FLOWERING PLANT

Flowering plant are plants that produce flowers, fruits and seeds. These are the reproductory parts

of the plant. They also referred to as Angiosperm. Angiosperm is the largest of the higher plant

together with the Gymnosperm.

Basic Parts of a Plant:

Bud - the undeveloped flower of a plant

Flower - the reproductive structure in flowering plants where seeds are produced

Fruit - the ripened ovary of a plant that contains the seeds; becomes fleshy or hard and dry after

fertilization to protect the developing seeds

Leaf - the light absorbing structure and food making factory of plants; site of photosynthesis

Root - anchors the plant and absorbs water and nutrients from the soil

Seed - the ripened ovule of a plant, containing the plant embryo, endosperm (stored food), and a

protective seed coat

Stem - the support structure for the flowers and leaves; includes a vascular system (xylem and

phloem) for the transport of water and food

Vein - vascular structure in the leaf

t together with the Gymnosperm.

MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

Morphology deals with the study of shape, size and structure of the plant body.

Angiosperms consist of an axis with an underground “Root system” and “Aerial Shoot system”.

The root, shoot and leaf constitute the vegetative parts of the plant body. The Flower, Fruit and

seed constitute the Reproductive parts of the plant body E.g., Mustard plant.
A typical diagram of a flowering plant is shown below:

Features that Define Angiosperms

1. Possession of flowers – with stamens and ovaries

2. Further reduction of the gametophyte stage – embryo sac

3. Double fertilization: the sperm cell has two nuclei;

4. Vessel elements in xylem - efficient water conducting cells

The Flower

Flowers are the reproductive structures of flowering plants (Angiosperms). Flowers can rang from

being very colorful and conspicuous, such as a rose or orchid, to being very simple, reduced and

inconspicuous, such as those of grasses, oaks, and elms. The function of a flower is to produce

the reproductive cells of the plant (eggs and pollen) and then produce seeds, the dormant young

plant of the next generation.

The flower is a modified shoot meant for the reproduction of the plant. The stalk of the flower is

called pedicel and the swollen part is called thalamus. It is comprised of four whorls, which are

arranged on thalamus, they are

(a) Calyx – The outer most whorl composed of ‘ sepals’

(b) Corolla – The second whorl consisting of ‘petals ‘

(c) Androecium – The third whorl composed of ‘stamens‘

(d) Gynoecium – The innermost whorl made up of ‘carpels’ Calyx and Corolla are called

‘Accessory whorls’, in some plants they are not differentiated from one another such case they

are termed as ‘ Perianth ’ . Each part of Perianth is called ‘ tepal’. Androecium and Gynoecium

are called essential whorls . In most of the flowers all the four whorls are found , such flowers are

called ‘Complete ,bisexual flowers’ .E.g.,Hibiscus In a flower out of four whorls any one

essential whorl is absent it is called ‘Incomplete, unisexual flower’. E.g., cucurbits. On the basis

of symmetry flower can be of the following types

1. Actinomorphic: these flowers can be divided by any vertical plane into two equal and similar

halves . E.g., Mustard, Brinjal .

2. Zygomorphic: these flowers can be divided into two equal halves by only one vertical division

. E.g., Pea, Ocimum

AESTIVATION

The arrangement of sepals and petals with respect to one another in floral bud is called

‘aestivation’.

Types of aestivation

1. Valvate: the sepals and petals are arranged in a whorl which just touch one another at the

margine they do not overlap. E.g., Calotropis

2. Twisted: here one margin of the sepal or petal overlap on the next sepal or petal , and the next

margin is overlapped by the proceeding one, resulting in a twisted appearance . E.g., Cotton Lady’s

finger.

3. Imbricate: here the margins of sepals and petals overlap another but not in particular direction

4. Vexillary: here out of five petals the largest overlaps the two lateral petals which in turn overlap

the two smallest petals E.g.,Pea .

1. Peduncle: floral stalk, the stem supporting the flower; sometimes referred to as the pedicel

2. Receptacle: modified floral stem or axis from which arise the floral appendages or modified

leaves

3. Sepal: the outer most whorl of leaves, typically green and protect the inner floral parts in buds;

collectively all sepals are called the calyx [CA]

6. Filament: slender stalk of the stamen supporting the anther; permits exsertion of pollen out of

flower

7. Anther: fertile portion of stamen that dehisces to release pollen grains; composed of anther

sacs

8. Stamen: the male structure of flower comprising filament and anther; collectively, all the

stamens are referred to as the androecium (= ‘house of males’) [A]

9. Ovary: basal portion of pistil that contains ovules; at maturity becomes fruit with seeds
10. Ovules: fertile portions of pistil that contain female gametophyte (embryo sac); develop into

seeds after fertilization

13. Pistil: flask-shaped, female structure comprising three main parts; often referred to as

carpel(s); all pistils (1 or more) are referred to as the gynoecium (= ‘house of females’) [G]

The fruit

A “fruit” is the tissues that surround the seed. Those layers that develop from the ovary are called

“pericarp”. The seeds of flowering plants are surrounded by a tissue called the fruit, which may

be fleshy or dry. The culinary designation of “vegetable” is based on the use of the plant part

(eaten as part of the main course in a meal). Vegetables are actually various plant parts; some are

fruits (e.g., tomatoes and peppers), leaf stalks (celery), leaf blades (spinach), lateral buds (Brussels

sprouts), young shoot (asparagus), massive flowering structure in bud stage (broccoli), root (sweet

potato), underground storage stem (white potato).

Fruit may be defined as a ripened ovary.

􀁹The fruit wall is called ‘Perecarp Usually the three layers of pericarp are

> The outer most layer is known as the ‘epicarp’

> Middle layer is known as the ‘mesocarp’

> Inner most layer is known as the ‘endocarp ‘E.g., Mango, Coconut.
Functions of fruit.

Although fruits come in all shapes and sizes, they all function in protecting the seeds inside and in

aiding seed dispersal. Protection may be afforded by hardening of the fruit to make accessing the

seeds more difficult, or by accumulation of acids or other toxins. Fleshy colored fruit attract birds

and animals; seeds pass through the gut unharmed. Some types of seeds cannot germinate unless

they have first passed through the digestive tract of an animal. Many fruits promote wind

dispersal. Other fruits have hooks, spines, and bristles that readily cling to fur and clothing just

walk your dog in an old field in autumn and see! Fruits called pods dry out as they mature and rip

open, flinging out the seeds.

THE SEED

Seeds have everything the plant needs to make a new plant.

Most seeds have a seed coat, endosperm and embryo and a cotyledon.
Seed coats protect the seed. Endosperm stores nutrients. The embryo is the baby plant. The

cotyledon is part of the developing seed.

When the seed takes on water and germinates, the cotyledons swell, a root radicle emerges

and a shoot develops.

Scientist divide plants into monocots or dicots based on number of cotyledons.

Monocotyledons have one first leaf and one cotyledon. Also called a monocot.

Dicotyledons have two first leaves and two cotyledons. Also called a dicot. Corn is an example

of a monocot. Beans are an example of a dicot.

THE ROOT

Root is the “Underground part of the plant “, originates from the radicle of the germinating seed

There are mainly two types of Root system

1. Tap root system – seen in dicots

2. Fibrous root system – seen in monocots

Major functions of Root:

(a) Fixing a plant in soil.

(b) To hold soil particles.

(c) Absorptions of water and mineral salts.

MODIFICATIONS OF ROOT

The roots in some plants change their shape and structure and become modified for various

functions.

1. Storage – The primary root becomes thick and fleshy due to food storage . e.g., Radish, Beetroot,

Carrot.

2. Support – Stilt root of Maize, Sugarcane Prop root of Banyan tree .

3. Respiration – They are also called pnematophores , help to get oxygen for respiration.
THE STEM

Stem is the aerial part of the plant body. It bears branches, leaves, flowers and fruit. The stem also

bears ‘nodes’ and ‘internodes’.

The main function of the stem are

(a) It conducts water, minerals and photosynthates .

(b) Some stems performs the function of storage of food, support, protection and vegetative

propagation.

MODIFICATION OF STEM

These may be of three types

(i) Underground modification of stem:

a. Rhizome e.g., Ginger, Turmeric etc.,

b. Bulb e.g., Onion, Garlic.

c. Tuber e.g., Potato.

(ii) Sub-aerial modification of stem:

a. Runner e.g., Oxalis

b. Offset e.g., Pistia

c. Sucker e.g., Banana, Pineapple

(iii) Aerial modification of stem:

a. Stem Tendril e.g., Cucumber, Watermelon

b. Thorn e.g., Citrus, Duranta

c. Cladode e.g., Asparagus

d. Phylloclade e.g., Opuntia, Euphorbia

THE LEAF

The Leaf is a lateral, sflattened structure of plant , in most of the plants it is green in colour ,

because of the presence of chlorophyll .

Parts of a leaf: Each leaf basically consist of three parts i.e. lamina, petiole and leaf base.

Venation: It is the arrangement of veins and vein lets in the leaf. It is of two types

(i) Reticulate Venation: Here vein make a network. E.g., Dicot plants.

Parallel Venation: Here Veins run parallel to each other on the lamina of the leaf.

E.g., Monocot leaves.

TYPES OF LEAVES

There are mainly two types of leaves

Simple Leaf: The lamina is single or undivided. E.g., Hibiscus.

Compound Leaf: The lamina is fully broken up into clear segments or leaflets. E.g., Neem.

Phyllotaxy: Is the arrangement of leaves on branch or stem. It is of three types

(i) Alternate: A single leaf at a node E.g., Sunflower, Mustard.

(ii) Opposite: Two leaves at a node. E.g., Ocimum.

(iii) Whorled: More than two leaves in a whorl at a node E.g., Nerium .

MODIFICATIONS OF LEAVES

Leaves are often modified to perform functions other than photosynthesis. They are

(i) Tendrils: for climbing e.g., Peas

(ii) Spines: for defence e.g., Opuntia (cactus)

(iii) Storage: the fleshy leaves of onion

THE INFLORESCENCE

It refers to the mode of arrangement of the flower on the floral axis. The Inflorescence is of mainly

two kinds

(i) Racemose: the main axis continues to grow and it is called indefinite inflorescence.

(ii) Cymose: The main axis terminates into a flower hence limited growth, it is a definite

inflorescence. E.g., Hibiscus , Jasmine

Reproduction in Flowering Plants:

ASEXUAL: *DNA is identical to the parent (clones)

Plants use this method naturally, they have developed special structures for asexual “propagation.”

*Bulbs, rhizomes, tubers, corms, runners are all structures that can form new plants identical to

the parent.

SEXUAL: *DNA from male (sperm) and female (egg) is recombined to produce offspring

genetically different than the parents.

*Flowers developed as the sexual structures in flowering plants.

*Egg and sperm come together (egg is fertilized) to produce seeds.

Sexual Reproduction

Pollination: is a process in which pollen is transferred to the female reproductive organs of seed

plants, thereby enabling fertilization and reproduction through growth of the pollen tube and

eventual release of sperm. In other word it involve the transfer of pollen from the stamen to the

carpel. NB: stamen is the male part of a plant while carpel is the female part of a plant. Pollen is

the male reproductive cells of plant.

Method of pollination

This include: animal and wind

Adaptations for Animal Pollination:

1. Size and Colors of petals:

Colors: i.e.: Red attracts hummingbirds

White flowers that open at night- moths

Patterns that reflect UV light- patterns to show insects where to land.

Patterns that resemble female insects

2. Fragrance

Sweet: Attracts animals that like sugar (bees)

Rotten: Attracts animals that like rotting meat (flies)

3. Nectar

Reward for pollination- sugar water

Adaptations for Wind Pollination:

1. Lack of petals:

Energy is not spent on producing petals

2. Lack of Fragrance

Energy is not spent on producing these chemicals

3. Lack of Nectar

Energy is not spent on producing sugars

4. Lots of pollen:

Only by chance that pollen lands on the stigma, produce lots of pollen to increase odds of success

5. Modification of stigma.

Large, Feathery, Sticky- all to increase chance of catching pollen.

Germination

Germination in general sence can be thought of as anything expanding into greater being from

small existence. It is the process of seeds developing into new plant.

Factors that affect Germination:

Water: Enough water- too much will block out oxygen and allow rotting pathogens to attack the

seed.

Temperature: Warm temperatures generally speed up reactions by speeding up molecular motion.

Light: Species specific- some need exposure to light. Some will not germinate while exposed to

light.
Scarification: Scaring or cracking the seed coat to allow water to move into the seed.

Stratification: A series of absorbing water followed by exposure low temperature followed by

warm temperatures.

Fire: Breaks open seed coat allowing water in.

SUMMARY

Flowering plants exhibit enormous variation in shape, size , structure mode of nutrition , life span,

habit and habitat. They have well developed root and shoot system

Generally, dicotyledonous have tap root system and monocotyledonous have fibrous root system.

The root in some plants get modified for storage of food, mechanical support , and respiration.

The shoot system is differentiated into stem , leaves , flowers and fruits .

Morphologically the stem shows nodes and inter nodes.

Stems also get modified to perform diverse functions such as storage , vegetative propagation and

protection under different conditions .

Leaves are the lateral outgrowth of the stem , usually green in colour to perform the function of

photosynthesis. They also get modified into other structures such as tendrils , spines for climbing

and protection respectively.

The flowers are arranged in different types of inflorescences.

Flowers exhibit enormous variation in structure , symmetry , position of ovary and arrangement

of sepals , petals , ovules.

After fertilization the ovary is converted into fruits and the ovules into seeds .

SOME IMPORTANT POINT TO REMEMBER

Auxiliary bud: A bud that arises in the axil of leaf .

Adventitious Roots: These roots arise from any part of the plant other than radicle e.g., rihizophora

Bisexual: flowers having male and female reproductive parts

Bract: it is a small leaf with relatively undeveloped blade in axil arises a flower or a branch of

inflorescence.

Bud: a compact under developed shoot which contains shortened stem and floral part.

Cotyledeon: the first leaf of the embryo of the seed plant which is usually simpler in structure and

have reserved food material.

Compound leaf: lamina is fully broken up into clear segments.

Coleorhiza: protective covering of the radical in the monocot leaf.

Coleoptile: it refers to the protective sheath of the plumule in monocot seeds.

Dicotyledons: the seeds having two cotyledons

Dry fruit: A fruit possessing dry pericarp

Epiphytes: The plant which grow on the other plants but do not get nourishment from them

Example, Orchids

Epicalyx: the small green appendages below the sepals make a whorl, Example, Hibiscus

Epicarp: Outer layer of the fruit

Endospermic seed: Seed in which food is stored in the endosperm.

Flower: modified shoot meant for sexual reproduction and bares fruits and seeds

False fruit: A fruit in which any other part other than ovary takes part in its formation

Herb: It refers to a small plant having soft stem

Inflorescence: It is the arrangement of the flowers on the branch of the plant.

Leaf: Flattened green structure which arises as a lateral appendages from the stem or branches

from the node and bares a bud on its axil.

Mesophytes: The plants that grow in habitats having moderate condition.

Monocarpic: The plant which bare flower and fruits once in life

Parthinocarpic Fruit: A fruit which develops without fertilization,

Perianth: The part of the flower where calyx and corola are fused

Placentation: The arrangement of ovules in the ovary

Phyllotaxy: The arrangement on the branch of stem.

Pollen: These are the microspores of seed plants produced in large numbers.

Seeds: The structure that developes from the ovule following fertilization in angiosperms and

gymnosperms.

Shrub: Medium sized plants having branches which arise from the soil.

Syncarpous ovary: It’s a ovary having number of carpls fused, Example: Tomato

Tendril: A slender but spirally coiled structure that helps the plants to climb.

Apocarpus ovary: Ovary where the carpls are not fused.