Psychological Assessment Learning Guide: Notes Compiled by Dr. John Manuel R. Kliatchko, Rpsy

Psychological Assessment Learning Guide
Dr. John Manuel R. Kliatchko, RPsy

Notes Compiled by Dr. John Manuel R. Kliatchko, RPsy
Dear RGO Reviewee,
As promised, I am presenting this learning guide to provide you a copy of some of the areas we
have covered in Psychological Assessment. Additional topics that were not covered in the 16-
hour lecture are also included. A section on “Ethical Standards in Assessment” is also
incorporated in this learning guide.
You will find 63 outcomes-based multiple-choice test items embedded in this learning guide. As
you encounter each question, try your best to answer it before proceeding to the next topic.
You will figure out the correct answer as you proceed from one topic to the next. Correct
answers are provided at the end of this learning guide.
The following references were used in preparing this learning guide:
Cohen, Ronald Jay and Mark Swerdlik (2018). Psychological Testing and Assessment. 9 th ed.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Fisher, Celia (2017). Decoding the Ethics Code: A Practical Guide for Psychologists. 4 th ed. Los
Angeles: Sage Publications.
Furr, R. Michael and Verne Bacharach (2014). Psychometrics: An Introduction. 2 nd ed. Thousand
Oaks, California: Sage Publications.
Urbina, Susana (2014). Essentials of Psychological Testing. 2nd ed. New Jersey: John Wiley and
Sons.
Read on. You need not finish everything in one sitting. Create a schedule to organize your
review process. You can do it! You can make it! You can top the board exam and be number 1!
The Process of Assessment
 The process begins with a REFERRAL FOR ASSESSMENT from a source such as a teacher,
school psychologist, counselor, judge, clinician, or corporate human resources specialist
(Cohen and Swerdlik, 2018).
 Referral questions: Does a child have a reading disability? Does a young adult have
schizophrenia? Can the child be eligible for certain services or accommodations? Is the
defendant competent to stand trial? How well can this employee be expected to
perform if promoted to a managerial position?
 The assessor selects tools of assessment. Consider here the assessor’s competence in
test use (i.e., levels). Research can also guide the test selection process.
 Formal assessment begins.
No part of this learning guide can be reproduced without permission from RGO Review Center
 After assessment, the assessor writes a report of the findings that is designed to answer
the referral question.
The Tools of Psychological Assessment
 The Test
 Test Content (i.e., subject matter of the test)
 Test Format (i.e., form, plan, structure, arrangement, layout of test items, and manner
of test administration – computerized, paper-and-pencil)
 Test Administration Procedures (individual versus group tests)
 Test Scoring and Interpretation Procedures
o Score: a code or summary statement, usually but not necessarily numerical in
nature, that reflects an evaluation of performance on a test, task, interview, or
some other sample of behavior.
o Scoring: process of assigning such evaluative codes or statements to
performance on a test, task, interview, or some other sample of behavior
samples.
o Cut score/Cutoff score: a reference point, usually numerical, derived by
judgment and used to divide data into two or more classifications. Such
classifications are used as aids in decision-making.
o Assigning meanings to test scores: use of standard scores (norms)
 Psychometric soundness (or technical quality) of tests: how consistently and how
accurately a psychological test measures what it purports to measure.
 Psychometrics: the science of psychological measurement
 Psychometric test utility: usefulness or practical value that a test or other tool of
assessment has for a particular purpose
 The Interview: a method of gathering information through direct communication

involving reciprocal exchange
o Methods: face-to-face, telephone, online, e-mail, text, sign language
o Types: panel interview, motivational interviewing
 The Portfolio: a tool of evaluation consisting of samples of one’s ability and

accomplishment
 Case History Data: records, transcripts, and other accounts in written, pictorial, or
other form that preserve archival information, official and informal accounts, and other
data and items relevant to an assesse
 Behavioral Observation: monitoring the actions of others or oneself by visual or
electronic means while recording quantitative and/or qualitative information regarding
those actions
Who are the Parties in the Assessment Enterprise?
1. The Test Developer and Publisher (the creators and distributors of tests and other methods
of assessment)
2. The Test User (clinicians, counselors, school psychologists, human resources personnel,
consumer psychologists, experimental psychologists, social psychologists, etc.)
 Must be QUALIFIED test users, and also PERMITTED TO PURCHASE
3. The Test Taker: Issues to consider
 Test anxiety
 Understanding and agreement with the rationale of the assessment
 Capacity and willingness to cooperate with the examiner
 Physical pain and emotional distress experienced; physical discomfort; alertness,
wakefulness during assessment
 Test acquiescence; social desirability issues;
 Prior coaching received
 “psychological autopsy”
4. Society at large (creates needs for new variables to measure)
5. Other parties
Assessment Settings
1. Educational Settings
 achievement tests (measuring amount of learning)
 diagnostic tests (tools of assessment used to help narrow down and identify areas of
deficit to be targeted for interventions)
2. Clinical Settings
 hospitals, in-patient and out-patient clinics, private practice consulting rooms, schools,
other institutions
 intelligence tests, personality tests, neuropsychological tests, and other specialized
instruments
 mostly individual assessment, with group testing usually for screening (i.e., determining
individuals who need further diagnostic evaluation
3. Counseling Settings
 schools, prisons, government and private institutions
 measures of social and academic skills, personality, interest, attitudes, values
4. Geriatric Settings
 housing designed for assisted living
 long-term care facilities (hospitals, “home for the aged”)
 assessment of quality of life (whether self-report or observed)
 assessment of cognitive decline (Dementia: loss of cognitive functioning – affecting
memory, thinking, reasoning, psychomotor speed, attention, personality – that occurs
as a result of damage to or loss of brain cells)
 Alzheimer’s Disease (best known of the many forms of dementia)
 Pseudodementia: a condition usually caused by severe depression in the elderly that
affects cognitive functioning (mimicking dementia)
5. Business and Military Settings

 Decision making about careers of personnel
 Achievement, aptitude, interest, motivational tests (affecting decision to hire, promote,
or transfer)
6. Governmental and organizational credentialing

 Licensures, certification, membership in organizations
7. Academic Research Settings

 Measuring variables being explored by the researcher
Obligations of the Assessment Professional (Psychometrician)
 Select and use only the tests that are most appropriate for the individuals being tested.
 The test should be stored in a way that reasonably ensures that its specific contents will
not be known to the test taker in advance.
 Ensure that a prepared and suitably trained person administers the test properly.
 Examiner must be familiar with test materials and procedures; all materials (stop watch,
pencils, protocols – form/sheet/booklet where test taker’s responses are entered) must
be ready to properly administer the test.
 Ensure a conducive testing area.
1. An examiner is about to administer the Wechsler Intelligence Test for Children - Revised
(WISC-R) to a nine-year old child. However, the child appears distracted and not ready, so the
examiner decides to engage the child in play, until the child has become comfortable with the
examiner and the test environment. Is this practice acceptable in assessment?
a. Engaging the child in play is unrelated to the measurement of intelligence, so this is not an
acceptable practice.
b. This practice is acceptable, as long as the parents or guardians of the child had been
informed and their permission secured.
c. It is best for the examiner to reschedule the assessment if the child is not ready.
d. The practice is acceptable as long as it does not violate any rules of the test administration
instructions.
 Rapport is important, especially in one-on-one or small group testing. Rapport must not
compromise any rules of the test administration process.
 Safeguarding test protocols.

 Conveying results in a clearly understandable fashion.
 Report presence of third parties during testing, or anything out of the ordinary that
happened during testing.
 Scoring and interpretation must conform to established procedures and ethical
guidelines.
Assessment of People with Disabilities
 Use of alternative assessment (i.e., accommodation – the adaptation of a test,

procedure, or situation, or the substitution of one test for another, to make the
situation more suitable for the assessee with exceptional needs).
2. A student with a visual impairment is scheduled to be given a written, multiple-choice test.

Which of the following is the most appropriate action to take for this assessment to be
undertaken?
a. translate the test into Braille and administer it in that form
b. administer the test by means of an audiotape
c. allow a third party to dictate the test items to the test taker, and the test taker’s responses
are recorded by this third party as well
d. consider the capabilities of the assessee and the assessor before administering the test
Some Issues Regarding Culture and Assessment (Cohen and Swerdlik, 2018)
 On verbal communication
o The examiner and the examinee must speak the same language (i.e., test
instructions, test items)
o When the help of a translator is provided, subtle nuances of meaning may be
lost in translation, depending on the translator’s skill and professionalism
(necessary to have pre training for both interpreters and assessors)
o Contents of tests from a particular culture are typically laden with items and
material that draw heavily from that culture. Hence, test performance may
reflect not only the test taker’s proficiency in the variable being measured, but
also the extent to which the test taker has assimilated the culture
3. An examinee from a particular cultural minority was advised to take a personality test in
English. Since the examinee has finished Grade 12 in their hometown, and the personality
test is suited for individuals with fifth grade reading level, the examiner proceeded with the
assessment. How should the results be interpreted?
a. test results must be interpreted with caution, since these may reflect not only the
examinee’s personality, but the extent to which he understands English
b. as long as the examiner has followed the scoring and interpretation guidelines, results are
acceptable
c. the examiner should interview the test taker after the test to verify understanding of the
items before making an interpretation
d. personality assessment is not affected by the testtaker’s cultural background
 On nonverbal communication and behavior

o Messages conveyed by body language varies from one culture to another
 On standards of evaluation
o Judgments related to certain psychological traits can be culturally relative
o Masculinity vs. femininity standards
o Individualist vs. collectivist cultures
 Tests and group membership

o Group membership (i.e., races, ethnic groupings, gender)
o Test-related discrimination
o Setting of selection criteria may favor some groups more than others
 Psychology, tests, and public policy

o Testing and assessment to benefit human welfare (Beneficence)
Test User Qualifications (Cohen and Swerdlik, 2018)
 Level A: Tests or aids that can adequately be administered, scored, and interpreted with
the aid of the manual and a general orientation to the kind of institution or organization
in which one is working (i.e., achievement or proficiency tests)
 Level B: Tests or aids that require some technical knowledge of test construction and
use and of supporting psychological and educational fields such as statistics, individual
differences, psychology of adjustment, personnel psychology, and guidance (i.e.,
aptitude tests and adjustment inventories applicable to normal populations)
 Level C: Tests and aids that require substantial understanding of testing and supporting
psychological fields together with supervised experience in the use of these devices (i.e.,
projective tests, individually administered tests)
Issue: Test User Qualifications versus Psychological Assessor Qualifications (scope of work of
psychometricians compared with that of psychologists)
Computerized test administration, scoring, and interpretation: Relevant Issues

 Access to test administration, scoring, and interpretation software (i.e., unauthorized
copying)
 Comparability of pencil-and-paper and computerized versions of the test (insufficient
research on this issue)
 The value of computerized test interpretations
4. Which statement best describes the ethical code’s position on computerized

interpretations of standardized assessment instruments?
a. they may be used and are advised when they allow the clinician to provide services to a
great number of patients in need.
b. they are legitimate when also accompanied by a personal evaluation.
c. they are not permitted under any circumstances.
d. they are permitted if the supervising agency or individual authorizes their use
 Unprofessional, unregulated “psychological testing” online (i.e., the psychometric

soundness of such online tests)
The Rights of Test Takers
 The right of informed consent (test takers have a right to know why they are being
evaluated, how the test data will be used, and what information will be released to
whom BEFORE they give their informed consent. Such must be worded in a language
that the testtaker will understand, whether formally or informally).
 Components of competency in providing informed consent
o Being able to choose as to whether one wants to participate
o Demonstrating a factual understanding of the issues
o Being able to reason about the facts of a study, treatment, or whatever it is to
which consent is sought
o Appreciating the nature of the situation
 Psychopathology and informed consent
5. Which among the following can provide competent informed consent?

a. a person suffering from dementia
b. a person suffering from major depression
c. a person suffering from schizophrenia
d. a person diagnosed with bipolar disorder
 If a testtaker is incapable of providing informed consent to testing, such consent must

be obtained from a parent or a legal representative, IN WRITING, specifying the
following: (1) the general purpose of the testing; (2) the specific reason it is being
undertaken in the present case; and (3) the general type of instruments to be
administered
 ISSUE: Can informed consent CONTAMINATE the test data? (i.e., the “ethical” use of
DECEPTION)
6. An experimenter is about to administer an instrument that is necessary for the

measurement of the main variable in his study. He was worried, though, that the informed
consent he was about to secure from his participants may provide preliminary information
that may affect the respondents’ answers. Thus, he did not fully disclose the objectives of the
study. Was there an ethical violation committed by the researcher?
a. Yes, it was clearly a violation of the testtaker’s right to informed consent. Deception is
never acceptable under any circumstances.
b. The experimenter should have written a different set of objectives to protect the validity of
his findings. Hence, deception is allowable on a case-to-case basis.
c. There are no clear guidelines on this issue.
d. Providing minimum amount of information before testing is all right, provided that full
disclosure and debriefing is done after testing.
 The Right to be Informed of Test Findings

o Testtakers have the right to be informed, in a language they can understand, of
the nature of the findings with respect to a test they have taken.
7. Which of the following must NOT be included in a report by the examiner as he informs the
testtaker of the test findings?
a. the purpose of the test
b. the raw score(s) obtained by the test taker
c. the meaning of the score relative to other test takers
d. the possible limitations and margins of error of the test
 The Right to Privacy and Confidentiality

o Privacy: freedom of the individual to pick and choose for himself the time,
circumstances, and particularly the extent to which he wishes to share or
withhold from others his attitudes, beliefs, behavior, and opinions
o Privileged information: shared between lawyer and client, doctor and patient,
priest and penitent, husband and wife, psychologist and client
o Privilege is extended to parties in these relationships because it has been
deemed that the parties’ right to privacy serves a greater public interest than
would be served if their communications were vulnerable to revelation in court
proceedings
o Confidentiality is different from privilege. Whereas confidentiality concerns
matters of communication outside the courtroom, privilege protects clients from
disclosure in court proceedings.
o Privilege is NOT absolute. There are occasions when a court can deem the
disclosure of certain information NECESSARY and can order the disclosure of that
information (refusal on the part of the psychologist to disclose can lead to
imprisonment, fines, or other legal consequences)
8. In a court proceeding, a psychologist decides to disclose information about his client

because he believes doing so would lessen the expected penalties to be imposed against his
client. In this case, did the psychologist violate his client’s right to privacy?
a. without a court order, the psychologist still has a duty to protect his client’s welfare, even
if this means disclosing privileged information
b. the psychologist can only disclose information to third parties if the competent client gave
his prior consent
c. disclosing information about the client is a violation of the client’s right to privacy
d. privilege in the psychologist-client relationship belongs to the psychologist
o Privilege in the psychologist-client relationship BELONGS to the client, not the

psychologist.
9. Carlo, a therapy patient, revealed to his psychologist his intention to kill “an unnamed but
readily identifiable girl” two months before the murder. Since the girl was not specifically
mentioned by Carlo, the therapist decided that he was not legally obligated to inform the girl
about his client’s plan. Is the therapist liable for legal sanctions?
a. the therapist acted appropriately since the information provided was privileged and is
deemed confidential
b. since the victim was not explicitly named by Carlo, the therapist has no obligation to
inform the girl
c. the therapist had the duty to warn the girl of the impending peril
d. the therapist must not disclose the information; instead, he should convince his client to
confess
o Protective privilege ends where the public peril begins.

o Safekeeping of test data (i.e., safeguarding test records, length of time of records
storage, when records are deemed outdated, invalid, or useful
o Use of third party observers (effects on performance)
 The Right to the Least Stigmatizing Label

o The least stigmatizing labels should always be assigned when reporting test
results
Issues in Behavioral Assessment (Cohen and Swerdlik, 2018)
 Potential errors happen when in the dissimilarity in two or more of the observed
behaviors (or other things being rated) leads to a more favorable or unfavorable rating
than would have been made had the dissimilarity not existed. A behavioral rating may
be excessively positive (or negative) because a prior rating was excessively negative (or
positive). This source of error is referred to as a contrast effect.
 Making a composite judgment: averaging of multiple judgments to minimize error and
improving inter-rater reliability among behavioral raters.
 Reactivity: people react differently in experimental than in natural situations.
 Rating errors: judgments resulting from the intentional or unintentional misuse of a
rating scale
10. A supervisor in a psychotherapy clinic needed to assess the performance of her
supervisees. She completed a rating scale in evaluating her staff. It was found later that all
her supervisees scored on the upper end of the rating scale, suggesting the presence of
leniency error. Which of the following can be recommended to address the rating error?
a. instead of rating, the supervisor must use ranking to measure individuals against one
another instead of against an absolute scale.
b. the supervisor must be provided with a list of competencies to be evaluated, as well as
how and why such evaluations for competency should be conducted.
c. the supervisor must undergo training to lessen/avoid rating errors.
d. all of the above are correct.
o Leniency/Generosity error: tendency on the part of the rater to be lenient in

scoring, marking, or grading. As a way to remedy the situation, raters are
provided with a list of specific competencies to be evaluated, as well as how such
evaluations for competency should be evaluated. Ranking can also be a better
alternative instead of rating.
o Severity error: tendency for the rater to be overly strict and give low ratings.
o Central Tendency error: rater is reluctant to give extremely high or low ratings;
ratings cluster at the middle of the continuum
o Leniency, severity, and central tendency errors are also called DISTRIBUTION
errors
o Halo Effect: tendency for a rater to give a particular ratee a higher rating than he
or she objectively deserves because of the rater’s failure to discriminate among
conceptually distinct and potentially independent aspects of a ratee’s behavior.
11. A supervisor is scheduled to conduct her regular performance evaluation of her staff. One
of her female clerks, a Chinese national, received high ratings because of the supervisor’s
belief that females are more careful with details, more orderly, and dependable when it
comes to clerical functions. This phenomenon is a clear example of a:
a. leniency/generosity error
b. halo effect
c. distribution error
d. all of the above are correct
Test Bias and Test Fairness
12. An advertisement was posted online on the need for 50 production operators, and 200
people applied for the opening. For some unknown reason, 100 of the applicants were right
handed and the remaining 100 were left handed. Each of the 200 applicants took the
Production Operator Skills Test (POST). After testing, 48 left-handed and 2 right-handed
applicants were hired. This hypothetical example illustrates which of the following?
a. test bias
b. lack of test fairness
c. adverse impact
d. both a and b are correct
Test Bias (or Test Score Bias): a factor inherent in a test that systematically prevents accurate,
impartial measurement (i.e., a test may be too difficult for one group compared to another;
people with certain qualities are rated better than those without such qualities, particularly
when this quality is NOT related to the variable being measured). This reflects a systematic
variation in test scores.
Test Fairness: the extent to which a test is used in an impartial, just, and equitable way.
Is test bias different from test fairness? (Fuhr and Bacharach, 2014)
 Test bias is a psychometric concept embedded in theories of test score validity (i.e.,
does a test score reveal what a person really is). It is defined within psychometric
theories, and is detectable through specific statistical or research methods that allow
researchers to make informed decisions regarding test bias.
 Test fairness, on the other hand, DOES NOT refer to a psychometric property of a test.
Test fairness has to do with the appropriate use of test scores, and it is a social,
philosophical, or perhaps legal term that represents someone’s value judgment.
Of Tests and Testing (Cohen and Swerdlik, 2018)
Some Assumptions about Psychological Testing and Assessment
Assumption 1: Psychological Traits and States Exist

 A trait has been defined as “any distinguishable, relatively enduring way in which one
individual varies from another.”
 States also distinguish one person from another but are relatively less enduring.
Assumption 2: Psychological Traits and States can be Quantified or Measured
Assumption 3: Test-Related Behavior Predicts Non-Test-Related Behavior
13. A psychologist administered the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory – 2 (MMPI-

2) to a client referred by the guidance counselor for a possible case of depression. Results
showed highly elevated T-scores in depression. Is this finding enough to diagnose the
presence of depression?
a. since the MMPI-2 is a valid and reliable test, the finding is deemed valid, and interventions
must be recommended to address the client’s condition.
b. since the MMPI-2 has superior validity scales that detect faking and social desirability
errors, test results are deemed valid, and interventions must be recommended to address the
client’s condition.
c. both a and b are correct.
d. data from other sources must be obtained to validate the findings.
Assumption 4: Tests and Other Measurement Techniques Have Strengths and Weaknesses
 Competent test users understand and appreciate the limitations of the tests they use as
well as how those limitations might be compensated for by data from other sources.
 Test users know the tests they use and are aware of the tests’ limitations, and this is
emphasized repeatedly in the codes of ethics of associations of assessment
professionals
Assumption 5: Various Sources of Error are Part of the Assessment Process

 Error refers to factors other than what a test attempts to measure that influence
performance on the test.
 Error variance: the component of a test score attributable to sources other than the
trait or ability measured.
Assumption 6: Testing and Assessment can be Conducted in a Fair and Unbiased Manner
Assumption 7: Testing and Assessment Benefit Society
The Nature of the Test (Cohen and Swerdlik, 2018)
Closely related to considerations concerning the purpose and use of a reliability coefficient are
those concerning the nature of the test itself. Included here are considerations such as
whether:
1. The test items are homogeneous or heterogeneous in nature;

2. The characteristic, ability, or trait being measured is presumed to be dynamic or static;
3. The range of test scores is or is not restricted;
4. The test is a speed or a power test; and
5. The test is or is not criterion-referenced
14. A test was developed for use with infants to help identify children who are developing
slowly or may profit from early intervention of some sort. What is the most appropriate
procedure to establish the reliability coefficient for this test?
a. Test-Retest Reliability
b. Inter-Rater Reliability
c. KR20
d. Cronbach alpha
slowly or may profit from early intervention of some sort. Infants’ scores were obtained using
behavioral observations. To determine test reliability, the test developer decided to use test-
retest reliability. Which among the following intervals must be chosen between test and
retest?
a. 21 days
b. 14 days
c. 7 days
d. 4 days
1. Homogeneity versus heterogeneity of test items

 A test is homogeneous in items if it is functionally uniform throughout.
 Tests designed to measure one factor (i.e., one ability or trait) are expected to be
homogeneous in items. For such tests, it is reasonable to expect a high degree of
internal consistency, compared to a test that is heterogeneous in items.
2. Dynamic versus static characteristics

 Dynamic characteristic: trait, state, or ability presumed to be ever changing as a
function of situational and cognitive experiences (best to use measures of internal
consistency)
 Static characteristic: trait, state, or ability presumed to be relatively unchanging (best to
use test-retest or alternate forms)
3. Restriction or inflation of range

 If the variance of either variable in a correlational analysis is RESTRICTED by the
sampling procedure used, the resulting correlation coefficient tends to be LOWER. (For
inflated ranges, the resulting correlation coefficient tends to be HIGHER.)
16. A company HR manager uses a particular screening test for hiring applicants. The
company’s board of directors requested him to determine the reliability of their screening
test. To do this, he gathered the test scores of all the hired applicants and proceeded with
reliability analysis. Was there anything wrong with his methodology?
a. He should have gathered test scores from job applicants, instead of those who were hired.
b. He should have obtained only a sample of the scores of the hired employees for purposes
of practicality.
c. Whether he uses the scores of job applicants or hired employees would not affect
reliability.
d. It is best to just buy a reliable test to avoid all these problems altogether.
17. A test developer is contemplating on undertaking a reliability analysis of a test that he has
recently constructed. Items in his new test had a uniform difficulty level, but with a time
limit. Which among the following is the most appropriate measure of reliability for a speed
test?
a. Cronbach’s alpha
b. Test-retest reliability
c. KR 20
d. Interrater reliability
4. Speed tests versus power tests

 Power test: no time limit, but items are difficult
 Speed test: items have uniform difficulty level, but with a time limit
 Test retest, alternate forms, and split half reliability from two separately timed half tests
are the most appropriate for speed tests. If measures of internal consistency are used,
the obtained reliability would be spuriously high. In a speed test, while not all items may
be answered because of the time limit, almost all items answered will be correct.
5. Criterion-referenced tests
 Designed to provide an indication of where a testtaker stands with respect to some
variable of criterion, such as an educational or vocational objective.
 Scores are usually interpreted as “pass-fail” or “master-failed to master.”
 Traditional measures of reliability are NOT APPROPRIATE for use with criterion-
referenced tests. (refer to Cohen and Swerdlik, 2018, pp. 162-163)
Evaluating a Test or Measurement Technique: Relevant Questions
1. Why use this particular instrument or method (why use this one over another?):
 What is the objective of using a test, and how well does the test under consideration
meet that objective?
 Who is this test designed for use with (i.e., age of testtakers, reading level, etc.), and
how appropriate is it for the targeted testtakers?
 How is what the test measures defined?
 What type of data will be generated from using this test, and what other types of data
will be will be necessary to generate if this test is used?
 Do alternate forms exist?
2. Are there any published guidelines for the use of this test?
3. Is this instrument reliable?
4. Is this instrument valid?
5. Is this instrument cost-effective?
6. What inferences may reasonably be made from this test score, and how generalizable are the
findings?
Culturally Informed Assessment: Some Do’s and Don’ts
Do…
 Be aware of cultural assumptions in which a test is based.
 Consider consulting with members of particular cultural communities regarding the
appropriateness of particular assessment techniques, tests, or test items
 Strive to incorporate assessment methods that complement the worldview and lifestyle
of assessees who come from a specific cultural and linguistic population.
 Be knowledgeable about the many alternative tests or measurement procedures that
may be used to fulfill the assessment objectives.
 Be aware of equivalence issues across cultures, including equivalence of language used
and the constructs measured.
 Score, interpret, and analyze assessment data in its cultural context with due
consideration of cultural hypotheses as possible explanations for findings.
Don’t…
 Take for granted that a test is based on assumptions that impact all groups in much the
same way.
 Take for granted that members of all cultural communities will automatically deem
particular techniques, tests, or test items appropriate for use.
 Take a “one-size-fits-all” view of assessment when it comes to evaluation of persons
from various cultural and linguistic populations.
 Select tests or other tools of assessment with little or no regard for the extent to which
such tools are appropriate for use with a particular assessee.
 Simply assume that a test has been translated into another language is automatically
equivalent in every way to the original.
 Score, interpret, and analyze assessment in a cultural vacuum.
Measurement Scales in Psychology
18. Strictly speaking, intelligence, aptitude, and personality test scores belong to what scale
of measurement?
a. nominal
b. ordinal
c. interval
d. ratio
 The ordinal scale of measurement is the most frequently used in psychology.

“Intelligence, aptitude, and personality test scores are, basically and strictly speaking,
ordinal (Kerlinger, 1973, in Cohen and Swerdlik, 2018). However, assessment
professionals would often represent these as interval or ratio (instead of ordinal)
because it allows them greater flexibility in manipulating test data statistically.
The True Score Model and Alternatives to it.
Classical Test Theory (CTT)

 Also referred to as the true score (or classical) model of measurement.
 Most widely used and accepted model in the psychometric literature today (Cohen and
Swerdlik, 2018) due to its simplicity.
 Simpler to understand than IRT
 Assumptions are easily met and therefore applicable to as many measurement
situations
 Weaknesses: (1) assumes the equivalence of all items on a test (i.e., all items contribute
equally to the score total); (2) favors the development of longer tests (with more items),
something that many test developers do NOT want
Alternatives to the CTT

 Domain Sampling Theory
o an alternative to CTT
o seeks to estimate the extent to which specific sources of variation under defined
conditions are contributing to the test score
o a test’s reliability is conceived as of as an objective measure of how precisely the
test score assesses the domain from which the test draws a sample
o a domain of behavior, or the universe of items that could conceivably measure
that behavior, can be thought of as a hypothetical construct – one that shares
certain characteristics with (and is measured by) the sample of items that make
up the test
 Generalizability Theory
o a person’s test scores vary from testing to testing because of variables in the
testing situation
o instead of conceiving all variability in a person’s score as error, Cronbach (the
proponent of generalizability theory) encouraged test developers and
researchers to describe the details of the particular test situation or universe
leading to a particular test score. This universe is described in terms of its facets,
which includes things like the number of items in the test, the amount of training
the test scorers have had, and the purpose of the test administration.
o According to generalizability theory, given the exact same conditions of all the
facets in the universe, the exact same test score can be obtained. This test score
is called the universe score, which is analogous to a true score in the CTT.
o A test score (and even a response to a particular item) consists of a relatively
stable component that actually is what the test or individual item is designed to
measure, as well as relatively unstable components that collectively can be
accounted for as error
 Item Response Theory (IRT)

o also known as latent-trait theory
o test items are not assigned equal points (unlike tests that use the CTT model);
items with greater difficulty receive more points than other, less difficult items.
Also, items that discriminate more (on a particular attribute) compared to
another receive greater weight when scored.
Evaluating Predictive Validity of Tests
19. A student scores high on a graduate school admission test and is admitted to graduate
school, largely on the basis of his test score. The student subsequently found it difficult to
handle the rigid requirements of graduate studies, particularly research and mastery of
advanced theories and concepts. The type of test outcome described in this situation is
known as:
a. false positive
b. false negative
c. true negative
d. true positive
20. Caring and accommodation for patients’ needs are two attributes said to be necessary
among nurses. These are also qualities valued in Filipino culture, which explains why Filipino
nurses are so highly sought after in hospitals abroad. A recent study using a large sample
revealed that among Filipino nurses, 300 out of 400 (or a proportion of .75) were found to
possess sten scores of 8 to 10 in Factor A of the 16PF, which measured warmth, a trait that
predisposes an individual to be caring and attentive to others. Using the results of this study,
.75 corresponds to which of the following?
a. hit rate
b. success rate
c. miss rate
d. base rate
 When evaluating the predictive validity of a test, researchers must take into account the
base rate of the occurrence of a variable in question, both as that variable exists in the
general population and as it exists in the sample being studied.
 Generally, a base rate is the extent to which a particular trait, behavior, characteristic,
or attribute exists in the population (expressed as a proportion). In psychometric
parlance, a hit rate may be defined as the proportion of people a test accurately
identifies as possessing or exhibiting a particular trait, behavior, characteristic, or
attribute. A miss rate may be defined as the proportion of people a test fails to identify
as having, or not having, a particular characteristic or attribute.
 A false positive is a miss wherein the test predicted that the testtaker did possess the
particular characteristic of attribute being measured when in fact the testtaker did not.
A false negative is a miss wherein the test predicted that the testtaker did not possess
the particular characteristic or attribute being measured when the testtaker actually
did.
 Validity coefficient: correlation coefficient that provides a measure of the relationship
between test scores and scores on the criterion measure. This is also affected by range
restriction or inflation.
21. One research study reported that the validity of a paper and pencil test of mental ability
in predicting success at work was .35, but when combined with an interview, the validity of
the two measures combined was .51. This finding leads to the conclusion that the interview
added to the validity of the paper and pencil test. This illustrates the concept of ___.
a. generalized validity
b. convergent validity
c. enhanced validity
d. incremental validity
 Incremental Validity: the degree to which an additional predictor explains something

about the criterion measure that is not explained by the predictors already in use.
 Using Expectancy Data
o Expectancy data provide information that can be used in evaluating the

criterion-related validity of a test. Using a score obtained on some test(s) or
measure(s), expectancy tables illustrate the likelihood that the testtaker will
score within some interval of scores on a criterion measure – an interval that
may be seen as “passing,” “acceptable,” and so on.
o An expectancy table shows the percentage of people within specified test score
intervals who subsequently were placed in various categories of the criterion
(i.e., placed in “passed” category or “failed” category).
22. A manufacturing firm uses the Flanagan Industrial Test (FIT) as a measure of aptitude for
particular job related skills. With its 18 subtests, the FIT is widely popular as an instrument
for selection, with high reliability and predictive validity. But since the test is rather old (first
published in 1953), the psychometrician sought to determine the extent to which FIT is still
useful as a selection tool. Which among the following provides an estimate of the percentage
of future employees who will be successful on the job with the use of the FIT as an aptitude
measure?
a. Taylor-Russell Tables
b. Expectancy Charts
c. Lawshe Tables
d. Brogden-Cronbach-Gleser Utility Formula
23. Which among the following is NOT among the pieces of information needed for using the
Taylor-Russell tables?
a. validity coefficient
b. selection ratio
c. average tenure
d. base rate
o Taylor-Russell Tables provide an estimate of the extent to which the inclusion of

a particular test in the selection system will actually improve selection. More
specifically, the tables provide an estimate of the percentage of employees hired
by the use of a particular test who will be successful at their jobs, given different
combinations of three variables: the test’s validity, the selection ratio, and the
base rate.
 the value assigned for the test’s validity is the computed validity
coefficient.
 the selection ratio is a numerical value that reflects the relationship
between the number of people to be hired and the number of people
available to be hired (SR = number hired/number of applicants)
 the base rate refers to the percentage of current employees who are
considered successful
 with knowledge of the validity coefficient of a particular test along with
the selection ratio and base rate, reference to the Taylor Russell tables
provides the personnel officer with an estimate of how much using the
test would improve selection over existing methods.
o Limitations of the Taylor Russell tables: (1) the relationship between the
predictor (the test) and the criterion (performance rating on the job) must be
linear; (2) it is potentially difficult to identify a criterion score that separates
“successful” from “unsuccessful” employees.
o Naylor-Shine tables provide an alternative set of tables that provide an
indication of the difference in average criterion scores for the selected group as
compared to the original group. Use of the Naylor-Shine tables entails obtaining
the difference between the means of selected and unselected groups to derive
an index of what the test (or some other assessment tool) is adding to already
established procedures.
o Proportion of Correct Decisions: a utility method that compares the percentage
of times a selection decision was accurate with the percentage of successful
employees.
24. Even though a test is both reliable and valid, it is not necessarily useful. Which among the
following were created to determine whether a particular applicant will be successful?
c. Lawshe Tables
particular job related skills. With its 18 subtests, the FIT is widely popular as an instrument
for selection, with high reliability and predictive validity. But since the test is rather old (first
useful as a selection tool. One of the options explored was to determine whether using an
alternative aptitude test for employee selection would result to more savings, compared with
the use of the FIT. Which among the following helps to determine the amount of money that
the company would save if it used a particular test to select employees?
c. Lawshe Tables
o Lawshe Tables: tables that use the base rate, test validity, and applicant
percentile on a test to determine the probability of future success for that
particular applicant.
o Brogden-Cronbach-Gleser Utility Formula: method of ascertaining the extent to
which an organization will benefit from the use of a particular selection system.
An Alternative to Convergent and Discriminant Analysis
 Multitrait-Multimethod Matrix: a method of evaluating construct validity by

simultaneously examining both convergent and divergent evidence by means of a table
of correlations between traits and methods
Test Utility
 Refers to the practical value of using a test as an aid in decision-making.
26. For five years, the Guilford Zimmermann Temperament Survey (GZTS) was the personality
inventory used by Tiger Industries in generating personality profiles of its applicants. In 2019,
the psychometrician (Sisa Rondina) recommended the use of a more recently revised and
normed personality measure – the 16PF to replace the GZTS, which was found to be too
dated and lacking updated local norms. Rondina argued that using the 16PF would allow
them to identify a wider variety of traits, compared to those measured by GZTS, which would
lead to better selection decisions. Which of the following must have been undertaken by
Rondina, which led to the decision to replace GZTS with the 16PF?
a. validity analysis
b. discriminant analysis
c. utility analysis
d. cost-benefit analysis
Factors that Affect a Test’s Utility

 Psychometric Soundness: the reliability and validity of a test
o Utility Index: practical value of information derived from test scores on a test.
 Costs: disadvantages, losses, or expenses in both economic and noneconomic terms
 Benefits: profits, gains, or advantages in both economic and noneconomic terms
Utility Analysis
 Undertaken for the purpose of evaluating whether the benefits of using a test (or
training program or intervention) outweigh the costs.
o Whether one test is preferable to another
o Whether one type/tool of assessment (i.e., test) is preferable to another
type/tool of assessment (i.e., behavioral observation)
o Whether the addition of one or more tests to those already in use is preferable
o Whether no testing/assessment is preferable to any testing/assessment
Methods for Setting Cut Scores
27. The company’s senior psychometrician was in the final phase of developing a test that
would be recommended for use in their employee selection program. The items in the test’s
final version have been assembled, and his next task was to determine the cut score. To
achieve this, he constituted a panel of subject matter experts who were given a copy of the
test. They were then asked to provide estimates on the probability that a minimally qualified
performer would be able to answer each item correctly. The process ended with averaging
the judgments of the the experts. The psychometrician performed which of the following
methods for setting cut scores?
a. Known Groups Method
b. Angoff Method
c. Averaging Method
d. Discriminant Analysis
28. Which of the following is the biggest disadvantage of the Angoff Method of determining
cut scores?
a. the method is very complicated
b. it is very hard to gather subject matter experts
c. there is often low inter-rater reliability
d. it suffers from criterion contamination
29. Which of the following methods for setting cut scores is anchored on the Classical Test
Theory (CTT)?
a. Angoff Method
b. Known Group Method
c. Method of Contrasting Groups
d. All of the above
30. Which of the following may be a challenge to the test developer in using the Angoff
method of setting cut scores?
a. there is a lot of debate as to determining the test-taking ability of the minimally qualified
performer
b. experts may disagree on assessing the item’s difficulty level
c. both a and b
d. the accuracy and efficiency of the Angoff method has been well-established already
 Angoff method: a way to set fixed scores that entails averaging the judgments of
experts.
o It determines how often a minimally qualified performer would answer a test
item correctly. A panel of experts is chosen to review test items and estimate the
probability that a minimally qualified performer would answer the item
correctly.
o This simple technique has wide appeal, and works well – that is, as long as the
experts agree.
o There is low inter-rater reliability and major disagreements regarding how
certain populations of testtakers should respond to items.
 Known Groups method (method of contrasting groups): a method of collecting data on

a predictor of interest from groups known to possess (and not to possess) a trait,
attribute, or ability of interest
o A cut score is set on the test that best discriminates the two groups’ test
performance.
o The main problem with using known groups method is that determining the
cutoff score is inherently affected by the composition of the contrasting groups.
**both Angoff and Known Groups methods are CTT based.
 IRT-Based Methods
o Item-mapping method: entails a histographic representation of test items and
expert judgments regarding test effectiveness
 Often used in setting cut scores for licensing examinations
o Bookmark method: uses an item book, where items are placed in ascending
order of difficulty, and with experts making judgments and literally
“bookmarking” items that exhibit the optimal level of difficulty of test items
 Typically used in academic applications
 Other Methods
o Method of predictive yield: a technique for identifying cut scores based on the
number of positions to be filled, projections regarding the likelihood to offer
acceptance, and the distribution of applicant scores
o Discriminant analysis (or discriminant function analysis): used to shed light on
the relationship between identified variables (such as scores on a battery of
tests) and two (or more) naturally occurring groups (such as persons judged to
be successful at a job and persons judged unsuccessful at a job.
Test Revision in the Cycle of an Existing Test
Signs that tests need to be revised (Cohen and Swerdlik, 2018):

 The stimulus materials look dated and current testtakers cannot relate to them.
 The verbal content of the test, including the administration instructions and the test
items, contains dated vocabulary that is not currently understood by current testtakers.
 As popular culture changes and words take on new meanings, certain words or
expressions in the test items or directions may be perceived as inappropriate or even
offensive to a particular group and must therefore be changed.
 The test norms are no longer adequate as a result of group membership changes in the
population of potential testtakers.
 The test norms are no longer adequate as a result of age-related shifts in the abilities
measured over time, and so an age extension of the norms (upward, downward, or in
both directions) is necessary.
 The reliability or the validity of the test, as well as the effectiveness of individual test
items, can be significantly improved by a revision.
 The theory on which the test was originally based has been improved significantly, and
these changes should be reflected in the design and content of the test.
Cross-validation and co-validation

 Cross validation: the revalidation of a test on a sample of testtakers other than those on
whom test performance was originally found to be a valid predictor of some criterion.
 Normally, initial validity results are high because the sample chosen (on whom
validation was performed) is more identical to the intended test takers. The second
sample used for the cross-validation procedure is not expected to be as identical. This
leads to a phenomenon called validity shrinkage – a decrease in validity that occurs as a
result of cross-validation.
 Co-validation, meanwhile, is defined as a test-validation process conducted on two or
more tests using the same sample of testtakers. When used in conjunction with the
creation of norms or the revision of existing norms, this process is also called as co-
norming.
On Transformation of Raw Scores to Standard Scores

 Standard scores converted from raw scores may involve either a linear or a nonlinear
transformation.
 A standard score obtained by a linear transformation is one that retains a direct
numerical relationship to the original raw score. The magnitude of differences between
such standard scores exactly parallels the differences between corresponding raw
scores.
 Examples: transforming a z-score to a T-score; transforming a z-score to a deviation IQ
score
 A nonlinear transformation may be required when the data under consideration are not
normally distributed (i.e., skewed), yet comparisons with normal distributions need to
be made.
 In a nonlinear transformation, the resulting standard score does not necessarily have a
direct numerical relationship to the original, raw score.
 As a result of a nonlinear transformation, the original distribution is said to have been
“normalized.”
Normalized Standard Scores

 In situations wherein skewed distributions (instead of a normal distribution) result even
after working with large samples, a test developer may attempt to “normalize” the
distribution.
 Conceptually, normalizing a distribution involves “stretching” the skewed curve into a
shape of a normal curve and creating a corresponding scale of standard scores. Such is
technically called a normalized standard score scale.
 Normalizing a skewed distribution is desirable for purposes of comparability.
 Examples: In a normal distribution, a standard score of z = -1 means that 84.13% of all
scores in this distribution were higher than this score. But if it were a positively skewed
distribution, only 62% of scores may be higher.
31. A test developer is intent on creating a test that would yield normally distributed
measurements. Which among the following must be cone so that the resulting distribution
will approximate the normal curve?
a. create a test with as many items as possible
b. create a test with a lower discriminability index
c. create a test with more difficult items
d. create a test with a wide range of difficulty levels
 For test developers intent on creating tests that yield normally distributed
measurements, it is generally preferable to fine-tune the test according to difficulty or
other relevant variables so that the resulting distribution will approximate the normal
curve.
Different Types of Standard Errors (Cohen and Swerdlik, 2018)
32. A researcher is interested to determine the extent to which job interviews predicted job
success. He obtained his data from a sample of employees with above average performance
whose job interview ratings were sourced from the HR office. Using job interview ratings as
the predictor, he formulated a regression equation which he used to generate predicted
values of “job success.” The extent to which predicted values differed from actual levels of
job success is known statistically as the
a. standard error of measurement
b. standard error of estimate
c. standard error of the mean
d. standard error of the difference
A statistic used to estimate the extent to which an

Standard error of measurement
observed score deviates from a true score
In regression, an estimate of the degree of error
Standard error of estimate involved in predicting the value of one variable from
another
Standard error of the mean A measure of sampling error
A statistic used to estimate how large a difference
Standard error of the difference between two scores should be before the difference
is considered statistically significant
Sampling to Develop Norms
 The process of administering a test to a representative sample of testtakers for the

purpose of establishing norms is referred to as standardization or test standardization.
33. To get respondents for her study, a researcher generated her sample of respondents
considering the existing subgroups of the population. This sampling method is more
commonly known as
a. subgroup sampling
b. selective sampling
c. stratified sampling
d. hierarchical sampling
Sampling Methods
 Random Sampling: each and every member of the population has an equal chance of
being selected
 Stratified Sampling: developing a sample based on specific subgroups of a population
 Stratified Random Sampling: developing a sample based on specific subgroups of a
population in which every member has the same chance of being included in the sample
 Purposive Sampling: the arbitrary selection of people to be part of a sample because
they are thought to be representative of the population being studied
 Incidental/Convenience Sampling: the process of arbitrarily selecting some people to be
part of a sample because they are readily available, not because they are most
representative of the population being considered
Essential Test Item Considerations
 Steps in the Test Development process (Urbina, 2014)
1. Test Conceptualization
2. Generate the item pool by writing or otherwise creating the test items, as well as the
administration and scoring procedures to be used.
3. Submitting the item pool for qualitative analysis to experts in the subject matter of
the test, and to reviewers from different backgrounds in order to identify items that
may be a disadvantage, or be offensive to, any particular demographic group for which
the test is intended.
4. Revising or replacing items that are identified by reviewers as inadequate or

problematic from the point of view of subject matter, offensiveness, or bias.
5. Trying out the items that have been generated and reviewed on samples that are
representative of the population for whom the test is intended.
6. Evaluating the results of the trial administrations of the item pool through
quantitative item analysis and additional qualitative analysis.
7. Adding, deleting, and/or modifying items as needed, on the basis of both quantitative
and qualitative item analyses
8. Conducting additional trial administrations for the purpose of checking whether item
statistics remain stable across different groups and subgroups – a process known as
cross validation – until a satisfactory set of items is obtained.
9. Determining and fixing the length of the test and the sequencing of items – as well as
administration and scoring procedures that will be standard in the final form of the test
– on the basis of the foregoing analyses.
10. Administering to a new sample of individuals – carefully selected to represent the

population of test takers for whom the test is intended – in order to develop normative
data or performance criteria, indices of test score reliability and validity, as well as item-
level statistics for the final version of the test.
11. Publishing the test in its final form, along with an administration and scoring manual,
accompanying documentation of the uses for which the test is intended, test
development procedures, standardization data, reliability and validity studies, as well as
materials needed for test administration, scoring, and interpretation.
Moral Principles and Ethical Awareness (Fisher, 2017)
34. Ethical principles require that assessment professionals (psychometricians and

psychologists) must be able to identify what is in the best interests of those with whom they
work, when a situation threatens the welfare of individuals, and the competencies required
to achieve the greatest good and avoid or minimize harm. This also requires corresponding
virtues such as being compassionate, humane, and prudent. Which ethical principle(s) are
encompassed in these responsibilities?
a. beneficence and responsibility
b. beneficence and nonmaleficence
c. beneficence
d. nonmaleficence
APA General
Corresponding Virtues Corresponding Ethical Awareness
Principles
Principle A: Compassionate, humane, Psychologists should be able to identify
Beneficence and nonmalevolent, prudent what is in the best interests of those with
Nonmaleficence whom they work, when a situation
threatens the welfare of individuals, and
the competencies required to achieve
the greatest good and avoid or minimize
harm
Principle B: Fidelity Faithful, dependable, Psychologists should be aware of their
and Responsibility conscientious, committed obligations to the individuals and
to professional growth communities affected by their work,
including their responsibilities to the
profession and obligations under the law
Principle C: Integrity Honest, reliable, self- Psychologists should know what is
aware, genuine possible before making professional
commitments and be able to identify
when it is necessary to correct
misconceptions or mistrust
Principle D: Justice Judicious, fair, open to Psychologists should be able to identify
complexity and ambiguity individual or group vulnerabilities that
can lead to exploitation and recognize
when a course of action would result in
or has resulted in unfair or unjust
practices
Principle E: Respect Respectful, considerate Psychologists must be aware of special
for People’s Rights safeguards necessary to protect the
and Dignity autonomy, privacy, and dignity of
members of the diverse populations with
whom psychologists work
Scaling
 Scaling: the process of setting rules for assigning numbers in measurements; process by
which a measuring device is designed and calibrated, and by which numbers (or other
indices) – scale values – are assigned to different amounts of the trait, attribute, or
characteristics being measured.
 L.L. Thurstone is credited for being at the forefront efforts to develop methodologically
sound scaling methods
Scaling Methods
Rating scale: a grouping of words, statements, or symbols on which judgments of the strength
of a particular trait, attitude, or emotion are indicated by the testtaker.
Cheating on taxes if you have a chance is
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Never Always
Justified Justified
Ratings given by testtakers for all items can be added together to obtain a final score. This is
termed as a summative scale.
Examples of Rating Scales:
1. Likert, Likert-type, or Summated Rating Scales: Individuals without tremendous expertise

are able to develop sophisticated measures using the Likert method for developing scales.
Although originally developed with a number of statements in which individuals indicated their
extent of agreement with response choices such as 1 = disagree, 2 = disagree somewhat, 3=
neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree somewhat, 5 = agree, statements with other response
choices such as unimportant to important can be used. Additionally, it’s been found that if the
anchors at each end are good anchors, the choice points in between the end anchors do not
need to be labeled. Thus, a scale that measures job satisfaction might look like:
Very Very
Dissatisfied Satisfied
The actual job itself. 1 2 3 4 5

The degree to which you feel 'motivated' by your job. 1 2 3 4 5
Current career opportunities. 1 2 3 4 5
The level of security in your present job. 1 2 3 4 5
The extent to which you may identify with the 1 2 3 4 5
public image or goals of your organization.
The style of supervision that your superiors use. 1 2 3 4 5
Your level of salary relative to your experience. 1 2 3 4 5
The way changes and innovations are implemented. 1 2 3 4 5
2. Thurstone scales (Method of Equal Appearing Interval): The Thurstone scale is made up of
statements about a particular issue and each statement has a numerical value indicating the
respondent’s attitude about the issue, either favorable or unfavorable. People indicate which of
the statements with which they agree and the average response is computed. First, you must
be very clear about exactly what it is you’re trying to measure. Then, collect statements on the
topic ranging from attitudes that are favorable to unfavorable. For this example, we will use
same sex marriage. Example statements are
It should be against the law.

There’s absolutely nothing wrong with it.
Marriage is between a man and a woman.
It should be a sin.
It’s perfectly appropriate for two consenting adults.
It should be legalized.
It can harm children.
Same sex couples should have the same legal rights
as a male/female couple.
It’s just horrible.
It can’t do any harm.
Next, you have judges evaluate, on an 11-point response format (1 very negative to 11
indicating very positive), what kind of attitude each of these statements reflects. For example
it’s likely that the statement “It should be a sin.” would be judged to represent a very negative
attitude while the statement “It should be legalized.” would be judged to represent a very
positive attitude. The idea is that you’d like to develop a set of items that not only reflect the
entire continuum between 1 and 11, but that your judges who helped you develop the set of
items would have considerable consensus about what level of attitude each of the statements
reflected. In this exercise, statements for which there is little consensus would be discarded.
Let’s assume that the average ratings among our judges are as below:
Average
It’s should be against the law. 1.7
There’s absolutely nothing wrong with it. 6.8
Marriage is between a man and a woman. 2.4
It should be a sin. 1.3
It’s perfectly appropriate for two consenting adults. 8.4
It should be legalized 9.1
It can harm children. 2.0
Same sex couples should have the same legal rights
as male/female couples. 7.6
It’s just horrible. 1.5
It can’t do any harm. 6.9
Suppose that there was reasonable consensus among our judges for the above items. When
administering the scale, we’d ask individuals to indicate which of the above they agreed with
(the average level that our judges had agreed upon would not be indicated on the scale when
administered to individuals). Finally, the average of those checked would be calculated to
determine the individual’s attitude.
Problems with developing Thurstone scales include 1) it can be quite time consuming and
expensive, and 2) examples for the mid-points of the scale for which there is consensus among
the judges can be difficult to obtain.
3. Guttman scales: With a Guttman scale, you have a set of statements so that a respondent
who agrees with any specific statement in the list will also agree with all previous statements.
In other words, each statement subsumes the lower order statements. For example, a scale
designed to measure Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome, presented below, was based upon the
Guttman technique and was published in the Journal of Clinical Psychology (1323-1328, 1984).
Scale score Scale item

0 In service 1965-1975
1 Stationed in Vietnam
2 Saw injury or death of US Serviceman
3 Fired weapon/fired upon in combat
4 Responsible for death of enemy military
5 Wounded in combat
6 Responsible for death of enemy civilian
7 Served third tour of duty in Vietnam
4. Semantic Differential Scale: This attitude scale measures the extent to which people feel
toward polar opposite adjectives.
Ethical Standards on Assessment
35. What statement best describes the permissibility of training another individual to
administer and write reports using WAIS-III, if that person has undergraduate training in
psychology?
a. It is permissible if the psychologist reads and signs the reports.
b. It is permissible if that person being trained reviews the administration and recent
literature regarding WAIS III.
c. It is not permissible since the person does not have adequate training.
d. It is not permissible if the psychologist signs the reports.
36. If a client asks to see the results of his or her personality and intelligence tests, you should
a. prohibit the client from seeing the results of his or her tests.
b. permit the client to see the results if you believe he or she is stable and intelligent enough
to understand them.
c. provide the client with a clear and understandable oral and written report.
d. allow the client to review the test protocols and the report.
37. A manufacturing company hires a psychologist to screen job applicants using standardized
cognitive ability tests. The company then asks the psychologist to train their human resources
staff to administer and score the tests. The psychologist should:
A. agree to do so if the psychologist is able to provide adequate training to the staff
B. agree to do so if the psychologist is able to supervise the human resources staff
C. refuse to do so because cognitive ability tests are not valid predictors of job performance
D. refuse to do so because the human resources staff lacks the appropriate qualifications
38. A college psychology instructor gives a battery of psychological tests to some of his
students who volunteered to be participants. Based on these tests, he finds that one of the
participants is at risk for emotional disturbance. He talks to this student and suggests
counseling. At the same time, he informs the director of the college counseling office who is a
friend of his. According to APA ethical principles, the professor acted
A. unethically, because he revealed this information to a third party.
B. ethically, because he acted in accord with the student's welfare.
C. ethically, because he had responsibilities to the college as well as to the student.
D. unethically, because he isn't a clinician.
A. unethically, because he revealed this information to a third party. Suggesting counseling to

the student is ethical and appropriate. However, barring an emergency situation characterized
by imminent danger, informing a third party is unethical.
39. A psychometrician is undertaking a research program in an elementary school on the

effect of a new counseling program on enhancing children's self-esteem. The psychometrician
has received permission from the school's principal, the teachers, and from the parents of
each student. However, when she explained the program to the children, some of them
objected to being part of the study. The psychometrician should
A. not use these children in her study.
B. call the parents of these children and ask them to try to convince the children to
participate.
C. use the children in her study because she has all necessary legal consents.
D. re-design the study to eliminate the objection the children have to participating.
A. not use these children in her study. The best idea is to just leave out these children.
Participants have the right to decline to participate in research, even if they are children. It
wouldn't be practical or prudent to ask her to re-design the whole experiment because a
handful of children object to being participants. Thus, the best answer is to just do the study
without using the children who object to participating.
40. You have a client who does not want their records released under any circumstances. The
attorney has subpoenaed you. Your best course of action is to:
A. Respond in-person, but don't take the records
B. Take the records, but don't turn them over
C. Ignore the entire matter
D. Destroy the records
B. Take the records, but don't turn them over You should respond to the subpoena by asserting
the psychotherapist-client privilege on the client's behalf. If you cannot be released from the
subpoena, you should appear at the legal proceeding with the documents requested, however,
you should not actually release any information in the records, unless the judge orders you to
do so. Keep in mind that a subpoena duces tecum requires a person to appear at a designated
time and place with a copy of the records. It does not necessarily require the person to release
those records.
41. A 16-year-old girl tells her therapist that she wants to kill herself and that she's been
thinking of using her mother's prescription pain pills to overdose. The therapist then tells her
that he will have to tell her parents about her suicide risk. The girl becomes enraged and says
that she would not have disclosed the information if she knew that the therapist would tell
her parents. The therapist should:
A. agree not to tell the parents if the girl agrees to a no-harm contract
B. agree not to tell the parents, but tell them without the girl's knowledge
C. tell the parents and refer the girl to another therapist because she will probably not be
able to trust the therapist again
D. tell the parents and apologize to the girl for having to do so
D. tell the parents and apologize to the girl for having to do so According to both ethics and law,
a psychologist may disclose confidential information without the client's consent to protect the
client from harm. This applies to minors and adults alike. In this case, it would most likely be
appropriate to inform the girl's parents about her suicide risk. The reasons for this should be
explained to the girl and the therapist should apologize for the breach of confidentiality. Given
the apparent level of risk involved, it would probably not be sufficient to rely on a no-harm
contract (A). It would certainly be inappropriate and countertherapeutic to lie to the client (B).
And it may not be necessary to refer the client (C). If handled empathically, it is likely that the
girl will come to understand the therapist's reasons for disclosing to the parents and may come
to appreciate that her safety was his overriding concern.
42. Sisi Laure, a psychology intern, administers psychological tests to the clients of a
community mental health clinic, but her supervisor always scores the tests and interprets
their results. When preparing the psychological report for these clients, the supervisor does
not indicate that the intern administered the tests. This is:
A. Ethical because the supervisor scored and interpreted the tests.
B. Ethical because the supervisor is responsible for the accuracy of the psychological report.
C. Unethical because an intern should not be administering psychological tests.
D. Unethical because the intern should be listed as the examiner in the report.
D. Unethical because the intern should be listed as the examiner in the report. (Correct) This
response is most consistent with ethical guidelines. For example, Standard 5.01(b) of the APA’s
Ethics Code prohibits psychologists from making misleading statements and Standard 6.06
requires psychologists to provide accurate information to payors and funding sources. It is also
consistent with Principles III.1 and 5 of the Canadian Code of Ethics. This issue is not directly
addressed by ethical guidelines, so the best approach when choosing the answer would have
been to identify the one that is most consistent with the “spirit” of the guidelines.
43. When evaluating a defendant’s competence to stand trial, the focus of the evaluation is
on the defendant’s:
A. ability to distinguish right from wrong.
B. ability to comprehend the charges against him/her.
C. mental state at the time he/she committed the crime.
D. DSM-IV diagnosis.
B. ability to comprehend the charges against him/her - (CORRECT) An evaluation for

competence to stand trial focuses on the defendant’s ability to comprehend the charges against
him/her, to understand the trial process, to cooperate with his/her attorney, etc. The focus of
an evaluation to determine a defendant’s competence to stand trial focuses on his/her current
psycho-legal abilities and impairments.
44. When conducting research with human participants, a psychologist should be aware that:
a. participants must be debriefed as soon as possible after their participation in the study,
especially when the study has involved deception.
b. participants must be debriefed after their participation in the study only if the psychologist
believes that not doing so will result in harm to them.
c. participants must be debriefed after their participation only if the study places them at
“high risk.”
d. debriefing of research participants is at the discretion of the psychologist.
especially when the study has involved deception. (CORRECT) Standard 8.08 of the Ethics Code
requires psychologists to inform participants promptly following their participation in the study
about its nature, results, and conclusions; and Principle III.26 of the Canadian Code of Ethics
requires psychologists to debrief participants as soon as possible after their involvement in a
study when there has been incomplete disclosure about the study’s purpose. Consequently, of
the answers given, this one is most consistent with ethical guidelines. Debriefing of research
participants is addressed in Standard 8.08 of the APA’s Ethic Code and Principles II.44 and III.26
of the Canadian Code of Ethics.
45. A child has been recommended for placement in a special education program on the basis
of the scores he obtained in a valid, reliable, and standardized intelligence test. What can you
comment on this?
a. test scores should not be the sole indicators for diagnostic or special program placement,
but instead use multiple sources of information
b. since the child’s schooling is the primary concern in this situation, an achievement test
must have been administered instead of an intelligence test.
c. a second measure of intelligence must be administered in addition to the test already
taken to validate the findings
d. there is nothing questionable with the recommendation
**Psychologists should not use test scores as the sole indicators for diagnostic or special
program placement, but instead use multiple sources of information and, when appropriate,
provide alternative explanations for test performance.
46. An assessment professional contracted by an insurance company to evaluate an

individual’s mental health as part of a current disability claim. To do this, she obtained job
performance evaluations written by the insured’s immediate supervisors and diagnostic
information collected by a psychologist prior to the incident cited in the claim. From this set
of information, she gave her professional opinion. Was there anything wrong in the process
undertaken in this situation?
a. There was sufficient basis for giving that opinion since multiple sources of information
were used.
b. The assessment professional should not have given an opinion on the insured’s mental
health status since she was not physically present during the assessment.
c. The assessment professional should have inquired about the validity and reliability of the
instruments used by the psychologist who conducted the assessment.
d. The assessment professional should not have given an opinion because she did not
personally conduct the assessment.
**Psychologists provide opinions of the psychological characteristics of individuals only after

they have conducted an examination of the individual adequate to support their statement or
conclusions.
47. A psychometrician was contracted by a prison facility to evaluate the job potential of
guards hired for a probationary period. Without conducting an individual interview, the
psychometrician wrote a report concluding that the emotional instability of one job
candidate made him ineligible for full-time employment. The psychometrician justified the
lack of a personal examination on the fact that several coworkers had claimed the guard was
too dangerous to interview. Was there an ethical violation in this case?
a. Since the psychometrician did not conduct a personal interview, the psychometrician’s
recommendation is not justifiable.
b. Reasonable efforts must have been undertaken to justify the impossibility of a personal
examination. Claims from coworkers that the guard was too dangerous to be interviewed
does not constitute “reasonable efforts” on the part of the psychometrician.
c. Since it was dangerous to conduct the interview, the recommendation is justifiable.
d. The psychometrician should have indicated in his recommendation that he will conduct
further psychological tests to validate his initial opinion.
**In some cases, a personal examination may not be possible. For example, an individual
involved in a child custody suit, a disability claim, or performance evaluation may refuse or,
because of relocation or other reasons, be unavailable for a personal examination. Ethical
standards require that psychologists make “reasonable efforts” to conduct a personal
examination. Efforts that would not be considered reasonable in the prevailing professional
judgment of psychologists engaged in similar activities would be considered a violation of
ethical standards.
48. A court appointed psychologist attempted to contact the biological parent of a child
currently in foster care to make recommendations regarding parental visitation. The parent
was no longer at the last known residence and had not left a forwarding address. In
testimony, the psychologist described the current mental health status of the child, the
child’s statements regarding the biological parent, and the observed relationship between
the child and foster parents. Aside from informing the court that reasonable efforts to
contact and interview the parent were unsuccessful, what else must the psychologist tell the
court?
a. that failure to interview the parent would limit the conclusions that can be drawn
regarding the parent’s psychological characteristics and parenting competence
b. that in order to compensate for the inability to locate the parent, he will provide the court
with the test scores of the child
c. that he will continue seeking ways to locate the parent.
**when despite reasonable efforts, a personal interview is not feasible, psychologists in their
written or oral opinions must document and explain the results of their efforts, clarify the
probable impact that the failure to personally examine an individual may have on the reliability
and validity of their opinions, and appropriately limit their conclusions or recommendations to
information they can personally verify.
49. The SRA Verbal was conducted to determine the mental ability of a group of job
applicants for a position that required proficiency in English. One of the applicants, a Chinese
national, scored poorly in the test, because of his weakness in English comprehension. Was
there an ethical violation on the part of the company for not using a culture-fair intelligence
test?
a. A culture-fair test should have been used to accurately measure the mental ability of all
applicants.
b. Since English proficiency was a specific requirement for success in the job, the intelligence
measure used was appropriate.
c. The psychometrician must explain in his report that the testtaker was Chinese (to explain
the low scores).
d. An interview must be conducted, at least for the Chinese applicant.
**Ethical standards permit psychologists to use tests in a language in which the testtaker may
not be proficient if effective job performance, school placement, or another goal of assessment
requires the ability to communicate in that language.
Core Elements of Informed Consent in Assessment (Fisher, 2017)
1. Nature of the Assessment
The nature of the assessment refers to the (a) general category of the assessment (e.g.,
personality, psychopathology, competency, parenting skills, neuropsychological abilities and
deficits, employment skills, developmental disabilities), (b) procedures and testing format (e.g.,
oral interviews, written self-report checklists, behavioral observation, skills assessment), (c)
duration of the assessment (e.g., multiple assessments).
2. Purpose of the Assessment
The purpose of the assessment refers to its potential use, for example, in employment
decisions, school placement, custody decisions, disability benefits, treatment decisions, and
plans for or evaluation of rehabilitation of criminal offenders.
3. Fees
Discussion of fees must include the cost of the assessment and payment schedule and should
be consistent with requirements of ethical standards (Fees and Financial Arrangements). When
applicable and to the extent feasible, psychologists must also discuss with relevant parties the
extent to which their services will be covered by the individual’s health plan, school district,
employer, or others.
4. Third Parties
Involvement of third parties refers to other individuals (e.g., legal guardians), HMOs, employers,
organizations, or legal or other governing authorities that have requested the assessment and
to whom the results of the assessments will be provided. Psychologists should be familiar with
ethical standards, state law, and federal regulations relevant to the appropriate role of third
parties and the release and documentation of release of such information to others.
Psychologists asked to evaluate a child by one parent should clarify custody issues to determine
whether another parent must give permission.
5. Confidentiality
Informed consent to assessments must provide a clear explanation of the extent and limits of
confidentiality, including (a) when the psychologist must comply with reporting requirements
such as mandated child abuse reporting or duty-to-warn laws and (b) in the case of
assessments involving minors, guardian access to records. Psychologists who administer
assessments over the Internet must inform clients/patients, research participants, or others
about the procedures that will be used to protect confidentiality and the threats to
confidentiality unique to this form of electronic transmission of information.
Dispensing with Informed Consent
 Informed consent may be waived when consent is implied because testing is conducted
as (a) a routine educational activity, such as end-of-term reading or math achievement
testing in elementary and high schools; (b) regular institutional activities, such as
student and teaching evaluations in academic institutions, or consumer satisfaction
questionnaires in hospitals or social service agencies; or (c) organizational activity, such
as when individuals voluntarily agree to pre-employment testing when applying for a
job.
 Ethical standards also permit psychologists to dispense with informed consent in
assessment when testing is mandated by law or other governing legal authority or when
the purpose of testing is to determine the capacity of the individual to give consent.
Ethical steps require that psychologists must inform persons with questionable capacity
to consent, or for whom testing is mandated by law or government regulations about
the nature and purpose of the proposed assessment services, using language that is
reasonably understandable to the person being assessed.
Mandated Assessments
50. Kiara, an assessment professional, was tasked to conduct a legally mandated

psychological assessment on a 21-year old defendant to determine his capacity to stand trial.
She was instructed to provide the examinee with a notification of purpose that explains the
nature and purpose of testing. Which of the following does not necessarily have to be
included in her notification of purpose?
a. the nature and purpose of testing
b. the actual tests to be administered
c. who requested for testing
d. who will receive copies of the report
 Psychologists conducting forensic, military, or other assessments that have been legally
mandated should provide the examinee with a notification of purpose that explains the
nature and purpose of testing, who has requested for testing, and who will receive
copies of the report.
 If the examinee is unwilling to proceed following a thorough explanation, the
assessment professional may attempt to conduct the examination, postpone the
examination, advise the examinee to contact his or her attorney, or notify the retaining
attorney of the examinee’s unwillingness to proceed.
Informed Consent for the Assessment of Malingering
51. An individual is undergoing evaluation for SSS benefits for work-related injuries. The
assessment professional suspects that the individual will “fake bad” and exaggerate the
results to prove that he is indeed neurologically compromised. What can be done to lessen
the possibility of malingering on the part of the examinee?
a. develop rapport and a trusting relationship at the start of the assessment
b. craft language and procedures that ensure examinees understand that honesty and effort
are required
c. in conducting informed consent, the assessment professional must not describe the
particularities of the test that will be used to measure exaggeration or other elements of
malingering
d. all of the above
e. only b and c
 Malingering refers to the intentional production of false symptoms to attain an

identifiable external benefit. Malingering can be manifested through intentional under-
or overperformance during psychological assessment. Accurate assessment of
malingering is ethically important because errors in diagnosis can impede justice when
undetected in forensic procedures or obscure adequate treatment for psychopathology.
 Current standards of practice support communicating to examinees prior to and during
informed consent or notification of purpose that measures will be used to assess the
examinee’s honesty and efforts to do well, without describing the particularities of the
tests that will be used to measure exaggeration or other elements of malingering.
Furthermore, psychologists should take extra steps to develop rapport and a trusting
relationship and to craft language and procedures that ensure examinees understand
that honesty and effort are required.
52. A manufacturing company sought the services of an industrial psychologist to conduct

assessment of its applicants being considered for managerial positions. After testing, one of
the applicants demanded that test data be released to him, saying that these technically
belonged to him, and so he had the right to be furnished a copy. Is the psychologist obliged to
comply with the applicant’s demand?
a. the psychologist is required by law to release test data to the applicant, since these are
data reflecting his own test performance
b. the psychologist is not required to release test data to the applicant because it is the
organization, not the applicant, who is the client
c. the psychologist is required to release the test data to the applicant only after releasing it
to the organization first
d. there are no clear guidelines on this matter; the psychologist may or may not release the
test data
Test Construction
 Psychologists who develop tests and other assessment techniques use appropriate
psychometric procedures and current scientific or professional knowledge for test
design, standardization, validation, reduction or elimination of bias, and
recommendations for use.
 Psychometric Procedures: Validity, reliability, and standardization
53. An industrial/organizational psychologist was hired by a firm to develop a selection

system for the promotion of line workers to supervisors. The psychologists used appropriate
sampling and validation procedures to construct a 20-item measure. When he presented the
final measure to the firm’s board of trustees, the president expressed concern that items on
attitudes toward the firm were not included. The psychologist agreed to add a few of these
items to the test and submitted the test for publication. Was there anything irregular in the
process undertaken by the psychologist?
a. since the psychologist has not been employed long enough in the company, he cannot be
considered “expert enough” to generate items on attitudes toward the firm.
b. further validation of the test is necessary if new items are added.
c. adding more items to the test would actually help increase its reliability using KR20.
d. there is nothing irregular in adding a few more items.
 Reduction or Elimination of Test Bias

o Test bias may refer to systematic errors in test scoring. The term is associated
more frequently with test fairness and refers to assessment norms applied to
persons from different populations that fail to establish measurement
equivalence – the degree to which reliability and validity coefficients associated
with a particular measure are similar across populations.
o Failure to determine such equivalence when developing a test can lead to over –
or underdiagnosis, faulty personnel recommendations, inappropriate
educational placements, and misinformation to the courts.
o Threats to fair and valid interpretations of test scores also arise from construct –
irrelevant content that differentially favors the experiences of individuals from
some subgroups over others, or a combination of test content and context that
promotes differential engagement, motivation, or discomfort. Group-specific
variance in test item response biases (e.g., social desirability), familiarity with
test response formats (e.g., multiple choice), and differences in opportunity to
learn (i.e., the extent to which examinees have been exposed to the content or
skills targeted by the test) can also contribute to test bias.
Recommendations for Use

 In their recommendations for use, test developers must provide adequate guidance to
allow users to administer tests in a standardized fashion and score and interpret
responses according to established criteria. Psychologists who develop tests or
assessment techniques must provide explanations of the meaning and intended
interpretation of reported scores by users, school personnel, organizational clients, the
courts, and others as appropriate.
54. A testing company sold a popular test that measures cognitive decline among newly
admitted nursing home patients. The test has been used for more than 15 years. During the
past five years, the testing company has been receiving complaints from test users that their
patients were being misdiagnosed. Meanwhile, recent research revealed that there is a
growing number of better educated elderly persons being admitted in nursing homes. The
testing company realized that the test norms established 15 years ago may no longer be
applicable to this cohort of elderly persons. What is the best approach to address this
concern?
a. cut scores in the test must be lowered to provide more accurate diagnosis of elderly
patients
b. it’s high time for the test to be revised
c. percentile equivalents must be increased since more educated elderly persons are getting
admitted to nursing homes
d. all of the above
e. b and c only
Test Revision
 Once tests have been developed, test developers are responsible for monitoring
conditions that might warrant test revision, modifications in recommendations for test
interpretation, or limitations on or withdrawal of test use.
 According to ethical codes, tests should be amended or revised when new research
data, significant changes in the domain represented, or newly recommended conditions
of test use may lower the validity of test score interpretations, and any substantial
modifications to the test must be included in the test documentation.
 The scope of test revision will depend on the conditions warranting change and may
include revisions in test stimuli, administration procedures, scales or units of measure,
norms or psychometric features, or applications.
 Psychologists are responsible to keep updated on society-wide improvements or shifts
in test performance, known as the Flynn effect.
Interpreting Assessment Results
 When interpreting assessment results, including automated interpretations,

psychologists take into account the purpose of the assessment as well as the various
test factors, test-taking abilities, and other characteristics of the person being assessed,
such as situational, personal, linguistic, and cultural differences, that might affect
psychologists’ judgments or reduce the accuracy of their interpretations. They indicate
any significant limitations in their interpretations.
The Purpose of the Test
55. A neuropsychologist was hired by an insurance claims company to evaluate whether an

individual insured by the company had sustained neurological damage following a car
accident, or whether the individual was feigning symptoms. Following administration of a
battery of tests, the psychologist determined that the individual’s test scores were at the
lower boundaries of normal functioning. From test results, he concluded that there was no
evidence to support an injury claim. What can you comment on the way the results were
interpreted?
a. the test scores clearly suggest evidence to support an injury claim.
b. information regarding the insured individual’s neurological functioning before the accident
should have been obtained and compared with current test results to justify insurance claims.
c. there are signs of pressure from the insurance claims company
d. all of the above are possible.
 The purpose of the assessment must be considered carefully in the interpretation of test
scores. At the same time, the assessment professional must resist allowing test
interpretations to be biased by pressure from school personnel, parents, employers,
attorneys, managed care companies, or others with a vested interest in a particular
interpretation.
 When offering recommendations, drawing conclusions, or making predictions from test
scores, psychologists should refer to test manuals prepared by the test developer as
well as relevant research to understand the extent to which tests, in isolation or within
the context of other tests, are directly related to the purpose of testing.
 Test Factors and Examinee Characteristics
56. An inpatient at a psychiatric hospital had a Monday appointment with a psychologist to

help determine whether he was well enough to go home for the weekend. When he arrived
for the appointment, he was obviously distressed and told the psychologist that the patient
he shared his room with threatened to kill him. The psychologist confirmed this story with
one of the hospital staff. Rather than reschedule the appointment, the psychologist decided
to conduct the required standardized assessment and clinical interview. In his report, the
psychologist noted that the patient had high scores on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory, indicating paranoid tendencies and high levels of stress that might be interpreted
as a lack of readiness to go home. Was the psychologist’s recommendation warranted in this
case?
a. the psychologist’s report should have included how the events surrounding the
roommate’s threats may have influenced MMPI results.
b. being a valid and reliable test, the MMPI results are sufficient for that recommendation.
c. further tests (using another instrument) must be used to validate the MMPI results.
d. the psychologist should verify with the roommate if such threats were really made.
57. An industrial-organizational psychologist was responsible for administering and
interpreting standardized group tests for employee promotion. During one testing session,
two employees got into a shouting match that threatened but did not become a physical
fight. What should the assessment psychologist include in his report?
a. that the test results are invalidated and retaking of the test should be scheduled
b. that there had been a disturbance that could have had a detrimental effect on the
examinees’ performance
c. that the cutoff score should be lowered to reflect possible lower performance due to the
incident
d. all of the above must be included
o With the exception of perhaps some employment-related screenings,

interpretations should never be based solely on test scores.
o Assessment professionals must consider factors associated with test context, the
examinee’s test-taking abilities, and other characteristics that may affect or
inappropriately bias interpretations.
o When relevant, psychologists should take into account observations of test-
taking styles, fatigue, perceptual and motor impairments, illness, limited fluency
in the language of the test, or lack of cultural familiarity with the test items that
would introduce construct-irrelevant variability into a test score.
o In addition to familiarity with the test itself, specialized knowledge is necessary
to formulate professional judgments about the meaning of test scores as they
relate to the individual examinee.
o Test takers’ scores should not be interpreted in isolation from other information
about the characteristics of the person being assessed. Such information may be
gained from interviews, additional testing, or collateral information from
teachers, employers, supervisors, parents, or school and employment records.
Such information may lead to alternative explanations for examinees’ test
performance.
 Limitations
o Psychologists must indicate any significant limitations of their interpretations. In

general, interpretive remarks that are not supported by validity and reliability
information should be presented as hypotheses. When test batteries are used,
interpretations of patterns of relationships among different test scores should be
based on identifiable evidence. If none is available, this fact must be stated in
the report.
o Interpretations of test results often include recommendations for placement,
treatment, employment, or legal status based on validity evidence and
professional experience.
o Psychologists should refrain from implying that empirical relationships exist
between test results and recommendations when they do not, as well as
distinguish between recommendations based on empirical evidence and those
based on professional judgment.
 Automated Interpretations
o Computer-generated interpretations are based on accumulated empirical data

and expert judgment but cannot take into account the special characteristics of
the examinee. Automated reports are not a substitute for the clinical judgment
of a psychologist who has worked directly with the examinee or for the
integration of other information, including other test results, behavioral
observation, or interviews.
o Psychologists should use interpretations provided by automated and other types
of services with caution and indicate their relative limitations.
Assessment by Unqualified Persons
 Psychologists do not promote the use of psychological assessment techniques by

unqualified persons, except when such is conducted for training purposes with
appropriate supervision.
58. A group of consulting psychologists was hired to conduct psychological assessments of

applicants for promotion to managerial positions in a large communications industry. After a
month, the psychologists realized that they had not negotiated a contractual fee large
enough to employ the number of advanced-degree psychologists required to conduct all of
the assessments. To stay within budget, they set up an internship program for business
school seniors and trained them to administer tests. Did the psychologists go beyond what is
ethically allowed?
a. the conduct of assessment by unqualified persons is never allowed.
b. business school students with additional units in psychology should have been trained to
administer.
c. formal graduate-level education in psychology is the basic requirement to undergo training
in test administration to candidates for promotion.
d. both b and c.
 Ethical standards prohibit psychologists from promoting the use of psychological

assessment techniques by unqualified persons. For example, psychologists should not
employ persons who have not received formal graduate-level training in psychological
assessment to administer, score, or interpret psychological tests that will be used to
determine an individual’s educational placement, psychological characteristics for
employment or promotion, competence to stand trial, parenting skills relevant to child
custody, mental health status or diagnosis, or treatment plan.
 Psychological Assessments Conducted by Trainees
o Ethical standards do not prohibit psychologists from supervising trainees in the

administration, scoring, and interpretation of tests. However (a) the trainees
must be qualified on the basis of their enrollment in a graduate or postdoctoral
psychology program; and (b) supervision must be appropriate to their level of
training.
Obsolete Tests and Outdated Test Results
 Psychologists do not base their assessment or intervention decisions or

recommendations on data or test results that are outdated for the current purpose.
o Previous scores derived from an up-to-date version of a test may be obsolete if
individuals might be expected to score differently or require a different test
based on (a) the amount of time between the previous administration and the
current need for assessment; (b) maturational and other developmental
changes; (c) educational advancement; (d) job training or employment
experiences; (e) change in health status; (f) new symptomatology; (g) change in
work or family status; or (h) an accident or traumatic experience.
o In some instances, it may be appropriate to use outdated test scores as a basis of
comparison with new test results to evaluate the long-term effectiveness of an
educational program or intervention or to help identify cognitive decline or a
sudden change in mental health or adaptive functioning relevant to treatment,
placement in an appropriate educational or health care environment, disability
claims, competency hearings, or custody suits.
o When outdated data or results are used, psychologists’ reports and
recommendations should include explanations for their use and their limitations.
59. A neuropsychologist was asked to evaluate cognitive and personality factors that might
be responsible for a sudden change in adaptive functioning of an 80-year old nursing home
resident. The resident had been given a battery of intelligence and personality tests five years
prior to admission to the nursing home. Advances in geropsychology in the past five years
had resulted in more developmentally appropriate and sensitive assessment instruments for
this age group. The psychologist conducted a new evaluation using the more valid
instruments. How should the report be prepared?
a. there should be a comparison of the results of the assessment with the results of the
earlier evaluation
b. there should be a discussion of the limitations of comparing current performance with the
older test results
c. the psychologist should prepare two separate reports for the two sets of test batteries.
d. all of the above
e. a and b only
 Test developers often construct new versions of a test to reflect significant (a) advances
in the theoretical constructs underlying the psychological characteristic assessed; (b)
transformations in cultural, educational, linguistic, or societal influences that challenge
the extent to which current test items validly reflect content domains; or (c) changes in
the demographic characteristics of the population to be tested affecting the
interpretations that can be drawn from standardized scores. Ethical standards prohibit
the use of outdated versions of tests for assessment or intervention decisions when
interpretations drawn from the test are of questionable validity or otherwise not useful
for the purpose of testing.
60. A psychologist who was asked to evaluate an employee’s claim that an industrial accident
was responsible for a current disabling psychological disorder learned that the employee had
been administered a battery of cognitive and personality tests several years earlier during
preemployment screening. The psychologist decided it would be useful and appropriate to
compare the complainant’s current performance with his performance on test scores
obtained prior to the accident. One of the previous scores was derived from an older version
of a test that had been updated and revised recently. Which version of the test should be
administered to the employee to be used as basis for comparing past and present
performance?
a. the older version of the test should be administered to determine the employee’s current
performance, since this would better determine whether functioning had been affected by
the accident
b. the updated and revised version should be used because the previous version is already
considered obsolete
c. both versions are equally valid, so any of the two versions may be used
d. previous results are considered outdated; test results from the recently updated version
should be solely used to determine the current condition of the employee
 Ethical standards do permit psychologists to use obsolete versions of a test when there
is a valid purpose for doing so. In most cases, the purpose will be to compare past and
current test performance.
 When use of an obsolete test is appropriate to the purpose of assessment, psychologists
must clarify to schools, courts, or others that will use the test results which version was
selected, and the test norms used to interpret the results.
61. A test publisher recently released a revised version of a measure of personality, and
encouraged test users to adopt this new version, claiming that it has significant
improvements in psychometric properties, which rendered the earlier version obsolete. How
should test users make decisions regarding the acquisition of revised tests?
a. the newly revised version should be adopted to benefit from its improved psychometric
properties.
b. the use of the newly revised version will be more appropriate given the fast changing
attributes it purports to measure.
c. the newly revised version can only be used if reliability and validity improved by at least
25% of the previous indices.
d. test users must check first whether independent research on the new or revised measure
supports its use for a particular purpose or patient population.
Test Scoring and Interpretation Services
 Psychologists who offer assessment or scoring services to other professionals accurately

describe the purpose, norms, validity, reliability, and applications of the procedures and
any special qualifications applicable to their use.
o This ethical standard applies to psychologists who develop or sell computerized,
automated, web-linked, or other test-scoring and interpretation service to other
professionals.
o When test interpretations (in addition to scores) will be provided to users of the
services, psychologists providing the services must document the sources,
theoretical rationale, and psychometric evidence for the validity and reliability of
the particular interpretation method employed.
o Descriptions of the application of test-scoring and interpretation procedures
must include a discussion of its limitations.
62. A consultancy firm was contracted by a company who needed test scoring and
interpretation services as part of its selection process. What must the consultancy firm
include in describing the application of test scoring and interpretation procedures?
a. that computer-generated or automated systems may not be able to take into account
specific features of the examinee that are relevant to test interpretation.
b. that interpretations generated by computers or automated systems are not as valid as
those for paper and pencil tests.
c. that competence in advanced computer softwares is needed to make sense of test scoring
and interpretation processes.
d. all of the above must be included.
o Computer-generated or automated systems may not be able to take into

account specific features of the examinee that are relevant to test
interpretation, such as medical history, gender, age, ethnicity, employment
history, education, or competence in the language of the test; motor problems
that might interfere with test-taking; current life stressors; or special conditions
of the testing environment.
 Psychologists retain responsibility for the appropriate application, interpretation, and

use of assessment instruments, whether they score and interpret such tests themselves
or use automated or other services.
Explaining Assessment Results
63. Explaining assessment results to the examinee may not be undertaken in which of the
following situations?
a. when the assessment was ordered by a judicial referral
b. when the assessment is part of employment testing
c. when testing is made to determine security clearances for government work
d. all of the above are exceptions
 Regardless of whether the scoring and interpretation are done by psychologists, by

employees or assistants, or by automated or other outside services, psychologists take
reasonable steps to ensure that explanations of results are given to the individual or
designated representative (by the psychologist or his representative) unless the nature
of the relationship precludes provision of an explanation of results (such as in some
organizational consulting, preemployment or security screenings, and forensic
evaluations), and this fact has been clearly explained to the person being assessed in
advance.
o An appropriate explanation “should describe in simple language what the test
covers, what scores mean, the precision of the scores, common
misinterpretations of the test scores, and how scores will be used.”
 Ethical standards permit exceptions to explaining test results when it is prevented by

the psychologist-examinee relationship, such as when an organization or legal counsel
has retained the psychologist’s services or assessment has been ordered by a judicial
referral.
Answers to Embedded Questions in the Module
1. An examiner is about to administer the Wechsler Intelligence Test for Children - Revised
(WISC-R) to a nine-year old child. However, the child appears distracted and not ready, so the
examiner decides to engage the child in play, until the child has become comfortable with the
examiner and the test environment. Is this practice acceptable in assessment?
a. Engaging the child in play is unrelated to the measurement of intelligence, so this is not an
acceptable practice.
b. This practice is acceptable, as long as the parents or guardians of the child had been
informed and their permission secured.
c. It is best for the examiner to reschedule the assessment if the child is not ready.
d. The practice is acceptable as long as it does not violate any rules of the test administration
instructions.
2. A student with a visual impairment is scheduled to be given a written, multiple-choice test.

Which of the following is the most appropriate action to take for this assessment to be
undertaken?
a. translate the test into Braille and administer it in that form
b. administer the test by means of an audiotape
c. allow a third party to dictate the test items to the test taker, and the test taker’s responses
are recorded by this third party as well
d. consider the capabilities of the assessee and the assessor before administering the test
3. An examinee from a particular cultural minority was advised to take a personality test in
English. Since the examinee has finished Grade 12 in their hometown, and the personality test
is suited for individuals with fifth grade reading level, the examiner proceeded with the
assessment. How should the results be interpreted?
a. test results must be interpreted with caution, since these may reflect not only the
examinee’s personality, but the extent to which he understands English
b. as long as the examiner has followed the scoring and interpretation guidelines, results are
acceptable
c. the examiner should interview the test taker after the test to verify understanding of the
items before making an interpretation
d. personality assessment is not affected by the testtaker’s cultural background
4. Which statement best describes the ethical code’s position on computerized interpretations
of standardized assessment instruments?
a. they may be used and are advised when they allow the clinician to provide services to a great
number of patients in need.
b. they are legitimate when also accompanied by a personal evaluation.
c. they are not permitted under any circumstances.
d. they are permitted if the supervising agency or individual authorizes their use
5. Which among the following can provide competent informed consent?
a. a person suffering from dementia
b. a person suffering from major depression
c. a person suffering from schizophrenia
d. a person diagnosed with bipolar disorder
6. An experimenter is about to administer an instrument that is necessary for the measurement

of the main variable in his study. He was worried, though, that the informed consent he was
about to secure from his participants may provide preliminary information that may affect the
respondents’ answers. Thus, he did not fully disclose the objectives of the study. Was there an
ethical violation committed by the researcher?
a. Yes, it was clearly a violation of the testtaker’s right to informed consent. Deception is never
acceptable under any circumstances.
b. The experimenter should have written a different set of objectives to protect the validity of
his findings. Hence, deception is allowable on a case-to-case basis.
c. There are no clear guidelines on this issue.
d. Providing minimum amount of information before testing is all right, provided that full
disclosure and debriefing is done after testing.
7. Which of the following must NOT be included in a report by the examiner as he informs the
testtaker of the test findings?
a. the purpose of the test
b. the raw score(s) obtained by the test taker
c. the meaning of the score relative to other test takers
d. the possible limitations and margins of error of the test
8. In a court proceeding, a psychologist decides to disclose information about his client because
he believes doing so would lessen the expected penalties to be imposed against his client. In
this case, did the psychologist violate his client’s right to privacy?
a. without a court order, the psychologist still has a duty to protect his client’s welfare, even if
this means disclosing privileged information
b. the psychologist can only disclose information to third parties if the competent client gave
his prior consent
c. disclosing information about the client is a violation of the client’s right to privacy
d. privilege in the psychologist-client relationship belongs to the psychologist
9. Carlo, a therapy patient, revealed to his psychologist his intention to kill “an unnamed but
readily identifiable girl” two months before the murder. Since the girl was not specifically
mentioned by Carlo, the therapist decided that he was not legally obligated to inform the girl
about his client’s plan. Is the therapist liable for legal sanctions?
a. the therapist acted appropriately since the information provided was privileged and is
deemed confidential
b. since the victim was not explicitly named by Carlo, the therapist has no obligation to inform
the girl
c. the therapist had the duty to warn the girl of the impending peril
d. the therapist must not disclose the information; instead, he should convince his client to
confess
10. A supervisor in a psychotherapy clinic needed to assess the performance of her supervisees.
She completed a rating scale in evaluating her staff. It was found later that all her supervisees
scored on the upper end of the rating scale, suggesting the presence of leniency error. Which of
the following can be recommended to address the rating error?
a. instead of rating, the supervisor must use ranking to measure individuals against one another
instead of against an absolute scale.
b. the supervisor must be provided with a list of competencies to be evaluated, as well as how
and why such evaluations for competency should be conducted.
c. the supervisor must undergo training to lessen/avoid rating errors.
d. all of the above are correct.
11. A supervisor is scheduled to conduct her regular performance evaluation of her staff. One of
her female clerks, a Chinese national, received high ratings because of the supervisor’s belief
that females are more careful with details, more orderly, and dependable when it comes to
clerical functions. This phenomenon is a clear example of a:
a. leniency/generosity error
b. halo effect
c. distribution error
12. An advertisement was posted online on the need for 50 production operators, and 200
people applied for the opening. For some unknown reason, 100 of the applicants were right
handed and the remaining 100 were left handed. Each of the 200 applicants took the
Production Operator Skills Test (POST). After testing, 48 left-handed and 2 right-handed
applicants were hired. This hypothetical example illustrates which of the following?
a. test bias
b. lack of test fairness
c. adverse impact
d. both a and b are correct
13. A psychologist administered the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory – 2 (MMPI-2)

to a client referred by the guidance counselor for a possible case of depression. Results showed
highly elevated T-scores in depression. Is this finding enough to diagnose the presence of
depression?
a. since the MMPI-2 is a valid and reliable test, the finding is deemed valid, and interventions
must be recommended to address the client’s condition.
b. since the MMPI-2 has superior validity scales that detect faking and social desirability errors,
test results are deemed valid, and interventions must be recommended to address the client’s
condition.
c. both a and b are correct.
d. data from other sources must be obtained to validate the findings.
slowly or may profit from early intervention of some sort. What is the most appropriate
procedure to establish the reliability coefficient for this test?
a. Test-Retest Reliability
b. Inter-Rater Reliability
c. KR20
d. Cronbach alpha
slowly or may profit from early intervention of some sort. Infants’ scores were obtained using
behavioral observations. To determine test reliability, the test developer decided to use test-
retest reliability. Which among the following intervals must be chosen between test and retest?
a. 21 days
b. 14 days
c. 7 days
d. 4 days
16. A company HR manager uses a particular screening test for hiring applicants. The company’s
board of directors requested him to determine the reliability of their screening test. To do this,
he gathered the test scores of all the hired applicants and proceeded with reliability analysis.
Was there anything wrong with his methodology?
a. He should have gathered test scores from job applicants, instead of those who were hired.
b. He should have obtained only a sample of the scores of the hired employees for purposes of
practicality.
c. Whether he uses the scores of job applicants or hired employees would not affect reliability.
d. It is best to just buy a reliable test to avoid all these problems altogether.
17. A test developer is contemplating on undertaking a reliability analysis of a test that he has
recently constructed. Items in his new test had a uniform difficulty level, but with a time limit.
Which among the following is the most appropriate measure of reliability for a speed test?
a. Cronbach’s alpha
b. Test-retest reliability
c. KR 20
d. Interrater reliability
18. Strictly speaking, intelligence, aptitude, and personality test scores belong to what scale of
measurement?
a. nominal
b. ordinal
c. interval
d. ratio
19. A student scores high on a graduate school admission test and is admitted to graduate
school, largely on the basis of his test score. The student subsequently found it difficult to
handle the rigid requirements of graduate studies, particularly research and mastery of
advanced theories and concepts. The type of test outcome described in this situation is known
as:
a. false positive
b. false negative
c. true negative
d. true positive
20. Caring and accommodation for patients’ needs are two attributes said to be necessary
among nurses. These are also qualities valued in Filipino culture, which explains why Filipino
nurses are so highly sought after in hospitals abroad. A recent study using a large sample
revealed that among Filipino nurses, 300 out of 400 (or a proportion of .75) were found to
possess sten scores of 8 to 10 in Factor A of the 16PF, which measured warmth, a trait that
predisposes an individual to be caring and attentive to others. Using the results of this study,
.75 corresponds to which of the following?
a. hit rate
b. success rate
c. miss rate
d. base rate
21. One research study reported that the validity of a paper and pencil test of mental ability in
predicting success at work was .35, but when combined with an interview, the validity of the
two measures combined was .51. This finding leads to the conclusion that the interview added
to the validity of the paper and pencil test. This illustrates the concept of ___.
a. generalized validity
b. convergent validity
c. enhanced validity
d. incremental validity
particular job related skills. With its 18 subtests, the FIT is widely popular as an instrument for
selection, with high reliability and predictive validity. But since the test is rather old (first
useful as a selection tool. Which among the following provides an estimate of the percentage of
future employees who will be successful on the job with the use of the FIT as an aptitude
measure?
c. Lawshe Tables
23. Which among the following is NOT among the pieces of information needed for using the
Taylor-Russell tables?
a. validity coefficient
b. selection ratio
c. average tenure
d. base rate
24. Even though a test is both reliable and valid, it is not necessarily useful. Which among the
following were created to determine whether a particular applicant will be successful?
c. Lawshe Tables
particular job related skills. With its 18 subtests, the FIT is widely popular as an instrument for
selection, with high reliability and predictive validity. But since the test is rather old (first
useful as a selection tool. One of the options explored was to determine whether using an
alternative aptitude test for employee selection would result to more savings, compared with
the use of the FIT. Which among the following helps to determine the amount of money that
the company would save if it used a particular test to select employees?
c. Lawshe Tables
26. For five years, the Guilford Zimmermann Temperament Survey (GZTS) was the personality
inventory used by Tiger Industries in generating personality profiles of its applicants. In 2019,
the psychometrician (Sisa Rondina) recommended the use of a more recently revised and
normed personality measure – the 16PF to replace the GZTS, which was found to be too dated
and lacking updated local norms. Rondina argued that using the 16PF would allow them to
identify a wider variety of traits, compared to those measured by GZTS, which would lead to
better selection decisions. Which of the following must have been undertaken by Rondina,
which led to the decision to replace GZTS with the 16PF?
a. validity analysis
b. discriminant analysis
c. utility analysis
d. cost-benefit analysis
27. The company’s senior psychometrician was in the final phase of developing a test that
would be recommended for use in their employee selection program. The items in the test’s
final version have been assembled, and his next task was to determine the cut score. To achieve
this, he constituted a panel of subject matter experts who were given a copy of the test. They
were then asked to provide estimates on the probability that a minimally qualified performer
would be able to answer each item correctly. The process ended with averaging the judgments
of the the experts. The psychometrician performed which of the following methods for setting
cut scores?
a. Known Groups Method
b. Angoff Method
c. Averaging Method
d. Discriminant Analysis
28. Which of the following is the biggest disadvantage of the Angoff Method of determining cut
scores?
a. the method is very complicated
b. it is very hard to gather subject matter experts
c. there is often low inter-rater reliability
d. it suffers from criterion contamination
29. Which of the following methods for setting cut scores is anchored on the Classical Test
Theory (CTT)?
a. Angoff Method
b. Known Group Method
c. Method of Contrasting Groups
d. All of the above
30. Which of the following may be a challenge to the test developer in using the Angoff method
of setting cut scores?
a. there is a lot of debate as to determining the test-taking ability of the minimally qualified
performer
b. experts may disagree on assessing the item’s difficulty level
c. both a and b
d. the accuracy and efficiency of the Angoff method has been well-established already
31. A test developer is intent on creating a test that would yield normally distributed
measurements. Which among the following must be cone so that the resulting distribution will
approximate the normal curve?
a. create a test with as many items as possible
b. create a test with a lower discriminability index
c. create a test with more difficult items
d. create a test with a wide range of difficulty levels
32. A researcher is interested to determine the extent to which job interviews predicted job
success. He obtained his data from a sample of employees with above average performance
whose job interview ratings were sourced from the HR office. Using job interview ratings as the
predictor, he formulated a regression equation which he used to generate predicted values of
“job success.” The extent to which predicted values differed from actual levels of job success is
known statistically as the
a. standard error of measurement
b. standard error of estimate
c. standard error of the mean
d. standard error of the difference
33. To get respondents for her study, a researcher generated her sample of respondents
considering the existing subgroups of the population. This sampling method is more commonly
known as
a. subgroup sampling
b. selective sampling
c. stratified sampling
d. hierarchical sampling
34. Ethical principles require that assessment professionals (psychometricians and

psychologists) must be able to identify what is in the best interests of those with whom they
work, when a situation threatens the welfare of individuals, and the competencies required to
achieve the greatest good and avoid or minimize harm. This also requires corresponding virtues
such as being compassionate, humane, and prudent. Which ethical principle(s) are
encompassed in these responsibilities?
a. beneficence and responsibility
b. beneficence and nonmaleficence
c. beneficence
d. nonmaleficence
35. What statement best describes the permissibility of training another individual to
administer and write reports using WAIS-III, if that person has undergraduate training in
psychology?
a. It is permissible if the psychologist reads and signs the reports.
b. It is permissible if that person being trained reviews the administration and recent literature
regarding WAIS III.
c. It is not permissible since the person does not have adequate training.
d. It is not permissible if the psychologist signs the reports.
36. If a client asks to see the results of his or her personality and intelligence tests, you should
a. prohibit the client from seeing the results of his or her tests.
b. permit the client to see the results if you believe he or she is stable and intelligent enough to
understand them.
c. provide the client with a clear and understandable oral and written report.
d. allow the client to review the test protocols and the report.
37. A manufacturing company hires a psychologist to screen job applicants using standardized
cognitive ability tests. The company then asks the psychologist to train their human resources
staff to administer and score the tests. The psychologist should:
A. agree to do so if the psychologist is able to provide adequate training to the staff
B. agree to do so if the psychologist is able to supervise the human resources staff
C. refuse to do so because cognitive ability tests are not valid predictors of job performance
D. refuse to do so because the human resources staff lacks the appropriate qualifications
38. A college psychology instructor gives a battery of psychological tests to some of his students
who volunteered to be participants. Based on these tests, he finds that one of the participants
is at risk for emotional disturbance. He talks to this student and suggests counseling. At the
same time, he informs the director of the college counseling office who is a friend of his.
According to APA ethical principles, the professor acted
A. unethically, because he revealed this information to a third party.
B. ethically, because he acted in accord with the student's welfare.
C. ethically, because he had responsibilities to the college as well as to the student.
D. unethically, because he isn't a clinician.
A. unethically, because he revealed this information to a third party. Suggesting counseling to

the student is ethical and appropriate. However, barring an emergency situation characterized
by imminent danger, informing a third party is unethical.
39. A psychometrician is undertaking a research program in an elementary school on the effect

of a new counseling program on enhancing children's self-esteem. The psychometrician has
received permission from the school's principal, the teachers, and from the parents of each
student. However, when she explained the program to the children, some of them objected to
being part of the study. The psychometrician should
A. not use these children in her study.
B. call the parents of these children and ask them to try to convince the children to participate.
C. use the children in her study because she has all necessary legal consents.
D. re-design the study to eliminate the objection the children have to participating.
A. not use these children in her study. The best idea is to just leave out these children.
Participants have the right to decline to participate in research, even if they are children. It
wouldn't be practical or prudent to ask her to re-design the whole experiment because a handful
of children object to being participants. Thus, the best answer is to just do the study without
using the children who object to participating.
40. You have a client who does not want their records released under any circumstances. The
attorney has subpoenaed you. Your best course of action is to:
A. Respond in-person, but don't take the records
B. Take the records, but don't turn them over
C. Ignore the entire matter
D. Destroy the records
B. Take the records, but don't turn them over You should respond to the subpoena by asserting
the psychotherapist-client privilege on the client's behalf. If you cannot be released from the
subpoena, you should appear at the legal proceeding with the documents requested, however,
you should not actually release any information in the records, unless the judge orders you to do
so. Keep in mind that a subpoena duces tecum requires a person to appear at a designated time
and place with a copy of the records. It does not necessarily require the person to release those
records.
41. A 16-year-old girl tells her therapist that she wants to kill herself and that she's been
thinking of using her mother's prescription pain pills to overdose. The therapist then tells her
that he will have to tell her parents about her suicide risk. The girl becomes enraged and says
that she would not have disclosed the information if she knew that the therapist would tell her
parents. The therapist should:
A. agree not to tell the parents if the girl agrees to a no-harm contract
B. agree not to tell the parents, but tell them without the girl's knowledge
C. tell the parents and refer the girl to another therapist because she will probably not be able
to trust the therapist again
D. tell the parents and apologize to the girl for having to do so
D. tell the parents and apologize to the girl for having to do so According to both ethics and law,
a psychologist may disclose confidential information without the client's consent to protect the
client from harm. This applies to minors and adults alike. In this case, it would most likely be
appropriate to inform the girl's parents about her suicide risk. The reasons for this should be
explained to the girl and the therapist should apologize for the breach of confidentiality. Given
the apparent level of risk involved, it would probably not be sufficient to rely on a no-harm
contract (A). It would certainly be inappropriate and countertherapeutic to lie to the client (B).
And it may not be necessary to refer the client (C). If handled empathically, it is likely that the
girl will come to understand the therapist's reasons for disclosing to the parents and may come
to appreciate that her safety was his overriding concern.
42. Sisi Laure, a psychology intern, administers psychological tests to the clients of a community
mental health clinic, but her supervisor always scores the tests and interprets their results.
When preparing the psychological report for these clients, the supervisor does not indicate that
the intern administered the tests. This is:
A. Ethical because the supervisor scored and interpreted the tests.
B. Ethical because the supervisor is responsible for the accuracy of the psychological report.
C. Unethical because an intern should not be administering psychological tests.
D. Unethical because the intern should be listed as the examiner in the report.
D. Unethical because the intern should be listed as the examiner in the report. (Correct) This
response is most consistent with ethical guidelines. For example, Standard 5.01(b) of the APA’s
Ethics Code prohibits psychologists from making misleading statements and Standard 6.06
requires psychologists to provide accurate information to payors and funding sources. It is also
consistent with Principles III.1 and 5 of the Canadian Code of Ethics. This issue is not directly
addressed by ethical guidelines, so the best approach when choosing the answer would have
been to identify the one that is most consistent with the “spirit” of the guidelines.
43. When evaluating a defendant’s competence to stand trial, the focus of the evaluation is on
the defendant’s:
A. ability to distinguish right from wrong.
B. ability to comprehend the charges against him/her.
C. mental state at the time he/she committed the crime.
D. DSM-IV diagnosis.
B. ability to comprehend the charges against him/her - (CORRECT) An evaluation for

competence to stand trial focuses on the defendant’s ability to comprehend the charges against
him/her, to understand the trial process, to cooperate with his/her attorney, etc. The focus of an
evaluation to determine a defendant’s competence to stand trial focuses on his/her current
psycho-legal abilities and impairments.
44. When conducting research with human participants, a psychologist should be aware that:
especially when the study has involved deception.
b. participants must be debriefed after their participation in the study only if the psychologist
believes that not doing so will result in harm to them.
c. participants must be debriefed after their participation only if the study places them at “high
risk.”
d. debriefing of research participants is at the discretion of the psychologist.
especially when the study has involved deception. (CORRECT) Standard 8.08 of the Ethics Code
requires psychologists to inform participants promptly following their participation in the study
about its nature, results, and conclusions; and Principle III.26 of the Canadian Code of Ethics
requires psychologists to debrief participants as soon as possible after their involvement in a
study when there has been incomplete disclosure about the study’s purpose. Consequently, of
the answers given, this one is most consistent with ethical guidelines. Debriefing of research
participants is addressed in Standard 8.08 of the APA’s Ethic Code and Principles II.44 and III.26
of the Canadian Code of Ethics.
45. A child has been recommended for placement in a special education program on the basis
of the scores he obtained in a valid, reliable, and standardized intelligence test. What can you
comment on this?
a. test scores should not be the sole indicators for diagnostic or special program placement,
but instead use multiple sources of information
b. since the child’s schooling is the primary concern in this situation, an achievement test must
have been administered instead of an intelligence test.
c. a second measure of intelligence must be administered in addition to the test already taken
to validate the findings
d. there is nothing questionable with the recommendation
**Psychologists should not use test scores as the sole indicators for diagnostic or special
program placement, but instead use multiple sources of information and, when appropriate,
provide alternative explanations for test performance.
46. An assessment professional contracted by an insurance company to evaluate an individual’s

mental health as part of a current disability claim. To do this, she obtained job performance
evaluations written by the insured’s immediate supervisors and diagnostic information
collected by a psychologist prior to the incident cited in the claim. From this set of information,
she gave her professional opinion. Was there anything wrong in the process undertaken in this
situation?
a. There was sufficient basis for giving that opinion since multiple sources of information were
used.
b. The assessment professional should not have given an opinion on the insured’s mental
health status since she was not physically present during the assessment.
c. The assessment professional should have inquired about the validity and reliability of the
instruments used by the psychologist who conducted the assessment.
d. The assessment professional should not have given an opinion because she did not
personally conduct the assessment.
**Psychologists provide opinions of the psychological characteristics of individuals only after

they have conducted an examination of the individual adequate to support their statement or
conclusions.
47. A psychometrician was contracted by a prison facility to evaluate the job potential of guards
hired for a probationary period. Without conducting an individual interview, the
psychometrician wrote a report concluding that the emotional instability of one job candidate
made him ineligible for full-time employment. The psychometrician justified the lack of a
personal examination on the fact that several coworkers had claimed the guard was too
dangerous to interview. Was there an ethical violation in this case?
a. Since the psychometrician did not conduct a personal interview, the psychometrician’s
recommendation is not justifiable.
b. Reasonable efforts must have been undertaken to justify the impossibility of a personal
examination. Claims from coworkers that the guard was too dangerous to be interviewed
does not constitute “reasonable efforts” on the part of the psychometrician.
c. Since it was dangerous to conduct the interview, the recommendation is justifiable.
d. The psychometrician should have indicated in his recommendation that he will conduct
further psychological tests to validate his initial opinion.
**In some cases, a personal examination may not be possible. For example, an individual
involved in a child custody suit, a disability claim, or performance evaluation may refuse or,
because of relocation or other reasons, be unavailable for a personal examination. Ethical
standards require that psychologists make “reasonable efforts” to conduct a personal
examination. Efforts that would not be considered reasonable in the prevailing professional
judgment of psychologists engaged in similar activities would be considered a violation of
ethical standards.
48. A court appointed psychologist attempted to contact the biological parent of a child
currently in foster care to make recommendations regarding parental visitation. The parent was
no longer at the last known residence and had not left a forwarding address. In testimony, the
psychologist described the current mental health status of the child, the child’s statements
regarding the biological parent, and the observed relationship between the child and foster
parents. Aside from informing the court that reasonable efforts to contact and interview the
parent were unsuccessful, what else must the psychologist tell the court?
a. that failure to interview the parent would limit the conclusions that can be drawn
regarding the parent’s psychological characteristics and parenting competence
b. that in order to compensate for the inability to locate the parent, he will provide the court
with the test scores of the child
c. that he will continue seeking ways to locate the parent.
**when despite reasonable efforts, a personal interview is not feasible, psychologists in their
written or oral opinions must document and explain the results of their efforts, clarify the
probable impact that the failure to personally examine an individual may have on the reliability
and validity of their opinions, and appropriately limit their conclusions or recommendations to
information they can personally verify.
49. The SRA Verbal was conducted to determine the mental ability of a group of job applicants
for a position that required proficiency in English. One of the applicants, a Chinese national,
scored poorly in the test, because of his weakness in English comprehension. Was there an
ethical violation on the part of the company for not using a culture-fair intelligence test?
a. A culture-fair test should have been used to accurately measure the mental ability of all
applicants.
b. Since English proficiency was a specific requirement for success in the job, the intelligence
measure used was appropriate.
c. The psychometrician must explain in his report that the testtaker was Chinese (to explain the
low scores).
d. An interview must be conducted, at least for the Chinese applicant.
**Ethical standards permit psychologists to use tests in a language in which the testtaker may
not be proficient if effective job performance, school placement, or another goal of assessment
requires the ability to communicate in that language.
50. Kiara, an assessment professional, was tasked to conduct a legally mandated psychological
assessment on a 21-year old defendant to determine his capacity to stand trial. She was
instructed to provide the examinee with a notification of purpose that explains the nature and
purpose of testing. Which of the following does not necessarily have to be included in her
notification of purpose?
a. the nature and purpose of testing
b. the actual tests to be administered
c. who requested for testing
d. who will receive copies of the report
51. An individual is undergoing evaluation for SSS benefits for work-related injuries. The
assessment professional suspects that the individual will “fake bad” and exaggerate the results
to prove that he is indeed neurologically compromised. What can be done to lessen the
possibility of malingering on the part of the examinee?
a. develop rapport and a trusting relationship at the start of the assessment
b. craft language and procedures that ensure examinees understand that honesty and effort
are required
c. in conducting informed consent, the assessment professional must not describe the
particularities of the test that will be used to measure exaggeration or other elements of
malingering
d. all of the above
e. only b and c
52. A manufacturing company sought the services of an industrial psychologist to conduct

assessment of its applicants being considered for managerial positions. After testing, one of the
applicants demanded that test data be released to him, saying that these technically belonged
to him, and so he had the right to be furnished a copy. Is the psychologist obliged to comply
with the applicant’s demand?
a. the psychologist is required by law to release test data to the applicant, since these are data
reflecting his own test performance
b. the psychologist is not required to release test data to the applicant because it is the
organization, not the applicant, who is the client
c. the psychologist is required to release the test data to the applicant only after releasing it to
the organization first
d. there are no clear guidelines on this matter; the psychologist may or may not release the test
data
53. An industrial/organizational psychologist was hired by a firm to develop a selection system

for the promotion of line workers to supervisors. The psychologists used appropriate sampling
and validation procedures to construct a 20-item measure. When he presented the final
measure to the firm’s board of trustees, the president expressed concern that items on
attitudes toward the firm were not included. The psychologist agreed to add a few of these
items to the test and submitted the test for publication. Was there anything irregular in the
process undertaken by the psychologist?
a. since the psychologist has not been employed long enough in the company, he cannot be
considered “expert enough” to generate items on attitudes toward the firm.
b. further validation of the test is necessary if new items are added.
c. adding more items to the test would actually help increase its reliability using KR20.
d. there is nothing irregular in adding a few more items.
54. A testing company sold a popular test that measures cognitive decline among newly
admitted nursing home patients. The test has been used for more than 15 years. During the
past five years, the testing company has been receiving complaints from test users that their
patients were being misdiagnosed. Meanwhile, recent research revealed that there is a growing
number of better educated elderly persons being admitted in nursing homes. The testing
company realized that the test norms established 15 years ago may no longer be applicable to
this cohort of elderly persons. What is the best approach to address this concern?
a. cut scores in the test must be lowered to provide more accurate diagnosis of elderly patients
b. it’s high time for the test to be revised
c. percentile equivalents must be increased since more educated elderly persons are getting
admitted to nursing homes
d. all of the above
e. b and c only
55. A neuropsychologist was hired by an insurance claims company to evaluate whether an

individual insured by the company had sustained neurological damage following a car accident,
or whether the individual was feigning symptoms. Following administration of a battery of
tests, the psychologist determined that the individual’s test scores were at the lower
boundaries of normal functioning. From test results, he concluded that there was no evidence
to support an injury claim. What can you comment on the way the results were interpreted?
a. the test scores clearly suggest evidence to support an injury claim.
b. information regarding the insured individual’s neurological functioning before the accident
should have been obtained and compared with current test results to justify insurance claims.
c. there are signs of pressure from the insurance claims company
d. all of the above are possible.
56. An inpatient at a psychiatric hospital had a Monday appointment with a psychologist to help
determine whether he was well enough to go home for the weekend. When he arrived for the
appointment, he was obviously distressed and told the psychologist that the patient he shared
his room with threatened to kill him. The psychologist confirmed this story with one of the
hospital staff. Rather than reschedule the appointment, the psychologist decided to conduct
the required standardized assessment and clinical interview. In his report, the psychologist
noted that the patient had high scores on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory,
indicating paranoid tendencies and high levels of stress that might be interpreted as a lack of
readiness to go home. Was the psychologist’s recommendation warranted in this case?
a. the psychologist’s report should have included how the events surrounding the
roommate’s threats may have influenced MMPI results.
b. being a valid and reliable test, the MMPI results are sufficient for that recommendation.
c. further tests (using another instrument) must be used to validate the MMPI results.
d. the psychologist should verify with the roommate if such threats were really made.
57. An industrial-organizational psychologist was responsible for administering and interpreting
standardized group tests for employee promotion. During one testing session, two employees
got into a shouting match that threatened but did not become a physical fight. What should the
assessment psychologist include in his report?
a. that the test results are invalidated and retaking of the test should be scheduled
b. that there had been a disturbance that could have had a detrimental effect on the
examinees’ performance
c. that the cutoff score should be lowered to reflect possible lower performance due to the
incident
d. all of the above must be included
58. A group of consulting psychologists was hired to conduct psychological assessments of

applicants for promotion to managerial positions in a large communications industry. After a
month, the psychologists realized that they had not negotiated a contractual fee large enough
to employ the number of advanced-degree psychologists required to conduct all of the
assessments. To stay within budget, they set up an internship program for business school
seniors and trained them to administer tests. Did the psychologists go beyond what is ethically
allowed?
a. the conduct of assessment by unqualified persons is never allowed.
b. business school seniors with additional units in psychology should have been trained to
administer.
c. formal graduate-level education in psychology is the basic requirement to undergo training
in test administration.
d. both b and c.
59. A neuropsychologist was asked to evaluate cognitive and personality factors that might be
responsible for a sudden change in adaptive functioning of an 80-year old nursing home
resident. The resident had been given a battery of intelligence and personality tests five years
prior to admission to the nursing home. Advances in geropsychology in the past five years had
resulted in more developmentally appropriate and sensitive assessment instruments for this
age group. The psychologist conducted a new evaluation using the more valid instruments. How
should the report be prepared?
a. there should be a comparison of the results of the assessment with the results of the earlier
evaluation
b. there should be a discussion of the limitations of comparing current performance with the
older test results
c. the psychologist should prepare two separate reports for the two sets of test batteries.
d. all of the above
e. a and b only
60. A psychologist who was asked to evaluate an employee’s claim that an industrial accident
was responsible for a current disabling psychological disorder learned that the employee had
been administered a battery of cognitive and personality tests several years earlier during
preemployment screening. The psychologist decided it would be useful and appropriate to
compare the complainant’s current performance with his performance on test scores obtained
prior to the accident. One of the previous scores was derived from an older version of a test
that had been updated and revised recently. Which version of the test should be administered
to the employee to be used as basis for comparing past and present performance?
a. the older version of the test should be administered to determine the employee’s current
performance, since this would better determine whether functioning had been affected by
the accident
b. the updated and revised version should be used because the previous version is already
considered obsolete
c. both versions are equally valid, so any of the two versions may be used
d. previous results are considered outdated; test results from the recently updated version
should be solely used to determine the current condition of the employee
61. A test publisher recently released a revised version of a measure of personality, and
encouraged test users to adopt this new version, claiming that it has significant improvements
in psychometric properties, which rendered the earlier version obsolete. How should test users
make decisions regarding the acquisition of revised tests?
a. the newly revised version should be adopted to benefit from its improved psychometric
properties.
b. the use of the newly revised version will be more appropriate given the fast changing
attributes it purports to measure.
c. the newly revised version can only be used if reliability and validity improved by at least 25%
of the previous indices.
d. test users must check first whether independent research on the new or revised measure
supports its use for a particular purpose or patient population.
62. A consultancy firm was contracted by a company who needed test scoring and
interpretation services as part of its selection process. What must the consultancy firm include
in describing the application of test scoring and interpretation procedures?
a. that computer-generated or automated systems may not be able to take into account
specific features of the examinee that are relevant to test interpretation.
b. that interpretations generated by computers or automated systems are not as valid as those
for paper and pencil tests.
c. that competence in advanced computer softwares is needed to make sense of test scoring
and interpretation processes.
d. all of the above must be included.
63. Explaining assessment results to the examinee may not be undertaken in which of the
following situations?
a. when the assessment was ordered by a judicial referral
b. when the assessment is part of employment testing
c. when testing is made to determine security clearances for government work
d. all of the above are exceptions

Psychological Assessment Learning Guide: Notes Compiled by Dr. John Manuel R. Kliatchko, Rpsy

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Psychological Assessment Learning Guide

Dr. John Manuel R. Kliatchko, RPsy

Psychological Assessment Learning Guide

Dear RGO Reviewee,

The following references were used in preparing this learning guide:

The Process of Assessment

The Tools of Psychological Assessment

 The Interview: a method of gathering information through direct communication

 The Portfolio: a tool of evaluation consisting of samples of one’s ability and

5. Business and Military Settings

6. Governmental and organizational credentialing

7. Academic Research Settings

Obligations of the Assessment Professional (Psychometrician)

 Safeguarding test protocols.

Assessment of People with Disabilities

 Use of alternative assessment (i.e., accommodation – the adaptation of a test,

2. A student with a visual impairment is scheduled to be given a written, multiple-choice test.

 On nonverbal communication and behavior

 Tests and group membership

 Psychology, tests, and public policy

Test User Qualifications (Cohen and Swerdlik, 2018)

Computerized test administration, scoring, and interpretation: Relevant Issues

4. Which statement best describes the ethical code’s position on computerized

 Unprofessional, unregulated “psychological testing” online (i.e., the psychometric

The Rights of Test Takers

5. Which among the following can provide competent informed consent?

 If a testtaker is incapable of providing informed consent to testing, such consent must

6. An experimenter is about to administer an instrument that is necessary for the

 The Right to be Informed of Test Findings

 The Right to Privacy and Confidentiality

8. In a court proceeding, a psychologist decides to disclose information about his client

o Privilege in the psychologist-client relationship BELONGS to the client, not the

o Protective privilege ends where the public peril begins.

 The Right to the Least Stigmatizing Label

Issues in Behavioral Assessment (Cohen and Swerdlik, 2018)

o Leniency/Generosity error: tendency on the part of the rater to be lenient in

Test Bias and Test Fairness

Of Tests and Testing (Cohen and Swerdlik, 2018)

Some Assumptions about Psychological Testing and Assessment

Assumption 1: Psychological Traits and States Exist

Assumption 2: Psychological Traits and States can be Quantified or Measured

Assumption 3: Test-Related Behavior Predicts Non-Test-Related Behavior

13. A psychologist administered the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory – 2 (MMPI-

Assumption 5: Various Sources of Error are Part of the Assessment Process

Assumption 7: Testing and Assessment Benefit Society

The Nature of the Test (Cohen and Swerdlik, 2018)

1. The test items are homogeneous or heterogeneous in nature;

1. Homogeneity versus heterogeneity of test items

2. Dynamic versus static characteristics

3. Restriction or inflation of range

4. Speed tests versus power tests

Evaluating a Test or Measurement Technique: Relevant Questions

Culturally Informed Assessment: Some Do’s and Don’ts

Measurement Scales in Psychology

 The ordinal scale of measurement is the most frequently used in psychology.

The True Score Model and Alternatives to it.

Classical Test Theory (CTT)

Alternatives to the CTT

 Item Response Theory (IRT)

Evaluating Predictive Validity of Tests

 Incremental Validity: the degree to which an additional predictor explains something

 Using Expectancy Data

o Expectancy data provide information that can be used in evaluating the