CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Brushless DC Electric Motor

electricity via an inverter or switching power supply which produces an AC electric current to drive each

phase of the motor via a closed loop controller. The controller provides pulses of current to the

motor windings that control the speed and torque of the motor. Brushless DC electric motor (BLDC

motors, BL motors) also known as electronically commutated motors (ECMs, EC motors), or synchronous

DC motors, are synchronous motors powered by DC

The construction of a brushless motor system is typically similar to a permanent magnet synchronous

motor (PMSM), but can also be a switched reluctance motor, or an induction (asynchronous) motor.

The advantages of a brushless motor over brushed motors are high power to weight ratio, high speed, and

electronic control. Brushless motors find applications in such places as computer peripherals (disk drives,

printers), hand-held power tools, and vehicles ranging from model aircraft to automobiles.

Brushless vs. Brushed Motor

Brushed DC motors were invented in the 19th century and are common. Brushless DC motors were made

possible by the development of solid state electronics in the 1960s.

An electric motor develops torque by alternating the polarity of rotating magnets attached to the rotor, the

turning part of the machine, and stationary magnets on the stator which surrounds the rotor. One or both
sets of magnets are electromagnets, made of a coil of wire wound around an iron core. DC running through

the wire winding creates the magnetic field, providing the power which runs the motor. However, each time

the rotor rotates by 180° (a half-turn), the position of the north and south poles on the rotor are reversed. If

the magnetic field of the poles remained the same, this would cause a reversal of the torque on the rotor

each half-turn, and so the average torque would be zero and the rotor would not turn. Therefore, in a DC

motor, in order to create torque in one direction, the direction of electric current through the windings must

be reversed with every 180° turn of the rotor (or turned off during the time that it is in the wrong direction).

This reverses the direction of the magnetic field as the rotor turns, so the torque on the rotor is always in the

same direction.

Commutators

In brushed motors, invented in the 19th century, this is done with a rotary switch on the motor's

shaft called a commutator. It consists of a rotating cylinder divided into multiple metal contact segments on

the rotor. The segments are connected to wire electromagnet windings on the rotor. Two or more stationary

contacts called "brushes", made of a soft conductor like graphite press against the commutator, making

sliding electrical contact with successive segments as the rotor turns, providing electric current to the

windings. Each time the rotor rotates by 180° the commutator reverses the direction the electric current

applied to a given winding, so the magnetic field creates a torque in one direction.

The Commutating Plane

In a dynamo, a plane through the centers of the contact areas where a pair of brushes touch the

commutator and parallel to the axis of rotation of the armature is referred to as the commutating plane. In

this diagram the commutating plane is shown for just one of the brushes, assuming the other brush made

contact on the other side of the commutator with radial symmetry, 180 degrees from the brush shown.
Compensation of Stator Distortion

In a real dynamo, the field is never perfectly uniform. Instead, as the rotor spins it induces field effects

which drag and distort the magnetic lines of the outer non-rotating stator.

Iron filings show the distorted field

Exaggerated example of how the
across the rotor.
field is distorted by the rotor.

The faster the rotor spins, the further the degree of field distortion. Because the dynamo operates most

efficiently with the rotor field at right angles to the stator field, it is necessary to either retard or advance the

brush position to put the rotor's field into the correct position to be at a right angle to the distorted field.

Centered position of the Actual position of the commutating

commutating plane if there were no plane to compensate for field

field distortion effects. distortion.

Disadvantages of Commutator

The commutator has many engineering disadvantages that has led to the decline in use of brushed

motors. These disadvantages are:

 The friction of the brushes sliding along the rotating commutator segments causes power losses that can be

significant in a low power motor.

 The soft brush material wears down due to friction, creating dust, and eventually the brushes must be replaced.

This makes commutated motors unsuitable for low particulate or sealed applications like hard disk motors.

 The resistance of the sliding brush contact causes a voltage drop in the motor circuit called "brush drop"

which consumes energy. This can amount to a few volts, so in a low voltage motor this can be a significant

power loss.

 The repeated abrupt switching of the current through the inductance of the windings causes sparks at the

commutator contacts. These are a fire hazard in explosive atmospheres, and create electronic noise, which

can cause electromagnetic interference in nearby microelectronic circuits.

During the last hundred years high power DC brushed motors, once the mainstay of industry, were replaced

by alternating current (AC) synchronous motors. Today brushed motors are only used in low power

applications where only DC is available, but the above drawbacks limit their use even in these applications.

Brushless motors were invented to solve these problems.

Brushless solution

The development of semiconductor electronics in the 1970s allowed the commutator and brushes to be

eliminated in DC motors. In brushless DC motors, an electronic servo system replaces the mechanical

commutator contacts. An electronic sensor detects the angle of the rotor, and

controls semiconductor switches such as transistors which switch current through the windings, either

reversing the direction of the current, or in some motors turning it off, at the correct time each 180° shaft

rotation so the electromagnets create a torque in one direction. The elimination of the sliding contact allows

brushless motors to have less friction and longer life; their working life is only limited by the lifetime of

their bearings.
Brushless motors offer several advantages over brushed DC motors, including high torque to weight ratio,

more torque per watt (increased efficiency), increased reliability, reduced noise, longer lifetime

(no brush and commutator erosion), elimination of ionizing sparks from the commutator, and overall

reduction of electromagnetic interference (EMI). With no windings on the rotor, they are not subjected to

centrifugal forces, and because the windings are supported by the housing, they can be cooled by conduction,

requiring no airflow inside the motor for cooling. This in turn means that the motor's internals can be entirely

enclosed and protected from dirt or other foreign matter.

Brushless motor commutation can be implemented in software using

a microcontroller or microprocessor computer, or may alternatively be implemented in analogue hardware,

or in digital firmware using an FPGA. Commutation with electronics instead of brushes allows for greater

flexibility and capabilities not available with brushed DC motors, including speed limiting, "micro stepped"

operation for slow and/or fine motion control, and a holding torque when stationary. Controller software

can be customized to the specific motor being used in the application, resulting in greater commutation

efficiency.

The maximum power that can be applied to a brushless motor is limited almost exclusively by heat; too

much heat weakens the magnets and will damage the winding's insulation.

When converting electricity into mechanical power, brushless motors are more efficient than brushed

motors. This improvement is largely due to the frequency at which the electricity is switched determined by

the position sensor feedback. Additional gains are due to the absence of brushes, which reduces mechanical

energy loss due to friction. The enhanced efficiency is greatest in the no-load and low-load region of the

motor's performance curve. Under high mechanical loads, brushless motors and high-quality brushed

motors are comparable in efficiency.

Environments and requirements in which manufacturers use brushless-type DC motors include

maintenance-free operation, high speeds, and operation where sparking is hazardous (i.e. explosive

environments) or could affect electronically sensitive equipment.

The construction of a brushless motor may resemble that of a stepper motor. Unlike a stepper, a brushless

motor is usually intended to produce continuous rotation. Stepper motors generally do not include a shaft

position sensor for internal feedback of the rotor position. Instead a stepper controller will rely on a sensor

to detect the position of the driven device. They are frequently stopped with the rotor in a defined angular
position while still producing torque. A well designed brushless motor system can also be held at zero rpm

and finite torque.

Copper Conductor

Copper wires of a loudspeaker cable.

Copper has been used in electrical wiring since the invention of the electromagnet and

the telegraph in the 1820s. The invention of the telephone in 1876 created further demand for copper wire

as an electrical conductor.

Copper is the electrical conductor in many categories of electrical wiring. Copper wire is used in power

generation, power transmission, power distribution, telecommunications, electronics circuitry, and

countless types of electrical equipment. Copper and its alloys are also used to make electrical

contacts. Electrical wiring in buildings is the most important market for the copper industry. Roughly half

of all copper mined is used to manufacture electrical wire and cable conductors.
Properties of Copper

Electrical conductivity

Electrical conductivity is a measure of how well a material transports an electric charge.

This is an essential property in electrical wiring systems. Copper has the highest electrical conductivity

rating of all non-precious metals: the electrical resistivity of copper = 16.78 nΩ•m at 20 °C. Specially-

pure Oxygen-Free Electronic (OFE) copper is about 1% more conductive.

The theory of metals in their solid state helps to explain the unusually high electrical conductivity of copper.

In a copper atom, the outermost 4s energy zone, or conduction band, is only half filled, so

many electrons are able to carry electric current. When an electric field is applied to a copper wire, the

conduction of electrons accelerates towards the electropositive end, thereby creating a current. These

electrons encounter resistance to their passage by colliding with impurity atoms, vacancies, lattice ions, and

imperfections. The average distance travelled between collisions, defined as the "mean free path", is

inversely proportional to the resistivity of the metal. What is unique about copper is its long mean free path

(approximately 100 atomic spacings at room temperature). This mean free path increases rapidly as copper

is chilled.

Aluminum has 61% of the conductivity of copper. The cross sectional area of an aluminum conductor must

be 56% larger than copper for the same current carrying capability. The need to increase the thickness

of aluminum wire restricts its use in several applications, such as in small motors and automobiles. In some

applications such as aerial electric power transmission cables, copper is rarely used.

Silver, a precious metal, is the only metal with a higher electrical conductivity than copper. The electrical

conductivity of silver is 106% of that of annealed copper on the IACS scale, and the electrical resistivity of

silver = 15.9 nΩ•m at 20 °C. The high cost of silver combined with its low tensile strength limits its use to

special applications, such as joint plating and sliding contact surfaces, and plating for the conductors in

high-quality coaxial cables used at frequencies above 30 MHz

Tensile Strength
Tensile strength measures the force required to pull an object such as rope, wire, or a structural beam to the

point where it breaks. The tensile strength of a material is the maximum amount of tensile stress it can take

before breaking.

Copper’s higher tensile strength (200–250 N/mm2annealed) compared to aluminum (100 N/mm2 for typical

conductor alloys) is another reason why copper is used extensively in the building industry. Copper’s high

strength resists stretching, neck-down, creep, nicks and breaks, and thereby also prevents failures and

service interruptions. Copper is much heavier than aluminum for conductors of equal current carrying

capacity, so the high tensile strength is offset by its increased weight.

Ductility

Ductility is a material's ability to deform under tensile stress. This is often characterized by the

material's ability to be stretched into a wire. Ductility is especially important in metalworking because

materials that crack or break under stress cannot be hammered, rolled, or drawn(drawing is a process that

uses tensile forces to stretch metal).

Copper has a higher ductility than alternate metal conductors with the exception of gold and silver. Because

of copper’s high ductility, it is easy to draw down to diameters with very close tolerances.

Strength and Ductility Combination

Usually, the stronger a metal is, the less pliable it is. This is not the case with copper. A unique combination

of high strength and high ductility makes copper ideal for wiring systems. At junction boxes and at

terminations, for example, copper can be bent, twisted, and pulled without stretching or breaking.

Creep Resistance

Creep is the gradual deformation of a material from constant expansions and contractions under “load, no-

load” conditions. This process has adverse effects on electrical systems: terminations can become loose,

causing connections to heat up or create dangerous arcing.

Copper has excellent creep characteristics which minimizes loosening at connections. For other metal

conductors that creep, extra maintenance is required to check terminals periodically and ensure that screws

remain tightened to prevent arcing and overheating.

Corrosion resistance

Corrosion is the unwanted breakdown and weakening of a material due to chemical reactions. Copper

generally resists corrosion from moisture, humidity, industrial pollution, and other atmospheric influences.

However, any corrosion oxides, chlorides, and sulfides that do form on copper are somewhat conductive.

Under many application conditions copper is higher on the galvanic series than other common structural

metals, meaning that copper wire is less likely to be corroded in wet conditions. However, any more anodic

metals in contact with copper will be corroded since will essentially be sacrificed to the copper.

Coefficient of thermal expansion

Metals and other solid materials expand upon heating and contract upon cooling. This is an undesirable

occurrence in electrical systems. Copper has a low coefficient of thermal expansion for an electrical

conducting material. Aluminum, an alternate common

conductor, expands nearly one third more than copper under increasing temperatures. This higher degree of

expansion, along with aluminum’s lower ductility, can cause electrical problems when bolted connections

are improperly installed. By using proper hardware, such as spring pressure connections and cupped or split

washers at the joint, it may be possible to create aluminum joints that compare in quality to copper joints.
 Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat. In electrical systems, high thermal

conductivity is important for dissipating waste heat, particularly at terminations and connections. Copper

has a 60% higher thermal conductivity rating than aluminum, so it is better able to reduce thermal hot spots

in electrical wiring systems.

Solderability

Soldering is a process whereby two or more metals are joined together by a heating process. This is a

desirable property in electrical systems. Copper is readily soldered to make durable connections when

necessary.

Ease of installation

The strength, hardness, and flexibility of copper make it very easy to work with. Copper wiring can be

installed simply and easily with no special tools, washers, pigtails, or joint compounds. Its flexibility makes

it easy to join, while its hardness helps keep connections securely in place. It has good strength for pulling

wire through tight places (“pull-through”), including conduits. It can be bent or twisted easily without

breaking. It can be stripped and terminated during installation or service with far less danger of nicks or

breaks. And it can be connected without the use of special lugs and fittings. The combination of all of these

factors makes it easy for electricians to install copper wire.

Cable

1. Sturgeon, W., 1825, Improved Electro Magnetic Apparatus, Trans. Royal Society of Arts, Manufactures, &

Commerce (London) 43: pp. 37–52, as cited in Miller, T.J.E, 2001, Electronic Control of Switched

Reluctance Machines, Newnes, p. 7. ISBN 0-7506-5073-7

2. Jump up^ Windelspecht, Michael, 2003, Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and

Discoveries of the 19th Century, XXII, Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 0-313-31969-3

3. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Pops, Horace, 2008, Processing of wire from antiquity to the future, Wire Journal

International, June, pp 58-66

4. ^ Jump up to:a b c "The Metallurgy of Copper Wire" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-09-

01. Retrieved 2013-06-07.

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Status, edited by Kundig, Konrad J.A., ASM International Vol. 2.03, Electrical Conductors

6. Jump up^ "Copper, Chemical Element - Overview, Discovery and naming, Physical properties, Chemical

properties, Occurrence in nature, Isotopes". Chemistryexplained.com. Archived from the original on 2013-

06-16. Retrieved 2013-06-01.

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ed.org. Archived from the original on 2013-05-23. Retrieved 2013-06-07.

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U.S. Department of Commerce; 1914

9. Jump up^ Mott, N.F. and Jones, H., 1958, The theory of the properties of metals and alloys, Dover

Publications

10. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Pops, Horace, 1995, Physical Metallurgy of Electrical Conductors, in Nonferrous Wire

Handbook, Volume 3: Principles and Practice, The Wire Association International, pp. 7-22

11. Jump up^ Copper Building Wire Systems Archived 2013-05-24 at the Wayback Machine., Copper

Development Association, Inc.

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07-20. Retrieved 2013-06-01.

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inc.com. 2006-08-29. Archived from the original on 2012-07-08. Retrieved 2013-06-01.

14. Jump up^ Weast, Robert C. & Shelby, Samuel M. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 48th edition, Ohio:

The Chemical Rubber Co. 1967–1968: F-132

15. Jump up^ W.F. Gale; T.C. Totemeir, eds. (2004), Smithells Metals Reference Book (8th ed.), Elsevier

Butterworth Heinemann Co. and ASM International, ISBN 0-7506-7509-8

16. Jump up^ "Development of Aluminum Alloy Conductor with High Electrical Conductivity and Controlled

Tensile Strength and Elongation" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-03-28.

Retrieved 2013-06-07.
17. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h "Electrical: Building Wire - Copper Building Wire Systems". Copper.org. 2010-

08-25. Archived from the original on 2013-05-24. Retrieved 2013-06-01.

18. Jump up^ Rich, Jack C., 1988, The Materials and Methods of Sculpture. Courier Dover Publications. p.

129. ISBN 0-486-25742-8, https://books.google.com/?id=hW13qhOFa7gC

19. Jump up^ Nonferrous Wire Handbook, Volume 3: Principles and Practice, The Wire Association

International

20. Jump up^ Pops, Horace; Importance of the conductor and control of its properties for magnet wire

applications, in Nonferrous Wire Handbook, Volume 3: Principles and Practice, The Wire Association

International, pp 37-52

21. ^ Jump up to:a b "Electrical: Building Wire - Copper, The Best Buy". Copper.org. 2010-08-

25. Archivedfrom the original on 2013-05-25. Retrieved 2013-06-01.

22. Jump up^ "Wire Wisdom: Choosing Conductors" (PDF). Anixter. Archived (PDF) from the original on

2017-01-09. Retrieved 2013-06-01.

23. Jump up^ Telephony by T.E. Herbert & W.S. Procter,Volume 1 p1110 (1946, Pitman, London)

24. Jump up^ Copper Building Wire, Copper/Brass/Bronze Products Handbook, CDA Publication 601/0,

Copper Development Association

25. Jump up^ The International Annealed Copper Standard; NDT Resources Center; "Archived

copy". Archived from the original on 2013-05-23. Retrieved 2013-06-07.

26. Jump up^ "Applications: Telecommunications - All-Copper Wiring". Copper.org. 2010-08-25. Archived

from the original on 2013-05-28. Retrieved 2013-06-01.

27. Jump up^ Davis, Joseph R., Copper and copper alloys, ASM International. Handbook Committee, pp. 155-

156

28. ^ Jump up to:a b c d "Network+, Module 3 - The Physical Network". Lrgnetworks.com. Archived from the

original on 2012-04-25. Retrieved 2013-06-01.

29. ^ Jump up to:a b "Selecting coax and twisted-pair cable". .electronicproducts.com. Archived from the

original on 2013-11-05. Retrieved 2013-06-01.

30. Jump up^ "The Evolution of Copper Cabling Systems from Cat5 to Cat5e to Cat6" (PDF). Archived from the

original (PDF) on 2013-03-14.www.panduit.com

31. Jump up^ Van Der Burgt, Martin J., 2011, "Coaxial Cables and Applications". Belden. p. 4. Retrieved 11

July 2011, "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-07-28. Retrieved 2011-07-

11.

32. Jump up^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-11-11. Retrieved 2011-11-

18.

33. Jump up^ "Applications: Telecommunications - Communications Wiring for Today's Homes". Copper.org.

2010-08-25. Archived from the original on 2013-05-02. Retrieved 2013-06-01.

34. Jump up^ "Applications: Telecommunications - Infrastructure Wiring for Homes". Copper.org. 2010-08-

25. Archived from the original on 2013-05-04. Retrieved 2013-06-01.

35. Jump up^ Structured wiring for today’s homes (CD-ROM), Copper Development Association, NY, NY,

USA

36. ^ Jump up to:a b Electric Wire and Cable, brochure 0001240, Cobre Cerrillos S.A., Santiago, Chile; Cocessa

Technical Bulletin, Electrical Conductor Catalog 751, MADECO, 1990

37. Jump up^ GR-3151-CORE, Generic Requirements for Copper Splice Closures, Archived 2016-03-04 at

the Wayback Machine. Telcordia.

38. Jump up^ "C18661 Copper-Magnesium (CMG1) Alloy Wire". Fisk (website). Fisk Alloy,

Inc. Archived from the original on 18 December 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2013.

39. Jump up^ "Historical Copper Prices, Copper Prices History". Dow-futures.net. 22 January 2007. Archived

from the original on 12 May 2010. Retrieved 1 May 2010.

40. Jump up^ Berinato, Scott (2007-02-01). "Copper Theft: The Metal Theft Epidemic". CSO Online. Archived

from the original on February 2, 2014. Retrieved 2014-01-19.

41. Jump up^ "Copper Theft Threatens U.S. Critical Infrastructure". Federal Bureau of Investigation. 15

September 2005. Archived from the original on 14 October 2012. Retrieved 24 January 2014.

42. Jump up^ "4 House Fires and Hundreds of Homes Without Power after Substation

Targeted". metaltheftscotland.org.uk. 29 November 2013. Archived from the original on 7 July 2013.

Retrieved 24 January 2014.

43. Brushed DC electric motor

44. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

45. Jump to navigationJump to search

1. Hawkins Electrical Guide

2. Jump up^ Gottlieb, I.M. (1994). Electric Motors & Control Techniques (2nd ed.). TAB Books.

3. Jump up^ DC motor speed control MATLAB simulation code.

4. Jump up^ Design and Simulation of Control Systems for a Field Survey Mobile Robot Platform.

5. Jump up^ Lander, Cyril W. (1993). "8 D.C. Machine Control". Power Electronics (3rd ed.). London: Mc

Graw Hill International UK. ISBN 0-07-707714-8.

6. Jump up^ Hameyer, p. 66, eq. 5-3437

7. Jump up^ Lynn, §8-144, p. 826, eq. 8-17

8. Jump up^ Hameyer, p. 66, eq. 5-20

9. Jump up^ Lynn, §8-146, p. 826, eq. 8-18

10. Jump up^ Hameyer, p. 66, eq. 5-23

11. Jump up^ Lynn, §147, p. 827, eq. 8-21

12. Jump up^ Lynn, §8-147, p. 827, eq. 8-20

13. Jump up^ Hameyer, p. 68, eq. 5-31

14. Jump up^ Lynn, §147, p. 827, eq. 8-22

15. Jump up^ Lynn, §8-148 to §8-151, p. 827-828

16. Jump up^ Hameyer, p. 69

17. Jump up^ Alger, §7-278, p. 757

18. Jump up^ Alger, §7-277, p. 757

19. Jump up^ Lynn, §8-154, p. 828

20. Jump up^ MIT CIPD

21. Jump up^ Herman, Stephen L. Electric Motor Control. 9th ed. Delmar, Cengage Learning, 2009. Page 12.

22. Jump up^ Malcolm Barnes. Practical variable speed drives and power electronics. Elsevier, Newnes, 2003.

Page 151.

23. Jump up^ J. Lewis Blackburn. Protective relaying: principles and applications. CRC Press, 1998. Page 358.

24. Jump up^ Ohio Electric Motors. DC Motor Protection. Ohio Electric Motors. 2011. Archived November

15, 2011, at WebCite

 25. Jump up^ H. Wayne Beaty and James L. Kirtley. Electric Motor Handbook. McGraw-Hill Professional,

1998. Page 97.

26. Jump up^ Hawkins Electrical Guide. Theo. Audel & Co. 1917. pp. 664–669.

Bibliography

 Alger, P. L. (1949). "§7-277 to §7-287 'AC Commutator Motors' in Sec. 7 - Alternating-Current Generators

and Motors". In Knowlton, A.E. Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill.

pp. 826–831.

 Hameyer, Kay (2001). "§5.2 'Basic Equations' in section 5 - DC Machine". Electrical Machine I: Basics,

Design, Function, Operation. RWTH Aachen University Institute of Electrical Machines.

 Lynn, C. (1949). "§8-144 to §8-165 'Motor Characteristics and Regulation' in Sec. 8 - Direct-Current

Generators and Motors". In Knowlton, A.E. Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers (8th ed.).

McGraw-Hill. pp. 826–831.

 MIT CIPD (2009). "Understanding D.C. Motor Characteristics". Designing with D.C. Motors. MIT, Mech.

Engineering, CIPD. Retrieved 2008-12-11.

show

 v

 t

 e

Electric motors

External links

 How Electric Motors Work (retrieved from Web Archive on 2014/31/01)

Categories:

 DC motors

 Electric motors

1. Hawkins Electrical Guide

2. Jump up^ Gottlieb, I.M. (1994). Electric Motors & Control Techniques (2nd ed.). TAB Books.

3. Jump up^ DC motor speed control MATLAB simulation code.

4. Jump up^ Design and Simulation of Control Systems for a Field Survey Mobile Robot Platform.

5. Jump up^ Lander, Cyril W. (1993). "8 D.C. Machine Control". Power Electronics (3rd ed.). London: Mc

Graw Hill International UK. ISBN 0-07-707714-8.

6. Jump up^ Hameyer, p. 66, eq. 5-3437

7. Jump up^ Lynn, §8-144, p. 826, eq. 8-17

8. Jump up^ Hameyer, p. 66, eq. 5-20

9. Jump up^ Lynn, §8-146, p. 826, eq. 8-18

10. Jump up^ Hameyer, p. 66, eq. 5-23

11. Jump up^ Lynn, §147, p. 827, eq. 8-21

12. Jump up^ Lynn, §8-147, p. 827, eq. 8-20

13. Jump up^ Hameyer, p. 68, eq. 5-31

14. Jump up^ Lynn, §147, p. 827, eq. 8-22

15. Jump up^ Lynn, §8-148 to §8-151, p. 827-828

16. Jump up^ Hameyer, p. 69

17. Jump up^ Alger, §7-278, p. 757

18. Jump up^ Alger, §7-277, p. 757

19. Jump up^ Lynn, §8-154, p. 828

20. Jump up^ MIT CIPD

21. Jump up^ Herman, Stephen L. Electric Motor Control. 9th ed. Delmar, Cengage Learning, 2009. Page 12.

22. Jump up^ Malcolm Barnes. Practical variable speed drives and power electronics. Elsevier, Newnes, 2003.

Page 151.

23. Jump up^ J. Lewis Blackburn. Protective relaying: principles and applications. CRC Press, 1998. Page 358.

24. Jump up^ Ohio Electric Motors. DC Motor Protection. Ohio Electric Motors. 2011. Archived November

15, 2011, at WebCite

25. Jump up^ H. Wayne Beaty and James L. Kirtley. Electric Motor Handbook. McGraw-Hill Professional,

1998. Page 97.

26. Jump up^ Hawkins Electrical Guide. Theo. Audel & Co. 1917. pp. 664–669.
 Bibliography[edit]

 Alger, P. L. (1949). "§7-277 to §7-287 'AC Commutator Motors' in Sec. 7 - Alternating-Current Generators

and Motors". In Knowlton, A.E. Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill.

pp. 826–831.

 Hameyer, Kay (2001). "§5.2 'Basic Equations' in section 5 - DC Machine". Electrical Machine I: Basics,

Design, Function, Operation. RWTH Aachen University Institute of Electrical Machines.

 Lynn, C. (1949). "§8-144 to §8-165 'Motor Characteristics and Regulation' in Sec. 8 - Direct-Current

Generators and Motors". In Knowlton, A.E. Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers (8th ed.).

McGraw-Hill. pp. 826–831.

 MIT CIPD (2009). "Understanding D.C. Motor Characteristics". Designing with D.C. Motors. MIT, Mech.

Engineering, CIPD. Retrieved 2008-12-11.

show

 v

 t

 e

Electric motors

External links

 How Electric Motors Work (retrieved from Web Archive on 2014/31/01)

Categories:

 DC motors

 Electric motors

Neodymium magnet

 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 Jump to navigation Jump to search



 Nickel-plated neodymium magnet on a bracket from a hard disk drive

 Nickel-plated neodymium magnet cubes

 Left: high-resolution transmission electron microscopy image of Nd2Fe14B; right: crystal structure with unit

cell marked

 A neodymium magnet (also known as NdFeB, NIB or Neomagnet), the most widely used type of rare-earth

magnet, is a permanent magnet made from an alloy of neodymium, iron and boron to form the

Nd2Fe14B tetragonal crystalline structure. Developed independently in 1982 by General

Motors and Sumitomo Special Metals, neodymium magnets are the strongest type of permanent magnet

commercially available. They have replaced other types of magnets in many applications in modern products

that require strong permanent magnets, such as motors in cordless tools, hard disk drives and magnetic

fasteners
Description

Neodymium is a metal which is ferromagnetic (more specifically it

shows antiferromagnetic properties), meaning that like iron it can be magnetized to become a magnet, but

its Curie temperature (the temperature above which its ferromagnetism disappears) is 19 K (−254 °C), so in

pure form its magnetism only appears at extremely low temperatures. However, compounds of neodymium

with transition metals such as iron can have Curie temperatures well above room temperature, and these are

used to make neodymium magnets.

The strength of neodymium magnets is due to several factors. The most important is that

the tetragonalNd2Fe14B crystal structure has exceptionally high uniaxial magnetocrystalline

anisotropy (HA ~7 T – magnetic field strength H in units of A/m versus magnetic moment in A·m2). This

means a crystal of the material preferentially magnetizes along a specific crystal axis, but is very difficult

to magnetize in other directions. Like other magnets, the neodymium magnet alloy is composed

of microcrystalline grains which are aligned in a powerful magnetic field during manufacture so their

magnetic axes all point in the same direction. The resistance of the crystal lattice to turning its direction of

magnetization gives the compound a very high coercivity, or resistance to being demagnetized.

The neodymium atom also can have a large magnetic dipole moment because it has 4 its electron

structure as opposed to (on average) 3 in iron. In a magnet it is the unpaired electrons, aligned so they spin

in the same direction, which generate the magnetic field. This gives the Nd2Fe14B compound a

high saturation magnetization (Js ~1.6 T or 16 kg) and typically 1.3 teslas. Therefore, as the maximum

energy density is proportional to Js2, this magnetic phase has the potential for storing large amounts of

magnetic energy (BHmax ~ 512 kJ/m3 or 64 MG·Oe). This magnetic energy value is about 18 times greater

than "ordinary" magnets by volume. This property is higher in NdFeB alloys than in samarium

cobalt (SmCo) magnets, which were the first type of rare-earth magnet to be commercialized. In practice,

the magnetic properties of neodymium magnets depend on the alloy composition, microstructure, and

manufacturing technique employed.

The Nd2Fe14B crystal structure can be described as alternating layers of iron atoms and a neodymium-boron

compound. The diamagnetic boron atoms do not contribute directly to the magnetism, but improve cohesion

by strong covalent bonding. The relatively low rare earth content (12% by volume) and the relative
abundance of neodymium and iron compared with samarium and cobalt makes neodymium magnets lower

in price than samarium-cobalt magnets.

History

General Motors (GM) and Sumitomo Special Metals independently discovered the Nd2Fe14B compound

almost simultaneously in 1984. The research was initially driven by the high raw materials cost

of SmCo permanent magnets, which had been developed earlier. GM focused on the development of melt-

spun nanocrystalline Nd2Fe14B magnets, while Sumitomo developed full-density sintered Nd2Fe14B

magnets.

GM commercialized its inventions of isotropic Neo powder, bonded Neo magnets, and the related

production processes by founding Magnequench in 1986 (Magnequench has since become part of Neo

Materials Technology, Inc., which later merged into Molycorp). The company supplied melt-spun Nd2Fe14B

powder to bonded magnet manufacturers.

The Sumitomo facility became part of the Hitachi Corporation, and currently manufactures and licenses

other companies to produce sintered Nd2Fe14B magnets. Hitachi holds more than 600 patents covering

neodymium magnets.[8]

Chinese manufacturers have become a dominant force in neodymium magnet production, based on their

control of much of the world's sources of rare earth mines.

The United States Department of Energy has identified a need to find substitutes for rare earth metals in

permanent magnet technology, and has begun funding such research. The Advanced Research Projects

Agency-Energy has sponsored a Rare Earth Alternatives in Critical Technologies (REACT) program, to

develop alternative materials. In 2011, ARPA-E awarded 31.6 million dollars to fund Rare-Earth Substitute

projects.
 Properties

Neodymium magnets (small cylinders) lifting steel spheres. Such magnets can easily lift thousands of times

their own weight.

Ferrofluid on a glass plate displays the strong magnetic field of the neodymium magnet underneath

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Further reading

 MMPA 0100-00, Standard Specifications for Permanent Magnet Materials

 K.H.J. Buschow (1998) Permanent-Magnet Materials and their Applications, Trans Tech Publications Ltd.,

Switzerland, ISBN 0-87849-796-X

 Campbell, Peter (1994). Permanent Magnet Materials and their Application. New York: Cambridge

University Press. ISBN 0-521-24996-1.

 Furlani, Edward P. (2001). Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices: Materials, Analysis and

Applications. London: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-269951-3.

 Brown, D; Ma, Bao-Min; Chen, Zhongmin (2002). "Developments in the processing and properties of

NdFeB-type permanent magnets". Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials. 248 (3): 432–

440. Bibcode:2002JMMM..248..432B. doi:10.1016/S0304-8853(02)00334-7.

 The Dependence of Magnetic Properties and Hot Workability of Rare Earth-Iron-Boride Magnets Upon

Composition.

External links

 Magnet Man Cool experiments with magnets

 Geeky Rare-Earth Magnets Repel Sharks, Genevieve Rajewski, 05.15.07 , wired.com

 Concern as China clamps down on rare earth exports, Cahal Milmo, 01.02.10, independent.co.uk

 Bowley, Roger. "More with Magnets". Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.

Categories:

 Magnetic alloys

 Rare earth alloys

 Types of magnets

 Ferromagnetic materials

 Loudspeaker technology