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3 Applications of
Hilbert-Huang Transform
to Ocean-Atmosphere
Remote Sensing
Research
Xiao-Hai Yan, Young-Heon Jo,
Brian Dzwonkowski, and Lide Jiang
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
The Hilbert-Huang transform (HHT) is a newly developed method for analyzing non-
linear and nonstationary processes. Its application in oceanography and oceanatmo-
sphere remote sensing research is still in its infancy. In this chapter, we briefly introduce
the application of this method in oceanatmosphere remote sensing data analyses and
present a few examples of such applications.
59
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Spectral analysis is a very useful tool to analyze a time series signal. However, this
method does not fully describe a data set that changes with time. The spectrum gives
us the frequencies that exist over the entire duration of the data set. On the other
hand, time–frequency analysis allows us to determine the frequencies at a particular
time. Hence, the fundamental idea of time–frequency analysis is to understand and
describe phenomena where the frequency content of a signal is changing in time.
Scientists traditionally use short Fourier transform by sliding the window along
the time axis to get a time–frequency distribution. Since it relies on the traditional
Fourier spectral analysis, one has to assume the data to be piecewise stationary.
Currently, the most famous time–frequency analysis method is wavelet transform.
The most common method used is Morlet wavelet, defined as Gaussian enveloped
sine and cosine wave groups with 5.5 waves (1). The problem with Morlet wavelet
is the leakage generated by the limited length of the basic wavelet function, which
makes the quantitative definition of the energy–frequency–time distribution difficult.
Once the basic wavelet is selected, one has to apply it to analysis of all the data (2).
Recently Huang et al. (3) introduced a new and potentially more robust method
for time–frequency analysis. This method, the empirical mode decomposition–Hil-
bert-Huang transform (EMD-HHT), is applicable to both nonstationary and nonlin-
ear signals. In real ocean and ocean atmosphere coupling, most processes are non-
linear and nonstationary. One example is that at the onset of El Nino: nonlinear
Kelvin waves carry warm water from the western Pacific to the east (4). This process
is exhibited as a nonlinear pattern in altimeter data. For this reason, we use the
EMD-HHT technique in our El Nino study and in many of our other studies.
Since the EMD-HHT is relatively new to the ocean remote sensing community,
a brief summary of the technique based on Huang et al. (3) is given in this section.
Basically, the EMD-HHT method requires two steps in analyzing the data. The first
step is to decompose time series data into a number of intrinsic mode functions
(IMFs). These functions must satisfy the following two conditions: (a) within the
entire data set, the total number of extrema (as a function of time) and the total
number of zero-crossings must either be equal or differ at most by one, and (b) at
any point, the mean value of the envelope defined by the local minima (as a function
of time) and the envelope defined by the local maxima (as a function of time) must
be zero. The second step is to apply the Hilbert transform to the decomposed IMFs
and construct the energy–frequency–time distribution, designated as the Hilbert
spectrum. The presentation of the final results of the time–frequency analysis is
similar to the wavelet transform method, which is a spectrogram (time–fre-
quency–energy plot). For clarity, a spectral analysis of the corresponding signal is
shown next to the spectrogram when we present our results in the next sections.
The decomposition of the time series data (i.e. H(t)) into IMFs uses separately
defined envelopes of local maxima and minima. Once the extrema are identified, all
the local maxima are connected by a cubic spline to form the upper envelope. The
procedure is repeated for the local minima to produce the lower envelope. Their
mean is designated as m1(t), and the difference between the time series data and
m1(t) is the first component, h1(t). One can repeat this procedure k times, until hk(t)
is an IMF. Then, hk(t) = c1(t) is the first IMF component of the data. c1(t) should
contain the finest scale or the shortest period component of the signal. Then, c1(t)
is separated from the data, and the process is repeated until either the component
cn(t) or the residue rn(t) becomes so small that it is less than a predetermined value,
or when the residue rn(t) becomes a monotonic function from which no IMF can be
extracted.
After all IMFs have been determined, one can check the original data with the
sum of the IMF components
()
H t = ∑ c (t ) + r (t ) .
i =1
1 n (3.1)
Thus, a decomposition of the data into n empirical modes and a residue rn(t) is
achieved. The rn(t) can be either the mean trend or a constant.
After IMFs of the data have been generated, the next step is to apply the Hilbert
transform to each IMF time series. For an arbitrary time series X(t), one can define
its Hilbert transform, Y(t), as:
()
∞
( ) dτ.
X τ
∫
1
Y t = (3.2)
π t−τ
−∞
With this definition, X(t) and Y(t) form a complex conjugate pair, so one has an
analytic signal Z(t) as
() ()
Z t = X t + iY t , () (3.3)
() ()
a t = X 2 t + Y 2 t 2 , () (3.4)
()
Y t
θ t = arctan .
()
()
(3.5)
X t
ω=
dθ t ( ). (3.6)
dt
Once the instantaneous frequency (as function of time) of each IMF has been
generated, the final result of the time–frequency analysis is similar to the wavelet
transform method, time–frequency–energy plot, or spectrogram. The energy density
similar to Fourier transform can be generated by summing the spectrogram for the
whole time series along a constant frequency for each frequency.
From the definition of the phase function and instantaneous frequency, we can
clearly see that for a simple function such as a = sin(t), the Hilbert spectrum is
simply cos(t), and the phase function is a monotonic straight line. Hence, the
spectrogram is simply a horizontal line for a whole time along fixed frequency, and
its spectrum is simply a single peak at that particular frequency.
In the next sections, we describe a few examples of applications of the HHT in
ocean-atmosphere remote sensing data processing and research. These examples
include an analysis of TOPEX/Poseidon sea level anomaly interannual variation
using HHT and empirical orthogonal function (EOF), application of HHT to ocean
color remote sensing of the Delaware Bay, and Mediterranean outflow and Meddies
determined from satellite multisensor remote sensing.
0.3 0.1
0.25 0
0.2 −0.1
0.15 −0.2
93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02
0.1
Residual of EOF-1
0.08
0.05
0.06
0
0.04
−0.05
0.02
−0.1 0
−0.15 −0.02
93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02
FIGURE 3.1 The spatial (upper) and temporal (lower) interannual EOF-1 (left) and EMD
of the temporal mode (right) of the T/P-SLA.
Due to its important role in interannual variation, EOF1 was further analyzed
using the HHT. Empirical mode decomposition (EMD) was applied, and EOF1 was
decomposed into three IMFs plus a residue (Figure 3.1). The temporal mode of
EOF1 shows a peak in late ‘97, which correspond to the strong 1997–1998 El Niño.
To examine the effect of ENSO events on EOF1, the Southern Oscillation Index
(SOI) was also used as a reference by decomposing it using EMD. The IMF4 of the
SOI appeared to be a smoothed curve of the SOI, and Salisbury and Wimbush (6)
used this to predict future ENSO events.
Here a comparison was made between the EOF-1 and the SOI by calculating
the correlation coefficient between the IMF-3 of the EOF-1 and IMF-4 of the SOI.
The correlation coefficient was found to be as high as 0.85 (Figure 3.2). Considering
this, the EOF-1 can be considered to behave under the impact of the ENSO, and we
can further infer that the ENSO contributes to about one third of the interannual
SLA variation.
Moreover, we can reexamine the spatial mode of EOF1 (Figure 3.1) to see the
global impact of the ENSO events on human activities. Besides the coastal areas of
America, Australia, and Indonesia, which are most strongly and directly affected,
those of east Africa and Japan also are undergoing remarkable ENSO variation. The
Correlation = 0.85
0.1
0.05
−0.05
−0.1
−0.15
93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03
FIGURE 3.2 Correlation between negative IMF-4 of SOI (red) and IMF-3 of EOF-1 (blue)
is 0.85. It suggests that the primary interannual EOF is impacted by ENSO.
impact even spread as far as Antarctica. On the other hand, coastal areas of the
Atlantic Ocean are less affected by the ENSO events.
In addition, the HHT spectrum of the EOF1 was investigated to extract the
frequency information (Figure 3.3). The frequency distribution of the EOF1 is
between 0 and 4 cycle/yr. The 2.5 to 4 cycle/yr range corresponds to the spectrum
of the IMF1, which behaves in a relatively random pattern. The 0.5 to 2 cycle/yr
range corresponds to the spectrum of IMF2, which has more energy within the
frequency range 0.5 to 0.8 cycle/yr. The 0.2 to 0.4 cycle/yr range has much higher
energy, which is shown as a dark red curve at the bottom part of the spectrum. This
curve corresponds to the frequency feature of IMF3, i.e., a period of 2.5 to 5 yr,
which can be considered as the typical frequency of ENSO events. The lowest
frequency part of the 0 to 0.1 cycle/yr range corresponds to the frequency of the
residue, which is the longterm trend. It has a period of tens of years or longer and,
therefore, requires much longer time series to analyze.
4
Hilbert Spectrum (cycles per year)
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02
Year
FIGURE 3.3 The HHT spectrum of EOF-1. The dark red curve indicates high energy at
frequencies between 0.2 and 0.4 cycle/yr, which corresponds to the Hilbert spectrum of IMF-3
of interannual EOF-1. It indicates that ENSO events have a typical period of 2.5 to 5 yr.
source. However, use of this data source is dependent on the premise that there are
discernable relationships between reflectance exiting the water column and the
constituents in it. A primary constituent of study has been chlorophyll-a on account
of its connection to phytoplankton and thus to primary production and biomass (7).
As coastal management strategies begin to focus on large-scale ecosystem based
programs, the relationship between chlorophyll-a and primary production and bio-
mass has the potential to provide a cost-effective alternative to traditional ship-based
or point source sampling. Monitoring and assessing the health of ecosystem-size
regions will be much more feasible with satellite-based parameters due to the
frequent repeat periods and large spatial areas covered by satellite sensors. Thus,
the quantitative assessment of water constituents from satellite-based ocean color
data holds great promise for implementing dynamic management strategies. How-
ever, to interpret ocean color data appropriately, a full understanding of the period-
icity of chlorophyll concentrations in a given area is essential. The purpose of this
study is to examine the seasonal and interannual chlorophyll-a cycles from satellite
data of the coastal region at the mouth of the Delaware Bay.
Although quantifying chlorophyll concentration from satellite ocean color data
has been successful in the open ocean, coastal areas (case II water) can still present
problems. Water constituents associated with coastal regions, such as excessive
chlorophyll-a concentrations, suspended sediments, and colored dissolved organic
25
Chlorophyll-a (mg/m3)
20
15
10
0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
1
NAO Index
−1
−2
−3
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Years
FIGURE 3.4 The time series of the monthly means of the chlorophyll-a concentrations (top
panel) and the North Atlantic Oscillation index (bottom panel) from September 1997 to July
2003.
0.4
0.35
0.35
0.3 0.3
Frequency (cycles/month)
0.25 0.25
0.2 0.2
0.15 0.15
0.1 0.1
0.05
0.05
0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 0 10 20
Years Energy
FIGURE 3.5 The Hilbert spectrum (left panel) and marginal spectrum (right panel) for the
IMFs of the chlorophyll-a times series.
0.5 2
0 0
−0.5 −2
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Years
FIGURE 3.6 Interannual variation (IMF 4) for both the NAO index (blue line) and the
chlorophyll-a (green line) time series.
the Subpolar Low. Both positive and negative phases affect basin-wide variations in
the North Atlantic jet stream and storm tracks, as well as in large-scale modulations
of the typical patterns of zonal and meridional heat and moisture transport. These
alterations will consequently affect temperature and precipitation patterns and can
extend from eastern North America to western and central Europe (17). Furthermore,
recent studies have shown links between the NAO and hydrographic properties along
the northeast Atlantic shelf slope and the Gulf of Maine, and zooplankton and
chlorophyll-a concentrations within the Gulf of Maine (18). Thus, the interannual
frequency of the NAO was examined.
Monthly mean data of the NAO index from September 1997 to July 2003 were
obtained from the NOAA Climate Prediction Center. The NAO index data are shown
in Figure 3.4. This time series was also decomposed into its component IMFs in
order to isolate the NAO interannual mode. After decomposing the NAO index time
series, the fourth IMF contained an interannual signal that exhibited features very
similar to the fourth chlorophyll-a IMF (Figure 3.6).
To quantify this relationship, cross-correlation analysis was performed on the
IMF 4 of both the chlorophyll-a concentrations and the NAO index. The results are
shown in Figure 3.7. This study focused only on positive lag time (chlorophyll-a
time series following the NAO time series), because it would not be sensible to
assume that negative lags (chlorophyll-a time series leading the NAO time series)
were meaningful. The correlation analysis reveals that the NAO and chlorophyll-a
0.6
0.4
Correlation coefficient
0.2
−0.2
−0.4
−0.6
−0.8
−1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time lag
Chlorophyll-a follows NAO Index for lag > 0
FIGURE 3.7 Correlation coefficient (blue line) and the related 95 % confidence interval (red
dashed line). The maximum correlation coefficient with a positive lag (i.e. chlorophyll-a
interannual variation following NAO index interannual variation) is –0.67, corresponding to
a lag of 10 months.
that was significant at the 95% confidence level. This relatively high correlation
coefficient occurred at a lag of 10 months, which suggests that the possible inter-
annual link between chlorophyll-a concentrations at the mouth of the Delaware Bay
and the NAO index may result from chlorophyll-a concentrations responding to
variations in the NAO index. Finally, the observations of both the weakening of the
seasonal signal and the suggested teleconnection of the interannual variation between
chlorophyll-a concentrations and the NAO are topics worthy of future investigation
that would have been difficult to identify with traditional time series analysis tech-
niques.
η′T = α
∫ ∆Tdz.
−400
∆T is the temperature difference between two different depths (dz), and α is the
thermal expansion coefficient, which is calculated as function of salinity (S) and
water pressure (P) based on empirical measurements (24);
1 ∆ρ
α=− .
ρ0 ∆T
( s , p)
The spatial resolution of XBT data is 73° × 61° longitude/latitude, which is inter-
polated to 1° × 1° longitude/latitude data for this study. It is possible that errors
occurred due to interpolation of the time rates of change of the integrated upper
ocean heat storage anomaly (5 W/m2, on average); this is discussed by White and
Tai (25). We also checked interpolation error using 1° × 1° longitude/latitude opti-
mum interpolation sea surface temperature (OISST). We compared interpolated sea
surface temperature (SST) from XBT data and OISST by calculating correlation
coefficients. Correlation coefficients between OISST and SST from XBT were over
95% with RMS 0.2°C, except for two small areas, and correlation coefficient 80%
with RMS 1.2°C. We conclude that interpolation error of XBTs is less than 1°C at
the sea surface.
Because of scarcity of temporal and spatial salinity data, we estimated the effect
of η′S in the upper layer indirectly. Two different correlation and RMS calculations
were made: the first correlation is between η′T and OISST, and the second correlation
is between η′Total and OISST. Good temporal and spatial agreement between SST
and η′Total or η′T suggests that a robust regression between fields may have some
physical significance with respect to thermal expansion, but a low correlation with
high RMS may have some other variability in the mixed layer or below the mixed
layer due to the salinity. It appears that the difference is due to a change in ocean
salinity, which is reflected in the T/P sea level measurements but not in the η′T
measurements. The first correlation coefficients were all over 90% with smaller RMS
than the second ones, but the second ones were also over 60% to 80%, with larger
RMS than the first ones. This result is caused by a warm and salty core below the
mixed layer. Using Levitus 94 (26), the vertical structure of the salinity was examined
to see the salinity distribution. The whole upper layer in our study domain has a
uniform salinity distribution above 1000 m. We conclude that the anomaly of η′S is
spatially uniform with only small variability.
Wind effect on the η′Total signal was considered using scatterometer data from
European Remote Sensing Satellite-1/2 (ERS-1/2) from January 1993 to December
1999. First we calculated the correlations between wind stress curl and the η′Total for
the temporal variation. Negative correlation would be expected; rising sea level is
associated with negative wind stress curl. Correlation coefficients showed a relation
of about –30% in our study area, with southern areas having larger RMS than
northern areas. Second, we considered the magnitude of sea level variation due to
wind stress based on a linear barotropic vorticity equation, i.e.,
d η − g′
≈ ∇x τ,
dt f0ρg
where η is the sea level height, ρ is the water density, g′ is the reduced gravity, f0
is the Coriolis parameter, and τ is the wind stress. We also estimated ηW ′ by using
NASA’s scatterometer: NSCAT (August 1996 to June 1997) and Quikscat (June
1999 to present). The mean sea level variation due to wind stress was around 1 cm.
The result of ∆η′ = η′T P − ηUL′ is apparently some variation of the vertical water
column, which is a response according to the different incoming or outgoing water
mass under the upper layer. Sea level variation due to salinity (temperature) change
using mass conservation with 800 m thick is around 60 cm (32 cm), with 1-ppt
differences from background fluid (2°C), derived from the salt expansion coefficient
7.5 × 10–4/°C and thermal expansion coefficient 2.0 × 10–4/°C, respectively. The
bottom pressure (deep current) variation is negligible at this region (26, 27). How-
ever, since the Meddy was a weakly stratified result of extensive salt fingering (28),
there were regions of high stratification above and below the lens, where the back-
ground isopycnal surface becomes increasingly broader as it moves above the Meddy
toward the sea surface. Because of this isopycnal compensation, the O&M are not
revealed in the η′Total signal. This is why we cannot detect a Meddy with the altimeter
observation alone.
We computed the absolute differences of the sea surface height anomaly of ηUL ′
and η′Total to examine the trajectories of the O&M from January 1993 to December
1999. Figure 3.8 is an example of such trajectories from July 1998 to June 1999.
One can see a strong signature (|∆η′|) toward west and south from July to November.
Generally, southward Meddies are formed near 36°N by separation of the frictional
boundary layer at sharp corners (29) and in the Canary Basin (30, 31, 32). The
southward travelling Meddies can be explained by the strongest low frequency zonal
motions driven by baroclinic instability (33) and the influence of the neighboring
mesoscale features (cyclonic vortices or Azores Current meanders) in the regions
(34). The northward O&M over 36° to 40°N are also shown from August to October.
Furthermore, a strong signature over 40°N in February is considered to be the
influence of the returning Gulf Stream. From March to June the weak O&M signa-
tures are found because of the weak salinity deviation in 1000 m depth examined
from climatological data.
To investigate the reasons for the change in the direction of propagation of
Meddies, the stream function (ψ) was computed by using the T/P altimeter. This
representation of the stream function permits observations of the interactions
between the sea surface gradient and the Meddies’ propagation. The computation
of the sea surface height anomaly η′ in terms of the usual dynamic variables is
straightforward, if the flow is assumed to be quasigeostrophic: The stream function
(ψ) is defined as
40 40
35 35
30 30
30W 25W 20W 15W 10W 05W 30W 25W 20W 15W 10W 05W
Aug 1998 Feb 1999
45 45
40 40
35 35
30 30
30W 25W 20W 15W 10W 05W 30W 25W 20W 15W 10W 05W
Sep 1998 Mar 1999
45 45
40 40
35 35
30 30
30W 25W 20W 15W 10W 05W 30W 25W 20W 15W 10W 05W
Oct 1998 Apr 1999
45 45
40 40
35 35
30 30
30W 25W 20W 15W 10W 05W 30W 25W 20W 15W 10W 05W
Nov 1998 May 1999
45 45
40 40
35 35
30 30
30W 25W 20W 15W 10W 05W 30W 25W 20W 15W 10W 05W
Dec 1998 Jun 1999
45 45
40 40
35 35
30 30
30W 25W 20W 15W 10W 05W 30W 25W 20W 15W 10W 05W
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(
FIGURE 3.8 Calculation of the ∆η′ ∆η′ = η′Total − ηUL
′ )
from July 1998 to June 1999.
40 40
35 35
30 30
30W 25W 20W 15W 10W 05W 0W 30W 25W 20W 15W 10W 05W 0W
40 40
35 35
30 30
30W 25W 20W 15W 10W 05W 0W 30W 25W 20W 15W 10W 05W 0W
FIGURE 3.9 Comparisons of Meddy trajectories with stream functions (Equation 3.7) for
January, April, July, and October 1994.
ψ= g η′Total , (3.7)
f 0
3rd EMD mode using HHT at A(30W, 30N) with other places
5
B(20W, 30N)
−5
93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00
5
C(10W, 30N)
−5
93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00
5
D(10W, 37N)
−5
93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00
5
E(10W, 42N)
−5
93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00
5
F(20W, 42N)
−5
93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00
5
G(30W, 42N)
−5
93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00
5
H(30W, 37N)
−5
93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00
FIGURE 3.10 A comparison of the third EMD modes using HHT are shown at given
locations. The solid curve is for location A (refer to Figure 3.11 for the location) in all panels
for comparison. The dotted curve is the individual EMD modes for those locations.
G F E 4
3.5
40
2.5
H D
35
1.5
0.5
30 A B C 0
30W 25W 20W 15W 10W 05W
FIGURE 3.11 Comparisons of annual mean |∆η′| signal from two float experiments in 1994.
The gray scale and contours show the annual mean of the |∆η′| signal estimated from our
method. All Meddies were discovered during the AMUSE experiment (stars) and SEMA-
PHORE experiment (circles) in 1994.
To find out the dominant signal of the sea surface interaction with the Meddies,
the HHT was applied to their EMD modes. We chose eight places to investigate the
dominant signal in our study area. Figure 3.10 showed that Place Group 1 (B, C,
and D, shown in Figure 3.11) and Group 2 (H and G, shown in Figure 3.11) had a
similar signal. However, Group 3 (E and F, shown in Figure 3.11) had slightly
different signals from Groups 1 and 2. Consequently, there were seasonal fluctuations
between location A and Group 3. To compute the dominant signal of the power for
locations A and E, HHT was also employed; this is shown in Figure 3.12. In both,
the dominant frequency was around f = 0.082 (1 year). However, location A had a
lower frequency, f = 0.03 (33.3 months), which seems to indicate that wind stress
with 33.3-month period produces sea surface forcing. The surface variations produce
the baroclinic instability on the Meddies, which is related to southward translation.
The southward translation of the Meddies due to the baroclinic effects were consis-
tent with that discussed by Müler and Siedler (36) and by Käse and Zenk (37). If
the current is vertically sheared in a stratified fluid, baroclinic instability can occur.
Figure 3.12 also demonstrates that the comparison between field observations from
two float experiments in 1994 and our computation was excellent.
0.4 0.4
0.35 0.35
0.3 0.3
0.25 0.25
0.2 0.2
0.15 0.15
0.1 0.1
0.05 0.05
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 20 40
0.4 0.4
0.35 0.35
0.3 0.3
0.25 0.25
0.2 0.2
0.15 0.15
0.1 0.1
0.05 0.05
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 20 40
3.5 CONCLUSION
Three examples of applications of the HHT method in ocean-atmosphere remote
sensing research were illustrated in this chapter. These examples show that the HHT
method is indeed a potentially very useful and powerful tool for ocean engineering
and science studies.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported partially by the National Aeronautics and Space Admin-
istration (NASA) through Grant NAG5-12745 and NGT5-40024, by the Office of
Naval Research (ONR) through Grant N00014-03-1-0337, and by the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) through Grants NA17EC2449
and NA96RG0029.
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