Machining 01 2

The Machining Operation
Cutting Conditions in Machining
• Three dimensions of a machining process

• Cutting speed v – primary motion
• Feed f – secondary motion
• Depth of cut d – penetration of tool below original work surface
• For certain operations (e.g., turning), material removal rate RMR can
be computed as
RMR = v f d
©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

Groover, Fundamentals of Modern
Manufacturing 6/e
Cutting Conditions in Turning
• Speed, feed, and depth of cut in a turning operation

Manufacturing 6/e
La Mecánica del
Corte
Corte Ortogonal
Video del corte ortogonal
La Mecánica del Corte
Corte Oblicuo
Medición de fuerzas de
corte
Chip Thickness Ratio
to
r =
tc
where r = chip thickness ratio; to = thickness of

the chip prior to chip formation; and tc = chip
thickness after separation
• Chip thickness after cut is always greater than
before, so chip ratio is always less than 1.0

Manufacturing 6/e
Coefficient of Friction
• Coefficient of friction between tool and chip

F
µ=
N
§ Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as
µ = tan b

Manufacturing 6/e
Determining Shear Plane Angle
• Based on the geometric parameters of the

orthogonal model, the shear plane angle f can be
determined as:
r cos a
tan f =
1 - r sina
where r = chip ratio, and a = rake angle

Manufacturing 6/e
Shear Stress
• Shear stress acting along the shear plane
Fs
t=
As
where As = area of the shear plane
t ow
As =
sin f
• Shear stress t = shear strength S of work material during cutting

Manufacturing 6/e
Shear Strain
• Shear strain in machining can be computed from
the following equation, based on the preceding
parallel plate model
g = tan(f - a) + cot f
where g = shear strain, f = shear plane angle, and

a = rake angle of cutting tool
©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 6/e
Cutting Force and Thrust Force
• F, N, Fs, and Fn
cannot be directly
measured
• Forces acting on
the tool that can
be measured:
Cutting force Fc and
Thrust force Ft

Manufacturing 6/e
Forces in Metal Cutting
• Equations to relate the forces that cannot be measured to the forces
that can be measured:
F = Fc sina + Ft cosa
N = Fc cosa - Ft sina
Fs = Fc cosf - Ft sinf
Fn = Fc sinf + Ft cosf
• Based on these calculated force, shear stress and coefficient of
friction can be determined

Manufacturing 6/e
The Merchant Equation
• Of all the possible angles at which shear

deformation can occur, the work material will
select a shear plane angle f that minimizes energy
a b
f = 45 + -
2 2
• Derived by Eugene Merchant
• Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity extends
to 3-D machining

Manufacturing 6/e
What the Merchant Equation Tells Us
a b
f = 45 + -
2 2
• To increase shear plane angle

• Increase the rake angle
• Reduce the friction angle (or reduce the coefficient of
friction)

Manufacturing 6/e
Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle
• Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane

which means lower shear force, cutting forces,
power, and temperature

Manufacturing 6/e
Tipos de Viruta
Tipos de Viruta
Video de la formación de viruta
Tipos de Viruta
Tipos de Viruta
Power and Energy Relationships
• A machining operation requires power
• The power to perform machining can be computed from:
Pc = Fc v
where Pc = cutting power; Fc = cutting force; and v = cutting speed
• In U.S. customary units, power is traditional expressed
as horsepower (dividing ft-lb/min by 33,000)
Fcv
HPc =
33,000
where HPc = cutting horsepower, hp
Manufacturing 6/e
Power and Energy Relationships
• Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or HPg

is given by
Pc HPc
Pg = or HPg =
E E
where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool

§ Typical E for machine tools ~ 90%

Manufacturing 6/e
Unit Power in Machining
• Useful to convert power into power per unit volume rate of

metal cut
• Called unit power, Pu or unit horsepower, HPu
Pc HPc
PU = or HPu =
RMR RMR
where RMR = material removal rate

Manufacturing 6/e
Specific Energy in Machining
• Unit power is also known as the specific energy U
Pc Fc v
U = Pu = =
RMR vtow
where Units for specific energy are typically

N-m/mm3 or J/mm3 (in-lb/in3)

Manufacturing 6/e
Temperatura
Temperatura
FIGURE 20-31 Distribution of

heat generated in machining to
the chip, tool, and workpiece.
Heat going to the environment
is not shown. Figure based on
the work of A. O. Schmidt.
Cutting Temperature
• Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is converted into heat
• This can cause temperatures to be very high at the tool-chip
• The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as elastic energy in the
chip

Manufacturing 6/e
Cutting Temperature
• Analytical method derived by Nathan Cook from

dimensional analysis using experimental data for
various work materials
0.333
0.4U æ vt o ö
T = ç ÷
rC è K ø
where T = temperature rise at tool-chip interface; U =
specific energy; v = cutting speed; to = chip thickness
before cut; rC = volumetric specific heat of work
material; K = thermal diffusivity of work material
Manufacturing 6/e
Cutting Temperature
• Experimental methods can be used to measure temperatures in
machining
• Most frequently used technique is the tool-chip thermocouple
• Using this method, Ken Trigger determined the speed-temperature
relationship to be of the form:
T = K vm
where T = measured tool-chip interface temperature, and v = cutting
speed

Manufacturing 6/e
Effects of Temperature
Excessive temperature
affects:
• Strength, hardness and wear

resistance of cutting tool.
• Dimensional stability of the
part being machined.
• Machined surface properties
due to thermal damage FIGURE 20-33 The typical relationship of temperature at the
• The machine tool, if tool–chip interface to cutting speed shows a rapid increase.
excessive.
Correspondingly, the tool wears at the interface rapidly with
increased temperature, often created by increased speed.
Torneado
Torneado
• In production, several roughing cuts are usually
taken on a part, followed by one or two finishing
cuts
• Roughing - removes large amounts of material
from starting work part
• Some material remains for finish cutting
• High feeds and depths, low speeds
• Finishing - completes part geometry
• Final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
• Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
Torneado
Torneado
Torneado
Engine Lathe
Diagram of an engine
lathe showing its
principal components
and motions

Manufacturing 6/e
Methods of Holding Workpiece in a Lathe
(a) Holding the work between centers, (b) chuck, (c) collet, and (d) face plate

Manufacturing 6/e
Other Production Turning Machines
• Turret lathe
• Chucking machine
• Bar machine
• Automatic screw machine
• Multiple spindle bar machine

Manufacturing 6/e
Turret Lathe
• Tailstock replaced by “turret” that holds up to six tools
• Tools rapidly brought into action by indexing the turret
• Tool post replaced by four-sided turret to index four tools
• Applications: high production work that requires a sequence of cuts on the
part

Manufacturing 6/e
Chucking Machine
• Uses chuck in its spindle to
hold work part
• No tailstock, so parts cannot
be mounted between centers
• Cutting tool actions controlled
automatically
• Operator’s job: to load and
unload parts
• Applications: short,
light-weight parts

Manufacturing 6/e
Bar Machine
• Similar to chucking machine
except collet replaces chuck,
permitting long bar stock to be
fed through headstock
• At the end of the machining cycle,
a cutoff operation separates the
new part
• Highly automated
• Computer numerical control
• Applications: high production of
rotational parts

Manufacturing 6/e
Multiple-Spindle Bar Machines
• More than one spindle, so
multiple parts machined
simultaneously by multiple
tools
• Example: six spindle
automatic bar machine
works on six parts at a time
• After each machining
cycle, spindles (including
collets and workbars) are
indexed (rotated) to next
position

Manufacturing 6/e
Six Spindle Bar Machine
(a) Part; (b) sequence of operations: (1) feed stock to stop, (2) turn main
diameter, (3) form second diameter and spotface, (4) drill, (5) chamfer, and
(6) cutoff
Video sobre multi-spindle bar machines

Manufacturing 6/e
Boring
• Difference between boring and turning:
• Boring is performed on the inside diameter of an existing hole
• Turning is performed on the outside diameter of an existing cylinder
• In effect, boring is an internal turning operation
• Boring machines
• Horizontal or vertical - refers to the orientation of the axis of rotation of
machine spindle

Manufacturing 6/e
Vertical Boring Mill
Applications: Large, heavy work
parts that have low L/D ratio
Video sobre vertical boring machine

Manufacturing 6/e
Drilling
Creates a round hole in a
work part
• Compare to boring which
can only enlarge an existing
hole
• Cutting tool called a drill or
drill bit
• Machine tool: drill press

Manufacturing 6/e
Through Hole vs. Blind Hole
(a) Through hole - drill exits opposite side of work and (b)
blind hole – drill does not exit opposite side

Manufacturing 6/e
Operations Related to Drilling
(a) Reaming, (b) tapping, (c) counterboring

Manufacturing 6/e
More Operations Related to Drilling
(d) Countersinking, (e) center drilling, (f) spot facing

Manufacturing 6/e
Drill Press
Upright drill press stands on

the floor
• Bench drill is similar but
smaller and mounted on a
table or bench

Manufacturing 6/e
Cutting conditions in drilling
Milling
• Machining operation in which work is fed past a rotating tool with multiple
cutting edges
• Axis of tool rotation is perpendicular to feed direction
• Cutting tool called a milling cutter
• Cutting edges called teeth
• Machine tool called a milling machine
• Interrupted cutting operation
• Basic milling operation creates a planar surface
• Other geometries possible

Manufacturing 6/e
Two Forms of Milling
(a) Peripheral milling and (b) face milling

Manufacturing 6/e
Peripheral Milling vs. Face Milling
• Peripheral milling
• Cutter axis parallel to surface being machined
• Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter
• Face milling
• Cutter axis perpendicular to surface being milled
• Cutting edges on both the end and outside periphery of the cutter

Manufacturing 6/e
Types of Peripheral Milling
(a) Slab milling, (b) slotting, (c) side milling, (e) straddle milling, and (e) form milling

Manufacturing 6/e
Types of Face Milling
(a) Conventional face milling, (b) partial face milling, and (c) end milling

Manufacturing 6/e
Types of Face Milling
(d) Profile milling, (e) pocket milling, and (f) surface contouring

Manufacturing 6/e
Knee-And-Column Milling Machines
(a) Horizontal and (b) vertical knee-and-column milling machines

Manufacturing 6/e
Cutting Conditions in Milling
Cutting Conditions in Milling
Machining Center
• Highly automated machine tool that can perform multiple machining

operations under CNC control in one setup with minimal human
attention
• Typical operations are milling and drilling
• Three, four, or five axes
• Other features:
• Automatic tool-changing
• Pallet shuttles
• Automatic workpart positioning

Manufacturing 6/e
CNC Universal Machining Center

Manufacturing 6/e
CNC Turning Center

Manufacturing 6/e
CNC Turning Center - Industrial Robot to Load
and Unload Parts
(Photo
courtesy of
Cincinnati
Milacron)

Manufacturing 6/e
Mill-Turn Center
• Highly automated machine tool that can perform turning, milling, and
drilling operations in one setup
• General configuration of a turning center

• Can position a cylindrical work part at a specified angle so a rotating cutting
tool (e.g., milling cutter) can machine features into outside surface of part
• Conventional turning center cannot stop work part at a defined angular position and
does not include rotating tool spindles

Manufacturing 6/e
Operation of Mill-Turn Center
(a) Part and (b) sequence of operations : (1) turn second diameter, (2)
mill flat, (3) drill hole, and (4) cutoff

Manufacturing 6/e
Shaping and Planing
Similar operations, both use a single point cutting
tool moved linearly relative to the work part

Manufacturing 6/e
Shaping and Planing
• A straight, flat surface is created in both operations
• Interrupted cutting operation
• Subjects tool to impact loading when entering work
• Typical tooling: single-point high-speed-steel tools
• Low cutting speeds due to start-and-stop motion

Manufacturing 6/e
Shaper
Video de shaper machine

Manufacturing 6/e
Planer
Video de planer machine

Manufacturing 6/e
Broaching
A multiple tooth cutting tool is moved linearly
relative to work in direction of tool axis

Manufacturing 6/e
Broaching
• Advantages:
• Good surface finish
• Close tolerances
• Variety of work shapes possible
• Cutting tool called a broach
• Owing to complicated and usually custom-shaped geometry, tooling is
expensive

Manufacturing 6/e
Broaching
(a) External and (b) internal broaching (cross-hatching indicates
surface broached)
Video de broaching operation

Manufacturing 6/e
Sawing
• Cuts narrow slit in work by a tool consisting of a series of narrowly
spaced teeth
• Tool called a saw blade
• Typical functions:
• Separate a work part into two pieces
• Cut off unwanted portions of part
• Cut outline of flat part

Manufacturing 6/e
Sawing
(a) Power hacksaw, (b) band saw (vertical), and (c) circular saw

Manufacturing 6/e
Machining Operations for Special Geometries
Screw threads
Gear teeth

Manufacturing 6/e
Cutting Screw Threads
• Methods for producing external threads
• Single-point thread cutting
• Threading die
• Thread chasing using self-opening threading dies
• Thread milling
• Methods for producing internal threads
• Tapping - using a solid tap
• Collapsible taps - cutting teeth retract for quick removal from hole

Manufacturing 6/e
Cutting External Screw Threads
(left) Single-point thread cutting and (right) threading die

Manufacturing 6/e
Thread Milling Using a Form-Milling Cutter
©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Video de thread milling

Manufacturing 6/e
Principal Operations for Machining Gear Teeth
• Form milling - use of a form milling cutter
• Gear hobbing - also milling but using a special cutter called a hob
• Gear shaping - two forms
• Single-point tool to gradually shape each gear tooth spacing
• Cutter has general shape of the gear but with cutting teeth on one side
• Gear broaching - for internal and external gears

Manufacturing 6/e
Form Milling of Gear Teeth
Form milling cutter has teeth with the
shape of the spaces between teeth on the
gear
• Gear blank is indexed between each
pass to establish correct size of the gear
tooth
Video de form milling de dientes de engranajes

Manufacturing 6/e
Gear Hobbing
Hob has a slight helix and its rotation is
coordinated with much slower rotation of
the gear blank
• Special milling machines (called
hobbing machines) accomplish the
relative speed and feed motions
between cutter and gear blank
Video sobre gear hobbing

Manufacturing 6/e
Gear Shaping
To start the process, cutter is
gradually fed into gear blank
Then, cutter and blank are slowly
rotated after each stroke to maintain
tooth spacing
• Performed on special machines
called gear shapers
Video sobre gear shaping

Manufacturing 6/e
Herramientas de corte
Cutting Tool Classification
1. Single-Point Tools
• One dominant cutting edge
• Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
• Turning uses single point tools
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools

• More than one cutting edge
• Motion relative to work achieved by rotating
• Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting edge
tools
Video sobre la herramienta de corte (2'14")

Escogencia del ángulo de ataque
(pastillas o insertos)
Materiales para herramientas de corte
Baja fricción
Resistencia al desgaste
Estabilidad térmica
Tenacidad
Desgaste de la herramienta
Tool Wear vs. Time
Tool wear (flank wear) as a function of cutting time

Manufacturing 6/e
Effect of Cutting Speed
Effect of cutting speed on tool flank wear (FW) for three cutting
speeds, using tool life criterion of 0.5 mm flank wear

Manufacturing 6/e
Tool Life vs. Cutting Speed
Natural log-log plot of cutting speed vs. tool life

Manufacturing 6/e
Taylor Tool Life Equation
vTn = C
where v = cutting speed; T = tool life; and n and C are parameters that
depend on feed, depth of cut, work material, tool material, and tool
life criterion
• n is the slope of the plot
• C is the intercept on the speed axis at one minute tool life
• Relationship credited to Frederick W. Taylor

Manufacturing 6/e
Tool Life Criteria in Production
1. Complete failure of cutting edge
2. Visual inspection of wear by the machine operator
3. Fingernail test across cutting edge
4. Changes in sound emitted from operation
5. Chips become stringy and difficult to dispose
6. Degradation of surface finish
7. Increased power
8. Workpiece count
9. Cumulative cutting time

Manufacturing 6/e
Desgaste del flanco
!" # = % Ecuación de Taylor
!" # & ' ( ) = %

n depende del material de la herramienta
C depende del material de la pieza
T es el tiempo requerido para alcanzar una
profundidad de desgaste de flanco (VB)
Craterización
Twist Drill
Standard twist drill geometry
• Most common cutting tools for hole-making
• Usually made of high speed steel

Manufacturing 6/e
Twist Drill Operation
• Rotation and feeding of drill bit result in relative motion
between cutting edges and work material to form the chips
• Cutting speed varies along cutting edges as a function of
distance from axis of rotation
• Relative velocity at drill point is zero, so no cutting takes
place
• Instead, a large thrust force is required to drive the drill
forward into the hole

Manufacturing 6/e
Twist Drill Operation - Problems
• Chip removal
• Flutes must provide sufficient clearance to allow chips to
move from bottom of hole during cutting
• Friction makes matters worse
• Rubbing between outside diameter of drill bit and newly
formed hole
• Delivery of cutting fluid to drill point to reduce friction and heat
is difficult because chips are moving in opposite direction

Manufacturing 6/e
Alternative Drills - Straight-Flute
Straight-flute drill using indexable cemented carbide inserts for higher cutting speeds

Manufacturing 6/e
Alternative Drills - Gun Drill
For deep holes, it has a carbide cutting edge, a single straight flute, and a coolant hole
running its entire length

Manufacturing 6/e
Alternative Drills - Spade Drill
For large diameter holes - up to 152 mm (6 in)

Manufacturing 6/e
Milling Cutters
• Principal types:
• Plain milling cutter
• Face milling cutter
• End milling cutter

Manufacturing 6/e
Plain Milling Cutter
Tool geometry elements of

an 18-tooth plain milling
cutter

Manufacturing 6/e
Face Milling Cutter
Tool geometry elements of a four-tooth face milling cutter: (a) side
view and (b) bottom view

Manufacturing 6/e
End Milling Cutter
• Looks like a drill bit but designed for primary cutting with its
peripheral teeth
• Applications:
• Face milling
• Profile milling and pocketing
• Cutting slots
• Engraving
• Surface contouring
• Die sinking
Manufacturing 6/e
Maquinabilidad
1. Acabado superficial e
integridad superficial
2. Vida útil de la herramienta
3. Fuerza y potencia requeridas
4. Dificultad de control de la
viruta
Índice de maquinabilidad
Maquinabilidad
Maquinabilidad
Maquinabilidad
• Buena separación de viruta: Baja ductilidad del material de
la pieza.
• Baja energía de corte: Baja resistencia tensil y baja dureza.
• Buen acabado superficial: Baja adhesión herramienta-pieza.
• Durabilidad de la herramienta: Pieza libre de inclusiones
duras.
• Bajas temperaturas de corte: Alta conductividad térmica de
la herramienta.
• Bajas temperaturas de corte: Bajo punto de fusión del
material de la pieza.
Maquinabilidad
Aceros
• Alta ductilidad: Dificultades con la viruta, BUE,
acabado superficial deficiente.
• Alta dureza: Desgaste abrasivo de la
herramienta.
Aceros de maquinado libre
• Contienen Pb y S
• Forman inclusiones de MnS que elevan el
esfuerzo de cizallamiento → viruta frágil.
• Ductilidad y resistencia a la fatiga reducidas
• Pb es insoluble en Fe y actúa como lubricante
sólido.
• Aceros desoxidados con Ca → Óxido de baja
resistencia en la cara de ataque.
Maquinabilidad
Aceros aleados
• Mayor dureza → mayor desgaste de la herramienta
• Corte duro: corte con herramientas de CBN
• Aleaciones de Ni, Cr, Mo, V: Mejores propiedades mecánicas → maquinabilidad
reducida
• Si y Al producen óxidos duros y abrasivos
Aceros inoxidables
• Alta resistencia, baja conductividad térmica → Maquinabilidad reducida,
especialmente los austeníticos (serie 300) y martensíticos (serie 400)
Materiales no ferrosos
• Aluminio: En general fácilmente maquinable
• Cobre: Puede ser difícil de maquinar debido a la alta ductilidad, ocurrencia de
BUE
• Magnesio: Alta maquinabilidad
• Tungsteno: Muy abrasivo → Baja maquinabilidad
• Titanio: Muy baja conductividad térmica, reactividad → Baja maquinabilidad
Acabado Superficial
• Factores
geométricos:
• Tipo de proceso de
maquinado
• Geometría de la
herramienta (radio
de nariz)
• Avance
Tolerancias y Acabado Superficial
Tolerancias y Acabado Superficial
• Factores relacionados con la pieza

• Vibración y otros factores
relacionados con la máquina
herramienta
Fluídos
de corte
Fluídos de
corte
Video sobre fluídos de corte (4'18")

Selección de las condiciones de corte
• Selección de la profundidad de corte: desbastado (máximo
posible) o acabado
• Selección del avance:

• Herramienta: Dureza (fragilidad) → Avance reducido
• Desbastado (máximo posible) o acabado
• Selección de la velocidad de corte:

• MRR vs vida de la herramienta
• Maximizar productividad o minimizar costo por pieza
Maximización de la productividad
Minimización del costo por unidad
Total
Rango de operación eficiente
Diseño para maquinado
Videos
Introduction to Material Removal Processes

Cutting Tools
Tool materials
BUE
Machining Center
Machining center
EDM

Machining 01 2

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Machining 01 2

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

The Machining Operation

Cutting Conditions in Machining

• Three dimensions of a machining process

©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

where r = chip thickness ratio; to = thickness of

©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

• Coefficient of friction between tool and chip

©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

• Based on the geometric parameters of the

where r = chip ratio, and a = rake angle

©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

• Shear stress t = shear strength S of work material during cutting

©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

where g = shear strain, f = shear plane angle, and

©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

• Of all the possible angles at which shear

©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

• To increase shear plane angle

©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

• Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane

©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

• Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or HPg

where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool

©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

• Useful to convert power into power per unit volume rate of

where RMR = material removal rate

©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

• Unit power is also known as the specific energy U

where Units for specific energy are typically

©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

FIGURE 20-31 Distribution of

©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

• Analytical method derived by Nathan Cook from

©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

• Strength, hardness and wear

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

Video sobre multi-spindle bar machines

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

Video sobre vertical boring machine

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

Upright drill press stands on

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

• Highly automated machine tool that can perform multiple machining

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P