Computer Networks Complete Material

Chapter 1
Introduction
• Data Communication
• Networks
• Protocols and Standards
• Standard Organizations
Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Figure 1-1
Data Communication System Components

Figure 1-2

Figure 1-3

Chapter 2
Basic Concepts
• Line Configuration
• Topology
• Transmission Mode
• Categories of Networks
• Internetworks

Figure 2-1

Figure 2-2
Point-to-Point Line Configuration

Figure 2-2-continued


Figure 2-3
Multipoint Line Configuration

Figure 2-4

Figure 2-5
Mesh Topology

Figure 2-6
Star Topology

Figure 2-7
Tree Topology

Figure 2-8
Bus Topology

Figure 2-9
Ring Topology

Figure 2-10
Hybrid Topology

Figure 2-11

Figure 2-12
Simplex

Figure 2-13
Half-Duplex

Figure 2-14
Full-Duplex

Figure 2-15

Figure 2-16
Local Area Network

Local Area Network

Figure 2-17
Metropolitan Area Network

Figure 2-18
Wide Area Network

Figure 2-19
Internetwork
(Internet)

Chapter 3
OSI
Model
• The model
• Functions of the layers

Figure 3-1
OSI Model

Figure 3-2
OSI Layers

Figure 3-3
An Exchange Using the OSI Model

Figure 3-4
Physical Layer

Figure 3-5
Data Link Layer

Figure 3-6
Data Link Layer Example

Figure 3-7
Network Layer

Figure 3-8
Network Layer Example

Network Layer Example

Figure 3-9
Transport Layer

Figure 3-10
Transport Layer Example

Figure 3-11
Session Layer

Figure 3-12
Presentation Layer

Figure 3-13
Application Layer

Figure 3-14
Summary of Layer Functions

Chapter 4
Signals
• Analog and digital
• Aperiodic and periodic signals
• Analog signals

Figure 4-1
Transformation of Information
to Signals

Figure 4-2
Analog and Digital Clocks

Figure 4-3
Analog and Digital Signals

Figure 4-4
Periodic Signals

Figure 4-5
Aperiodic Signals

Figure 4-6
Sine Wave

Figure 4-7
Phases

Figure 4-8
Amplitude Change

Figure 4-9
Frequency Change

Figure 4-10
Phase Change

Figure 4-11
Time and Frequency Domain

Figure 4-12
Examples

Figure 4-13
Signal with DC Component

Figure 4-14
Complex Waveform

Figure 4-15
Bandwidth

Figure 4-16
Digital Signal

Figure 4-17
Amplitude, Period, and Phase
for a Digital Signal

Figure 4-18
Bit Rate and Bit Interval

Figure 4-19
Harmonics of a Digital Signal

Figure 4-20
Exact and Significant Spectrums

Figure 4-21
Bit Rates and Significant Spectrums

Figure 4-22
Corruption Due to Insufficient Bandwidth

Figure 4-23
Bandwidth and Data Rate

Figure 4-24
Example

Figure 4-25
Example

Figure 4-26
Example

Chapter 5
Encoding

Figure 5-1
Different Conversion Schemes

Figure 5-2
Digital to Digital Encoding

Figure 5-3
Types of Digital to Digital Encoding

Figure 5-4
Unipolar Encoding

Figure 5-5
Types of Polar Encoding

Figure 5-6
NRZ-L and NRZ-I Encoding

Figure 5-7
RZ Encoding

Figure 5-8
Manchester and Diff. Manchester Encoding

Figure 5-9
Types of Bipolar Encoding

Figure 5-10
Bipolar AMI Encoding

Figure 5-11
B8ZS Encoding

Figure 5-12
HDB3 Encoding

Figure 5-13
Solution to Example 5.1

Figure 5-14
Solution to Example 5.2

Figure 5-15
Analog to Digital Encoding

Figure 5-16
PAM

Figure 5-17
Quantized PAM Signal

Figure 5-18
Quantizing Using
Sign and Magnitude

Figure 5-19
PCM

Figure 5-20
From Analog to PCM

From Analog to PCM

From Analog to PCM

From Analog to PCM

Figure 5-21
Nyquist Theorem

Figure 5-22
Digital to Analog Encoding

Figure 5-23

Figure 5-24
ASK

Figure 5-25
Bandwidth for ASK

Figure 5-27
FSK

Figure 5-28
Bandwidth for FSK

Figure 5-29
PSK

Figure 5-30
PSK
Constellation

Figure 5-31
4-PSK

Figure 5-32
4-PSK
Characteristics

Figure 5-33
8-PSK
Characteristics

Figure 5-34
PSK
Bandwidth

Figure 5-35
4-QAM and 8-QAM
Constellations

Figure 5-36
8-QAM Signal

Figure 5-37
16-QAM
Constellation

Figure 5-38
Bit Rate and Baud Rate

Bit Rate and Baud Rate

Figure 5-39
Analog to Analog Modulation

Figure 5-40

Figure 5-41
Amplitude Modulation

Figure 5-42
AM Bandwidth

Figure 5-43
AM Band Allocation

Figure 5-44
Frequency Modulation

Figure 5-45
FM Bandwidth

Figure 5-46
FM Band Allocation

Chapter 6
Transmission of
Digital Data
Interfaces and Modems
• Digital Data Transmission
• DTE-DCE Interface
• Other Interface Standards
• Modems

Figure 6-1

Figure 6-2
Parallel Transmission

Figure 6-3
Serial Transmission

Figure 6-4
Asynchronous Transmission

Figure 6-5
Synchronous Transmission

Figure 6-6
DTEs and DCEs

Figure 6-7
DTE-DCE interface

Figure 6-8
Sending Data

Figure 6-9
Control

Figure 6-10
EIA-232

Data Pins

Control Pins

Timing Pins

Other Pins

Figure 6-11
Synchronous Full-Duplex Transmission

Synchronous Full-Duplex Transmission

Figure 6-12
Pin Connection With and Without DCEs

Pin Connection With and Without DCEs

Figure 6-13
Null Modem

Figure 6-14
DB-37 and DB-9 Connectors

Figure 6-15
RS-423: Unbalanced Mode

Figure 6-16
RS-422: Balanced Mode

Figure 6-17
Canceling Noise

Figure 6-18
DB-15 Connector

Figure 6-19
Modem

Figure 6-20
Bandwidth for Telephone Line

Figure 6-21
Baud Rate for Half-Duplex ASK

Figure 6-22
Baud Rate for Full-Duplex ASK

Figure 6-23
Baud Rate for Half-Duplex FSK

Figure 6-24
Baud Rate for Full-Duplex FSK

Figure 6-25
Bell Modems

Bell Modems

Figure 6-26
ITU Modems

ITU Modems

Figure 6-27
V.22bis 16-QAM Constellation

Figure 6-28
V.32 Constellation

Figure 6-29
V.33 Constellation

Chapter 7
Transmission Media
• Guided Media
• Unguided Media

Figure 7-1
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Figure 7-2

Figure 7-3

Figure 7-4 and 7-5
Twisted-Pair Cable

Figure 7-6
Effect of Noise on Parallel Lines

Figure 7-7
Noise on Twisted-Pair Lines

Figure 7-8
Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable

Figure 7-9
UTP Connectors

Figure 7-10
Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

Figure 7-11 and 7-12
Coaxial Cable

Figure 7-13
Refraction

Figure 7-14
Critical Angle

Figure 7-15
Reflection

Figure 7-16

Figure 7-17
Multimode Step-Index

Figure 7-18
Multimode Graded-Index

Figure 7-19
Single Mode

Figure 7-20
Fiber Construction

Figure 7-21
Radio Communication Band

Figure 7-22
Propagation Types

Figure 7-23, 24
VLF
LF

Figure 7-25, 26
MF
HF

Figure 7-27, 28
VHF
UHF

Figure 7-29, 30
SHF
EHF

Figure 7-31
Terrestrial Microwave

Figure 7-32
Parabolic Dish Antenna

Figure 7-33
Horn Antenna

Figure 7-34
Satellite Communication

Figure 7-35
Geosynchronous Orbit

Figure 7-36
Cellular System

Figure 7-37
Cellular Bands

Chapter 8
Multiplexing
• Many to one/one to many

• Types of multiplexing
• Telephone system

Figure 8-1
Multiplexing vs. No Multiplexing

Figure 8-2

Figure 8-3
FDM

Figure 8-4
FDM, Time Domain

Figure 8-5
Multiplexing, Frequency Domain

Figure 8-6
Demultiplexing, Time Domain

Figure 8-7
Demultiplexing, Frequency Domain

Figure 8-8
TDM

Figure 8-9
Synchronous TDM

Figure 8-10
TDM, Multiplexing

Figure 8-11
TDM, Demultiplexing

Figure 8-12
Framing Bits

Figure 8-13
Data Rate

Figure 8-14
Asynchronous TDM

Figure 8-15
Frames and Addresses
a. Only three lines sending data

b. Only four lines sending data

c. All five lines sending data

Figure 8-16
Multiplexing and Inverse Multiplexing

Figure 8-17
Telephone Network

Figure 8-18

Figure 8-19

Figure 8-20
Analog Switched Service

Figure 8-21
Analog Leased Service

Figure 8-22
Analog Hierarchy

Figure 8-23

Figure 8-24
Switched/56 Service

Figure 8-25
DDS

Figure 8-26
DS Hierarchy

Figure 8-27
T-1 Line

Figure 8-28
T-1 Frame

Figure 8-29
Fractional T-1 Line

Chapter 9
Error Detection
and Correction
• Types of Errors
• Detection
• Correction

Figure 9-1

Figure 9-2
Single-bit error

Figure 9-3
Multiple-bit error

Figure 9-4
Burst error

Figure 9-5
Redundancy

Figure 9-6

Figure 9-7
VRC

Figure 9-8
LRC

Figure 9-9
VRC and LRC

Figure 9-10
CRC

Figure 9-11
Binary Division

Figure 9-12
Polynomial

Figure 9-13
Polynomial and Divisor

Figure 9-14
Standard Polynomials

Figure 9-15
Checksum

Figure 9-16
Data Unit and Checksum

Figure 9-17
Error Correction

Figure 9-18
Hamming Code

Figure 9-19
Hamming Code

Hamming Code

Figure 9-20
Example of Hamming Code

Figure 9-21
Single-bit error

Figure 9-22
Error
Detection

Chapter 10
Data Link Control
• Line Discipline
• Flow Control
• Error Control

Figure 10-1
Data Link Layer

Figure 10-2

Figure 10-3

Figure 10-4
ENQ/ACK

Figure 10-5
ENQ/ACK

Figure 10-6
Multipoint Discipline

Figure 10-7
Select

Figure 10-8
Poll

Figure 10-9

Figure 10-10
Stop and Wait

Figure 10-11
Sliding Window

Figure 10-12
Sender Sliding Window

Figure 10-13
Receiver Sliding Window

Figure 10-14
Sliding Window Example

Sender

Receiver

Figure 10-15

Figure 10-16
Damaged Frame

Figure 10-17
Lost Frame

Figure 10-18
Lost ACK

Figure 10-19
Damaged Frame

Figure 10-20
Lost Frame

Figure 10-21
Lost ACK

Figure 10-22
Selective Reject

Chapter 11
Data Link Protocols
• Asynchronous Protocols
• Synchronous Protocols
• Character-Oriented Protocols
• Bit-Oriented Protocols

Figure 11-1

Figure 11-2

Figure 11-3
XMODEM

Figure 11-4

Figure 11-5

Figure 11-6
Simple Frame

Figure 11-7
A Frame with Header

Figure 11-8
Multiblock Frame

Figure 11-9
Multiframe Transmission

Figure 11-10
Control Frame

Figure 11-11
Control Frames

Control Frames

Control Frames

Figure 11-12
Byte Stuffing

Figure 11-13

Figure 11-14
HDLC Configuration

HDLC Configuration

HDLC Configuration

Figure 11-15
HDLC Modes

Figure 11-16
HDLC Frame Types

HDLC Frame Types

HDLC Frame Types

Figure 11-17
HDLC Flag Field

Figure 11-18
Bit Stuffing

Figure 11-19
HDLC Address Field

Figure 11-20
HDLC Control Field

Figure 11-21
Poll/Final

Figure 11-22
HDLC Information Field

Figure 11-23
HDLC FCS Field

Figure 11-24

Figure 11-25
Use of P/F Field

Use of P/F Field

Use of P/F Field

Use of P/F Field

Use of P/F Field

Figure 11-26
U-Frame Control Field

U-Frame Control Field

Figure 11-27
Polling Example

Figure 11-28
Selecting Example

Figure 11-29
Peer-to-Peer Example

Peer-to-Peer Example

Chapter 12
Local Area Networks
• Project 802
• Ethernet
• Token Ring
• FDDI

Figure 12-1
OSI Model and Project 802

Figure 12-2
Project 802

Figure 12-3
PDU Format

Figure 12-4
PDU Control Field

Figure 12-5

Figure 12-6
Evolution of CSMA/CD

Figure 12-7
MAC Frame

Figure 12-8
Ethernet Segments

Figure 12-9

10BASE5

Figure 12-10
Transceiver

Figure 12-11

10BASE2

Figure 12-12

10BASET

Figure 12-13

1BASE5

Figure 12-14

Figure 12-15
Token Passing

Token Passing

Token Passing

Token Passing

Figure 12-16
Token Ring Frame

Figure 12-17
Data Frame Fields

Data Frame Fields

Figure 12-18
Token Ring

Figure 12-19
Token Ring Switch

Figure 12-20
MAU

Figure 12-21
FDDI

Figure 12-22
FDDI Example

FDDI Example

Figure 12-23
FDDI Encoding

Figure 12-24
FDDI Layers

Figure 12-25
FDDI Frames

Figure 12-26
FDDI Rings

Figure 12-27
FDDI Ring Failure

Figure 12-28
FDDI Nodes

Chapter 13
Metropolitan Area
Networks
• IEEE 802.6
• DQDB (Distributed Queues, Dual Bus)
• SMDS (Switched Megabit Data Services)
Figure 13-1
DQDB Buses and Nodes

Figure 13-2
DQDB Data Transmission

Figure 13-3
Queues

Figure 13-4
Distributed Queues

Figure 13-5
Reservation Token

Figure 13-6
DQDB Rings

DQDB Rings

Figure 13-7
DQDB Layers

Figure 13-8
Connecting LANs using T-Lines

Figure 13-9
Switched Multimegabit Data Services

Figure 13-10
Use of DQDB, Single LAN

Figure 13-11
Use of DQDB, Multiple LANs

Chapter 14
Switching
• Circuit Switching
• Packet Switching
• Message Switching

Figure 14-1
Switched Network

Figure 14-2

Figure 14-3
Circuit-Switched Network

Figure 14-4
Switch

Figure 14-5
Folded Switch

Figure 14-6

Figure 14-7
Crossbar Switch

Figure 14-8
Multistage Switch

Figure 14-9
Switching Path

Switching Path

Figure 14-10
TDM without TSI

TDM with TSI

Figure 14-11
Time-Slot Interchange

Figure 14-12
TST Switch

Figure 14-13

Figure 14-14
Datagram Approach

Figure 14-15
Datagram Approach, Multiple Channels

Figure 14-16
Switched Virtual Circuit



Figure 14-17
Message Switching

Chapter 15
Point-to-Point
Protocol

Figure 15-1
Point-to-Point Link

Figure 15-2
Transition States

Figure 15-3
PPP Layers

Figure 15-4
PPP Frames

Figure 15-5
LCP Packet Encapsulated in a Frame

Figure 15-6
PAP

Figure 15-7
PAP Packets

Figure 15-8
CHAP

Figure 15-9
CHAP Packets

Figure 15-10
IPCP Packet Encapsulated in PPP Frame

Figure 15-11
An Example

Chapter 16
Integrated
Services
Digital Network
(ISDN)
Figure 16-1
ISDN Services

Figure 16-2
Voice Communication over an

Analog Telephone Network

Figure 16-3
Voice and Data Communication

over an Analog Telephone Network

Figure 16-4
Analog and Digital Services
over the Telephone Network

Figure 16-5
IDN

Figure 16-6
ISDN

Figure 16-7
BRI

Figure 16-8
PRI

Figure 16-9
Functional Grouping

Figure 16-10
Reference Points

Figure 16-11
ISDN Layers

Figure 16-12
Simplified Layers of ISDN

Figure 16-13
BRI Interfaces

Figure 16-14
S Interface

Figure 16-15
2B/1Q Encoding

Figure 16-16
BRI Frame

Figure 16-17
BRI
Topology

Figure 16-18
PRI Interfaces

Figure 16-19
PRI Frame

Figure 16-20
LAPD Address Field

Figure 16-21
Network Layer Packet Format

Figure 16-22
Call Reference Field

Figure 16-23
Information Elements

Figure 16-24
Information Element Types

Figure 16-25
Addressing in ISDN

Figure 16-26
Bit Rates for Different Applications

Figure 16-27
B-ISDN Services

Figure 16-28
B-ISDN Accesses

Chapter 17
X.25

Figure 17-1
X.25

Figure 17-2
X.25 Layers in Relation to the OSI Layers

Figure 17-3
Format of a Frame

Figure 17-4
Addressing at the Frame Layer

Figure 17-5
Three Phases
of the
Frame Layer

Figure 17-6
Frame Layer and Packet Layer Domains

Figure 17-7
Virtual Circuits
in X.25

Figure 17-8
LCNs in X.25

Figure 17-9
LCN Assignments

Figure 17-10
PLP Packet Format

Figure 17-11
Categories of PLP Packets

Figure 17-12
Data Packets in the PLP Layer

Figure 17-13
RR, RNR, and REJ Packets

Figure 17-14
Other Control Packets

Figure 17-15
Control Packet Formats

Figure 17-16
X.25 Address Format

Figure 17-17
Triple-X Protocols

Chapter 18
Frame
Relay

Figure 18-1
Frame Relay versus Pure
Mesh T-Line Network

Figure 18-2
Fixed-Rate versus Bursty Data

Figure 18-3
X.25 Traffic

Figure 18-4
Frame Relay Traffic

Figure 18-5
Frame Relay Network

Figure 18-6
DLCIs

Figure 18-7
PVC DLCIs

Figure 18-8
SVC Setup and Release

Figure 18-9
SVC DLCIs

Figure 18-10
DLCIs Inside a Network

Figure 18-11
Frame Relay Switch

Figure 18-12
Frame Relay Layers

Figure 18-13
Comparing Layers in
Frame Relay and X.25

Figure 18-14
Frame Relay Frame

Figure 18-15
BECN

Figure 18-16
FECN

Figure 18-17
Four Cases of Congestion

Figure 18-18
Leaky
Bucket

Figure 18-19
A Switch Controlling the Output Rate

Figure 18-20
Flowchart for Leaky

Bucket Algorithm

Figure 18-21
Example of Leaky Bucket Algorithm

Figure 18-22
Relationship between Traffic
Control Attributes

Figure 18-23
User Rate in Relation to Bc and Bc + Be

Figure 18-24
Three Address Formats

Figure 18-25
FRAD

Chapter 19
ATM

Figure 19-1
Multiplexing Using Different Packet Sizes

Figure 19-2
Multiplexing Using Cells

Figure 19-3
ATM Multiplexing

Figure 19-4
Architecture of an ATM Network

Figure 19-5
TP, VPs, and VCs

Figure 19-6
Example of VPs and VCs

Figure 19-7
Connection Identifiers

Figure 19-8
Virtual Connection Identifiers
in UNIs and NNIs

Figure 19-9
An ATM Cell

Figure 19-10
SVC
Setup

Figure 19-11
Routing with a VP Switch

Figure 19-12
A Conceptual View of a VP Switch

Figure 19-13
Routing with a VPC Switch

Figure 19-14
A Conceptual View of a VPC Switch

Figure 19-15
Crossbar Switch

Figure 19-16
Knockout Switch

Figure 19-17
A Banyan Switch

Figure 19-18-Part I
Example of Routing in a Banyan Switch (a)

Figure 19-18-Part II
Example of Routing in a Banyan Switch (b)

Figure 19-19
Batcher-Banyan Switch

Figure 19-20
ATM Layers

Figure 19-21
ATM Layers in End-Point Devices and Switches

Figure 19-22
AAL Types

Figure 19-23
AAL1

Figure 19-24
AAL2

Figure 19-25
AAL3/4

Figure 19-26
AAL5

Figure 19-27
ATM Layer

Figure 19-28
ATM Header

Figure 19-29
PT Fields

Figure 19-30
Service Classes

Figure 19-31
Service Classes and Capacity of Network

Figure 19-32
QoS

Figure 19-33
ATM WAN

Figure 19-34
Ethernet Switch and ATM Switch

Figure 19-35
LANE Approach

Figure 19-36
LEC, LES, and BUS

Chapter 20
SONET/SDH

Figure 20-1
A SONET System

Figure 20-2
An Example of a SONET Network

Figure 20-3
SONET Layers

Figure 20-4
Device-Layer Relationship in SONET

Figure 20-5
Data Encapsulation in SONET

Figure 20-6
STS-1 Frame

Figure 20-7
STS-1 Frame Overhead

Figure 20-8
STS-1 Frame Section Overhead

Figure 20-9
STS-1 Frame Line Overhead

Figure 20-10
Payload Pointers

Figure 20-11
STS-1 Frame Path Overhead

Figure 20-12
Virtual Tributaries

Figure 20-13
VT Types

Figure 20-14
STS-n

Figure 20-15
STS Multiplexing

Figure 20-16
ATM in an STS-3 Envelope

Chapter 21
Networking
and
Internetworking
Devices
Figure 21-1
Connecting Devices

Figure 21-2
Connecting Devices and the OSI Model

Figure 21-3
A Repeater in the OSI Model

Figure 21-4
A Repeater

Figure 21-5
Function of a Repeater

Figure 21-6
A Bridge in the OSI Model

Figure 21-7
A Bridge

Figure 21-8
Function of a Bridge

Figure 21-9
Multiport Bridge

Figure 21-10
A Router in the OSI Model

Figure 21-11
Routers in an Internet

Figure 21-12
A Gateway in the OSI Model

Figure 21-13
A Gateway

Figure 21-14
Single-Protocol versus
Multiprotocol Router

Figure 21-15
Brouter

Figure 21-16
Switch

Figure 21-17
Example of an Internet

Figure 21-18
The Concept of Distance
Vector Routing

Figure 21-19
Distance Vector Routing Table

Figure 21-20
Routing Table Distribution

Figure 21-21
Updating Routing Table for Router A

Figure 21-22
Final Routing Tables

Figure 21-23
Example 21.1

Figure 21-24
Concept of Link State Routing

Figure 21-25
Cost in Link State Routing

Figure 21-26
Link State Packet

Figure 21-27
Flooding of A’s LSP

Figure 21-28
Link State Database

Figure 21-29
Costs in the Dijkstra Algorithm

Figure 21-30, Part I
Shortest Path Calculation, Part I

Figure 21-30, Part II
Shortest Path Calculation, Part II

Figure 21-30, Part III
Shortest Path Calculation, Part III

Figure 21-30, Part IV
Shortest Path Calculation, Part IV

Figure 21-30, Part V
Shortest Path Calculation, Part V

Figure 21-30, Part VI
Shortest Path Calculation, Part VI

Figure 21-31, Part VII
Shortest Path Calculation, Part VII

Figure 21-31, Part I
Shortest Path Calculation, Part VIII

Figure 21-31, Part II
Shortest Path Calculation, Part IX

Figure 21-31, Part III
Shortest Path Calculation, Part X

Figure 21-31, Part IV
Shortest Path Calculation, Part XI

Figure 21-31, Part V
Shortest Path Calculation, Part XII

Figure 21-31, Part VI
Shortest Path Calculation, Part XIII

Figure 21-32
Routing Table for Router A

Chapter 22
Network Layer:
Delivery, Forwarding,
and Routing

Introduction
• This chapter describes the delivery,
forwarding, and routing of IP packets to their
final destinations.
– Delivery - the way a packet is handled by the underlying networks
network layer.
– Forwarding - the way a packet is delivered to the next station.
– Routing - the way routing tables are created to help in forwarding.
• Routing protocols - continuously update - are consulted for
forwarding and routing.

22-1 DELIVERY
The network layer supervises the handling of the

packets by the underlying physical networks. We define
this handling as the delivery of a packet.
Topics discussed in this section:

Direct Versus Indirect Delivery

2
• Occurs when the Direct Delivery
source and destination
of the packet are
located on the same
physical network or
when the delivery is
between the last
router and the
destination host.
• How to determine if
the delivery is direct?
• extract the network address of
the destination (using the mask)
and compare this address with
the addresses of the networks to
which it is connected. If a match
is found, the delivery is direct.
2
Indirect Delivery
• If the destination host is
not on the same
network as the
deliverer, the packet is
delivered indirectly.
• The packet goes from
router to router until it
reaches the one
connected to the same
physical network as its
final destination.
2
22-2 FORWARDING
Forwarding means to place the packet in its route to its

destination. Forwarding requires a host or a router to
have a routing table. When a host has a packet to send
or when a router has received a packet to be forwarded,
it looks at this table to find the route to the final
destination.

Forwarding Techniques
Forwarding Process
Routing Table

2
Next-Hop Method Versus Route Method
• One technique to reduce the contents of a routing table is called the next-hop
method.
• In this technique, the routing table holds only the address of the next hop instead of
information about the complete route (route method).
• The entries of a routing table must be consistent with one another.
• Figure 22.2 shows how routing tables can be simplified by using this technique.

2
Network-Specific Method Versus Host-Specific Method
• A second technique to reduce the routing table

and simplify the searching process is called the
network-specific method.
• instead of having an entry for every destination host connected to the same
physical network (host-specific method), we have only one entry that defines
the address of the destination network itself.
• In other words, we treat all hosts connected to the same network as one single
entity.
• For example, if 1000 hosts are attached to the same network, only one entry
exists in the routing table instead of 1000.

2
Default Method
• Another technique to simplify
routing is called the default
method.
• Figure shows host A is
connected to a network with two
routers.
• Router Rl routes the packets to
hosts connected to network N2.
• However, for the rest of the
Internet, router R2 is used.
• So instead of listing all networks
in the entire Internet, host A can
just have one entry called the
default (normally defined as
network address 0.0.0.0).

2
Simplified forwarding
module in classless
address
• Let us discuss the forwarding process.

• We assume that hosts and routers use classless addressing because classful
addressing can be treated as a special case of classless addressing.
• In classless addressing, the routing table needs to have one row of
information for each block involved.
• The table needs to be searched based on the network address (first address
in the block).
• Unfortunately, the destination address in the packet gives no clue about the
network address.
• To solve the problem, we need to include the mask (In) in the table; we
need to have an extra column that includes the mask for the corresponding
block.

2
Example 22.1
Make a routing table for router R1, using the configuration
in figure below.
m
3

2
Solution Routing table for router R1
m
3

2
Figure 22.6
Configuration for Example 22.1
Example 22.2
Show the forwarding process if a packet
arrives at R1 in Figure 22.6 with the
destination address 180.70.65.140.
Solution
The router performs the following steps:
1. The first mask (/26) is applied to the destination address.
The result is 180.70.65.128, which does not match the
corresponding network address.
2. The second mask (/25) is applied to the destination
address. The result is 180.70.65.128, which matches the
corresponding network address. The next-hop address
and the interface number m0 are passed to ARP for
further processing.
2
Figure 22.6
Example 22.3
Show the forwarding process if a packet arrives
at R1 in Figure 22.6 with the destination
address 201.4.22.35.
Solution
The router performs the following steps:
1. The first mask (/26) is applied to the destination
address. The result is 201.4.22.0, which does not
match the corresponding network address.
2. The second mask (/25) is applied to the destination address. The result is
201.4.22.0, which does not match the corresponding network address (row 2).
3. The third mask (/24) is applied to the destination address. The result is
201.4.22.0, which matches the corresponding network address. The destination
address of the packet and the interface number m3 are passed to ARP.
2
Figure 22.6
Example 22.4
Show the forwarding process if a packet arrives

at R1 in Figure 22.6 with the destination
address 18.24.32.78.
Solution
This time all masks are applied, one by one, to the destination address, but no
matching network address is found.
When it reaches the end of the table, the module gives the next-hop address
180.70.65.200 and interface number m2 to ARP.
This is probably an outgoing package that needs to be sent, via the default router,
to someplace else in the Internet.
2
22-3 UNICAST ROUTING PROTOCOLS
A routing table can be either static or dynamic. A static
table is one with manual entries. A dynamic table is one
that is updated automatically when there is a change
somewhere in the Internet. A routing protocol is a
combination of rules and procedures that lets routers in
the Internet inform each other of changes.
Optimization
Intra- and Interdomain Routing
Distance Vector Routing and RIP
Link State Routing and OSPF
Path Vector Routing and BGP
2
Intra- and Interdomain Routing
• One routing protocol cannot handle the
task of updating the routing tables of all
routers in Internet is so large that. For
this reason, an internet is divided into
autonomous systems.
• An autonomous system (AS) is a group

of networks and routers under the
authority of a single administration.
• Routing inside an autonomous system is referred to as intradomain routing.
• Routing between autonomous systems is referred to as interdomain routing.
• Each autonomous system can choose one or more intradomain routing protocols to
handle routing inside the autonomous system. However, only one interdomain routing
protocol handles routing between autonomous systems (see Figure 22.12).

2
Example of Routing Protocols

2
Distance vector routing tables
• In distance vector routing, each node shares its routing table

with its immediate neighbors periodically and when there is a
change.
• The chosen route is with minimum distance.

2
Updating in distance vector routing
• Process:
i. Initialization
• Each node can know only distance with its immediate
neighbors.
• Not neighbor; entry in table is mark as infinite(unreachable)
ii. Sharing
• Sharing table with neighbors.
iii. Updating
• Update the routing table: calculate the distance, add new
node, modify the existing record if needed.
2
Link state routing
Link state routing has a different philosophy from distance
vector routing. Each node in the domain has the entire
topology of the domain- the list of nodes and links, how
they are connected including the type, cost (metric), and
condition of the links (up or down)-the node can use
Dijkstra's algorithm to build a routing table.

2
22-4 MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOLS
In this section, we discuss multicasting and multicast

routing protocols.

Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast
Applications
Multicast Routing
Routing Protocols
2
Unicasting
- In unicast communication, there is one

source and one destination.
- A unicast packet starts from the source
S1 and passes through routers to reach
the destination D1.
- In unicasting, when a router receives a
packet,Asmatullah
it forwards
Khan @ Maventhe packet
Academe, through 2
Secunderabad.
Multicasting
- One source & a group of destinations.

- The relationship is one-to-many.
- In this type of communication, the
source address is a unicast address,
but the destination address is a group
address, which defines one or more
destinations.
- The group address identifies the members
2
Broadcasting
- In broadcast communication, the
relationship between the
source and the destination is one-to-all.
- There is only one source, but all the
other hosts are the
destinations.
- The Internet does not explicitly support
broadcasting
because of the
Asmatullah huge
Khan @ amount
Maven Academe, of traffic it2
Secunderabad.
Multicasting versus multiple unicasting
Multicasting starts with one

single packet from the source
that is duplicated by the
routers. The destination
2
Multicasting versus multiple unicasting
In multiple unicasting, several packets

start from the source. If there are five
destinations, for example, the source
sends five packets, each with a different
unicast destination address. Note that
there may be multiple copies traveling
between twoKhan
Asmatullah routers. For example,
@ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.
2
Chapter 23
Upper
OSI
Layers

Figure 23-1
Session Layer Dialog

Figure 23-2
Session-to-Transport Layer Communication

Figure 23-3
Synchronization Points

Figure 23-4
SPDU

Figure 23-5
Presentation Layer Functions

Figure 23-6
Direct and Indirect Methods of Translation

Figure 23-7
Concept of Encryption and Decryption

Figure 23-8
Encryption/Decryption Methods

Figure 23-9
Monoalphabetic Substitution

Figure 23-10
Polyalphabetic Substitution

Figure 23-11
Transpositional Encryption

Figure 23-12
Encoding/Decoding

Figure 23-13
Permutation

Figure 23-14
Substitution

Figure 23-15
Product

Figure 23-16
Exclusive OR

Figure 23-17
Rotation

Figure 23-18
DES

Figure 23-19
Subkey Generation in DES

Figure 23-20
One of the 16
Steps in DES

Figure 23-21
Public Key Encryption

Figure 23-22
RSA

Figure 23-23
RSA Encryption and Decryption

Figure 23-24
Security of RSA

Figure 23-25
Signature Authentication

Figure 23-26
Data Compression Methods

Figure 23-27
Run-Length Encoding

Figure 23-28
MHS

Figure 23-29
Message Format in MHS

Figure 23-30
Virtual File Storage

Figure 23-31
Local Access

Figure 23-32
Remote Access

Figure 23-33
Virtual Terminal

Chapter 24
TCP/IP

Figure 24-1
An Internet According to TCP/IP

Figure 24-2
TCP/IP and the OSI Model

Figure 24-3
IP Datagram

Figure 24-4
Internet Address

Figure 24-5
Internet Classes

Figure 24-6
IP Addresses in Decimal Notation

Figure 24-7
Class Ranges of Internet Addresses

Figure 24-8
Network and Host Addresses

Figure 24-9
A Network with Two Levels of Hierarchy

Figure 24-10
A Network with Three Levels of Hierarchy

Figure 24-11
Addresses with and without Subnetting

Figure 24-12
Masking

Figure 24-13
ARP

Figure 24-14
Port Addresses

Figure 24-15
UDP Datagram Format

Figure 24-16
TCP Segment Format

Chapter 25
TCP/IP
Protocol Suite:
Part 2,
Application Layer
Figure 25-1
Comparison between OSI and TCP/IP

Figure 25-2
Client-Server Model

Figure 25-3
DNS in the Internet

Figure 25-4
Generic Domains

Figure 25-5
Country Domains

Figure 25-6
Inverse Domain

Figure 25-7
Local Login

Figure 25-8
Remote Login

Figure 25-9
Concept of NVT

Figure 25-10
FTP

Figure 25-11
SMTP Concept

Figure 25-12
UAs and MTs

Figure 25-13
Relay MTAs

Figure 25-14
Mail Gateways

Figure 25-15
E-mail Address

Figure 25-16
The Entire E-mail System

Figure 25-17
MIME

Figure 25-18
POP3 and SMTP

Figure 25-19
SNMP Concept

Figure 25-20
Internet Management Components

Figure 25-21
MIB

Figure 25-22
SNMP Messages

Figure 25-23
HTTP Transaction

Figure 25-24
Message Categories

Figure 25-25
Request Message

Figure 25-26
Response Message

Figure 25-27
URL

Figure 25-28
Distributed Services

Figure 25-29
Hypertext

Figure 25-30
Browser Architecture

Figure 25-31
Categories of Web Documents

Figure 25-32
Static Document

Figure 25-33
Boldface Tags

Figure 25-34
Effect of Boldface Tags

Figure 25-35
Beginning and Ending Tags

Figure 25-36
Dynamic
Document

Figure 25-37
Active
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Chapter 1

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Data Communication System Components

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Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

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Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Point-to-Point Line Configuration

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Point-to-Point Line Configuration

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Point-to-Point Line Configuration

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Multipoint Line Configuration

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

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Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

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Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

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Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

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Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

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Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

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Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Data Link Layer

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Data Link Layer Example

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Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

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Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

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Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Summary of Layer Functions

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Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Analog and Digital Signals

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.

Asmatullah Khan @ Maven Academe, Secunderabad.