turbine behavior on the engine as is the case for com- Hence, we could use a more general form of the equa-
pressor data. The turbine is characterized on a flow tions presented here, taking into account the isentropic
bench with steady flow, whereas the turbine on the efficiency. However, at least for the turbines considered
engine experiences strong pressure pulsations, which here, this modification did not result in noticeably better
will influence its performance. For that reason, it may be fits, hence we'll stick with the standard equations. There-
preferable to model the turbine using data measured fore, turbine flow equations are given by
directly on the engine. However, this does require the tur-
bine speed measurement, which may not always be
available. Figure (10) illustrates this to some extent: the
flow measured on the engine is slightly higher than the
mapped flow for a given mean value of the pressure ratio
across the turbine. The figure also clearly illustrates the
effect of the wastegate: for expansion ratios close to 2 (52)
and higher, an increasing portion of the exhaust flow
bypasses the turbine through the wastegate. As a result, where the effective turbine area At . is modeled as a
the total flow through the exhaust increases without build- function of turbine pressure ratio and speed parameter.
ing up additional boost pressure or exhaust manifold For a fixed geometry turbocharger, a simple fit for the
pressure. A final observation on Figure (10) is that here, effective turbine flow area At was proposed by Jensen &
again, we see that the turbine map does not cover the Kristensen:
entire region of turbine operation on the engine. Just as
with the compressor, lower flows and lower expansion
ratios were not mapped. In contrast to the compressor, (53)
however, the turbine characteristics can be extrapolated
where the parameters kti are functions of the speed
into those regions without real difficulty.
parameter:
Turbine flow data
0.18 This representation is only approximate because the
Turbine map
Measured engine data
pressure ratio across the turbine at which choked flow
0.16
occurs is actually lower than the expected value of
Turbine mass flow parameter φ
12
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expressed as a function only of the pressure ratio and the sion ratios. However, in light of the comments on turbo-
inlet geometry setting. A slight variation of equation (51) charger mapping limitations described earlier, the
is given by observed decreased efficiency at lower expansion ratios
may be an artifact of heat transfer effects occurring dur-
ing the experimental procedure.
Turbine 2
0.4
φ
0.667
where 1-g is the theoretical zero flow pressure ratio (the 0.2
intersection of the curves with the abscissa in Figure 12), 0.333
1
Turbine expansion ratio
6092
Scaled mass flow parameter
0.16
5415 Figure 12. Curve fit of turbine flow for turbine 2, using
4738
modified version of adiabatic nozzle flow.
4061 VGT setting, normalized between 0 and 1 is
indicated in the graph.
3045
0.08
Turbine data for turbine 2
0.4
1
φ
0.667
Scaled turbine mass flow parameter
extrapolation results do not make physical sense. Hence, Figure 13. Curve fit of turbine flow for turbine 2, using 3-
in order to get sensible extrapolation results for low tur- node neural network. VGT setting, normalized
bine speeds, the neural network needs to be supplied between 0 and 1 is indicated in the graph.
with additional, artificial mapping points forcing the net- The asterisks near the y-axis are the result of
work to provide much lower turbine flows at these low extrapolation of the turbine flow parameter to
speeds. For the previous fit based on the orifice flow 10kRPM turbine speed for the given VGT
equations the extrapolation did give sensible results. settings. This network would have to be
retrained and supplied with artificial mapping
CURVE FITTING OF TURBINE EFFICIENCY points at low turbine speeds to force it to give
more sensible low speed turbine flows.
For fixed turbine speed, the turbine efficiency typically
has the shape of an inverted parabola, and can usually The curve fit illustrated in Figure 14 is a quadratic polyno-
be modelled by a quadratic or cubic polynomial in blade mial in blade speed ratio with coefficients linearly depen-
speed ratio, with coefficients depending on the speed dant on the speed parameter:
parameter [5], [7], [8]. In [10], a correction factor at low
expansion ratios is used to account for the observed
accelerated decrease in efficiency at those lower expan- (54)
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0.73 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
3046
Turbine efficiency
0.72
Thanks to Michiel van Nieuwstadt from Ford Research
0.71 Laboratories and an anonymous reviewer for careful
0.7
4061 reading of the draft paper. Thanks also to David Flaxing-
ton from Allied Signal/Garrett for a number of fruitful dis-
0.69 4738 cussions.
0.68
5415 REFERENCES
0.67
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0.66
0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8
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