Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Properties: Density, specific volume, specific

weight, specific gravity, compressibility, viscosity,
measurement of viscosity, Newton's equation of
viscosity, Surface tension, capillarity and pressure

Dr. Mohsin Siddique

Assistant Professor

1
Physical Properties of Fluids

Density
Viscosity

Specific Volume
Surface Tension

Specific Weight
Pressure

Specific Gravity
Buoyancy

Compressibility

2
Density

It is also termed as specific mass or mass density.

It is the mass of substance per unit volume .i.e., mass of fluid per
unit volume.

It is designated with symbol of ρ (rho)
ρ =mass/volume
=M/L3
Fundamental Units=kg/m3, slug/m3, g/cm3
F FT 2
F = Ma ⇒ M = =
a L
M FT 2
ρ= 3 = 4
L L
Note: Density of water at 4oc=1000kg/m3, 1.938slug/ft3, 1g/cm3

3
Specific Volume

It is defined as volume of substance per unit mass.

It is designated with υ.
υ = volume / mass = L3 / M
Fundamental Units=m3/kg, m3/slug, cm3/g
F = Ma

L4
υ=
FT 2
4
Relationship Between Mass and Specific Volume

υ = volume / mass = L3 / M
ρ = mass / volume = M / L3

υ = 1/ ρ
ρ = 1 /υ

5
Specific Weight

It is the weight of substance per unit volume or say it is
the weight of fluid per unit volume.

It is designated by γ (gamma).
weight W Mg
γ= = 3 γ= 3 QW = Mg
volume L L
L
ML M Qg =
γ= 3 2= 2 2 T2
LT LT

Note: Specific weight of water at 4oc=9810N/m3, 62.4lb/ft3, 981dyne/cm3

6
Relation Between γ and ρ
Mass weight
ρ= & γ =
volume volume

QW = Mg

γ = ρg
7
Effect of Temperature and Pressure on
Specific Weight

As the equation of state for a Pυ = RT
perfect gas is given by
P 1
= RT Qυ =
Pυ = RT ρ ρ

Where

P=absolute pressure
P γ

υ=specific volume = RT Qρ =
(γ / g ) g

T=absolute temperature

R=gas constant gP
γ =

For perfect gases RT
mR=8312N-m/(kg-k) P g

Where γ = constt constt =
T R

m=molecular weight of gas
1
γ ∝P & γ ∝
8 T
Effect of Temperature and Pressure on
Specific Weight

Since
weight W
γ= =
volume υ

Assuming constant
pressure
1
γ∝ n n ≠ 0,1
T

Assuming constant
temperature

γ ∝ Pn n ≠ 0,1

9
Specific Gravity (Relative Density)

It is the ratio of density of a substance and density of water at 4oC.

It is the ratio of specific weight of substance and specific weight of
water at 4oC.

It is the ratio of weight of substance and weight of an equal volume
of water at 4oC.
ρ fluid γ fluid W fluid
S= = =
ρ water γ water Wwater

1

Remember: γ ∝P & γ ∝
T
ρ fluid at T o C γ fluid at T o C W fluid at T o C
S= o
= o
=
ρ water at T C γ water at T C Wwater at T o C

Note: Specific gravity of liquid is measure w.r.t. water while for

cases of gases it is measured w.r.t. standard gas (i.e., air)
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PROBLEMS

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PROBLEMS

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PROBLEMS

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14
Compressibility

Compressible fluids

Incompressible fluids

In fluid mechanics we deal with both compressible and

incompressible fluids of either variable or constant density.

Although there is no such thing in reality as incompressible fluid, we
use this terms where the change in density with pressure is so small
as to be negligible. This is usually the case with liquids.

Ordinarily, we consider the liquids as incompressible.

We may consider the gases to be incompressible when the pressure
variation is small compared with absolute pressure.
Compressibility

Compressible fluids

Fluids which can be compressed.

Fluid in which there is a change in volume with change in pressure

P1
P2 > P1
P2
v1 v2 < v1
v2

As a result of change in volume, v1 ≠ v2

density and specific weight of
fluid also changes. Hence, for ρ1 ≠ ρ 2
compressible fluids, γ1 ≠ γ 2
16
Compressibility

Incompressible fluids

Fluids which can not be compressed.

Fluid in which there is no change in volume with change in pressure

P1 P2
P2 > P1

v1 v2 v2 = v1
v2

As a result of change in volume, v1 = v2

density and specific weight of
fluid also changes. Hence, for ρ1 = ρ 2
compressible fluids, γ1 = γ 2
17
Compressibility (Volumetric Strain)

Volumetric Strain is the ratio of change in volume and original volume.

P1
P2 > P1
P2
v1 v2 < v1
v2

Volumetric strain=change in specific volume/original specific volume.

υ1 − υ 2
= Qυ1 > υ 2 υ1 − υ 2
v1 = Qυ1 > υ 2
v1 / M − v2 / M
υ1
=
v1 / M dυ
=
v1 − v2 dv υ1
= =
18 v1 v1
Compressibility

Bulk Modulus or Volume Modulus of Elasticity (Ev):

It is defined as ratio of volumetric stress to volumetric strain

Ev= volumetric stress/volumetric strain

Ev=change in pressure/compressibility

dp dp
Ev = Ev =
 dv   dυ 
   
 v1   υ1 

19
Viscosity

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to shear or
angular deformation.

It is the property of a fluid by mixture of which it offers

resistance to deformation under the influence of shear forces.
It depends upon the cohesion and molecular momentum
exchange between fluid layers.

It can also be defined as internal resist offered by fluid to flow.

It is denoted by µ.

It is also termed as coefficient of viscosity or absolute viscosity or

dynamic viscosity or molecular viscosity.

20
Factor affecting viscosity

1. Cohesion

2. Molecular momentum

1. Cohesion: It is the attraction between molecules of fluid. More
the molecular attraction (cohesion) more is the viscosity (resistance
to flow) of fluid.

It is dominant in liquids.

2. Molecular momentum: Molecules in any fluid change their
position with time and is known as molecular activity. More the
molecular activity more will be viscosity of the fluid.

It is dominant in gases

A
B

21
Effect of temperature on viscosity

For Liquids:

In case of liquids, cohesion (molecular
attraction is dominant). Therefore, if the
temperature of liquid is increased, its
cohesion and hence viscosity will
decrease.
1
µ=
T

For Gases:

In gases momentum exchange is
dominant. Therefore, if the temperature
of gases is increases, its momentum
exchange will increase and hence
viscosity will increase.
22 µ =T
Kinematic Viscosity

It is ratio of absolute viscosity and density of fluid.

It is denoted byν (nu)

µ
ν=
ρ

23
Newton’s Equation of Viscosity

Consider two parallel plates, in which lower plate is fixed and upper is
moving with and uniform velocity ‘U’ under the influence of force ‘F’. Space
between the plates is filled with a fluid having viscosity, µ.

U Moving plate
Force, F
u

y dy

du Fixed plate

F= Applied force (shearing force)

A= Contact area of plate(resisting area)

y=gap/space between plates

U= Velocity of plate

As the upper plate moves, fluid also moves in the direction of applied force
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due to adhesion.
Newton’s Equation of Viscosity

Factor affecting Force, F
1
(i ) F ∝ A; ( ii ) F ∝ U ; ( iii ) F ∝
y

Hence,
AU AU
F ∝ F = µ
y y

Where, µ is coefficient of viscosity

Assuming linear velocity profile (as shown in figure)

F U du
τ = = µ = µ
A y dy
25
Newton’s Equation of Viscosity

At boundaries the particles of fluid adhere to wall and so their velocities are
zero relative to wall. This so called non-slip condition occurs in viscous fluids

26
Newton’s Equation of Viscosity
du
τ = µ
dy

The above equation is called as Newton’s equation of viscosity.

The equation shows that the shearing stress is directly proportional
to the velocity gradient and its is known as Netwon’s law of
velocity.

In the above equation

du/dy= velocity gradient or rate of change of deformation

µ = absolute viscosity

τ=shear stress

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Dimensional Analysis of Viscosity

Viscosity
Kinematic Viscosity
F y FL
µ= = 2
A U L (L / T ) M
FT µ LT L2
µ= 2 ν= = =
L ρ M T
L3

This expression is used to write
fundamental unit of viscosity

MLT −2T −2
µ= Q F = MLT
L2
M
µ=
LT

28
Unit of Viscosity

Viscosity µ = M / LT
SI BG CGS

N-s/m2 Lb-s/ft2 Dyne-s/cm2

(Poise, P)

Kg/(m-s) Slug/(ft-s) g/(cm-s)

Widely used unit is Poise =0.1N.s/m2

2

Kinematic Viscosity ν = L / T

SI BG CGS

m2/s ft2/s cm2/s

(stoke)

Widely used unit is Stoke=10-4m2/s

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Problem

30
Problem

Q. 2.11.4: A flat plate 200mm x 750mm slide on oil (µ
=0.85N.s/m2) over a large surface as shown. What force, F, is
required to drag the plate at a velocity u of 1.2m/s if the thickness
of the separating oil film is 0.6mm?

F U du
τ = = µ = µ
A y dy
du U
F = τA = µ A = µ A
dy y
U 1 .2
F = µ A = 0 . 85 (0 . 2 × 0 . 7 )
y 0 . 6 / 1000
F = 255 N

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Problem

Q.2.11.8: A space 16mm wide between two large plane surfaces is
filled with SAE 30 Western lubricating oil at 35oC(Fig11.8). What
force is required to drag a very thin plate of 0.4m2 area between the
surfaces at a speed u=0.25m/s (a) if this plate is equally spaced
between the two surfaces? (b) if t=5mm?

Solution:

Y=16mm A=0.4m2 u=0.25m/s

T=35oC µ =0.18N.s/m2 (from figure A.1)
(a)

F=? If y=8mm
F U du
τ = = µ = µ
A y dy 8mm

F = F1 + F 2 = (τ A )1 + (τ A )2
32
 8mm

F = F 1 + F 2 = (τ A )1 + (τ A )2
 u   u 
F =  µ A  +  µ A 
 y 1  y 2
 0 . 25   0 . 25 
=  0 . 18 0 . 4  +  0 . 18 0 .4 
 8 / 1000 1  8 / 1000 2
= 4 .5 N

33

(b): F=? If t =5mm

y1=11, y2=5mm
5mm
F = F 1 + F 2 = (τ A )1 + (τ A )2
 u   u 
F =  µ A  +  µ A 
 y 1  y 2
 0 . 25   0 . 25 
=  0 . 18 0 . 4  +  0 . 18 0 .4 
 5 / 1000 1  11 / 1000 2
5 . 24 N

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35
Shear Stress ~ Velocity gradient curve

Ideal fluid
Real solid

Newtownian Fluid

Non-Newtownian fluid

Ideal plastic

Real solid

Ideal solid/elastic solid

36
Shear Stress ~ Velocity gradient curve

Ideal Fluid: The fluid which does not offer resistance to flow
µ = 0 ⇒τ = 0

Newtownian Fluid: Fluid which obey Newtown’s law of viscosity
du
τ∝
dy
slope of curve ( τ ~ du / dy )is constant

Non-Newtonian fluid: Fluid which does not obey Newtown’s Law
of viscosity du
τ∝
dy
slope of curve ( τ ~ du / dy )changing continuously

37
Shear Stress ~ Velocity gradient curve

Ideal Solid: solid which can never be deformed under the action of
force
du
=0
dy

Real solid: solid which can be deformed under action of forces

Ideal Plastic: These are substances which offer resistance to shear

forces without deformation upon a certain extent but if the load is
further increased then they deform

Real Plastic: These are substances in which there is deformation

with the application of force and it increases with increase in applied
load.

38
Problem

39
40
Measurement of Viscosity

The following devices are used for the measurement of viscosity

1. Tube type viscometer

2. Rotational type viscometer

3. Falling sphere type viscometer

41
Falling Sphere Viscometer
Dt

It consists of a tall transparent
tube or cylinder and a sphere of D
known diameter.

The sphere is dropped inside the A
tube containing liquid and time of W
fall of sphere between two points
(say A and B) is recorded to FB
s
estimate the fall velocity (s/t)of
sphere inside liquid. FD

Where S= distance between
point A and B and t is the time of
travel. B

From this velocity of fall, viscosity
is estimated from the expression
of fall sphere type viscometer. Fig. Falling Tube type viscometer
42
Falling Sphere Viscometer
Dt

D=Ds=Diameter of sphere

Dt=Diameter of tube or cylinder D

Vt=velocity of sphere in tube (s/t)

s=Distance between point s A and B A
W

t=time taken by sphere to cover
distance, s FB
s

W=weight of sphere=γ(Vol)

= γs(πD3/6) FD

FB=Force of Buoyancy

= γL(πD3/6)
B

FD=Drag force
Stoke’s Law
= (3πµVD)
Note: V is not equal to Vt
Fig. Falling Tube type viscometer
43
Falling Sphere Viscometer

Bouyancy: It is the resultant upward thrust exerted by the fluid on a
sphere. It is the tendency of fluid to lift the body and it is equal to weight
of volume of fluid displaced by the body (Archimedes Principal).

Drag Force: It is a resisting force generated by the liquid on the moving
object which is acting in the opposite direction of movement .
Vt=velocity of sphere in tube with wall effect
V=velocity of sphere in tube without wall effect
V>Vt
2
V 9 D  9 D  D 1
≈ 1 +   +   + ... if ≤
Vt  4 Dt   4 Dt  Dt 3

∑F y = 0; FB + FD − W = 0;
 πD 3   πD 3 
γ L   + 3πµVD = γ S  
 6   6 
44
Falling Sphere Viscometer
 πD 3   πD 3   D2   D2 
3πµVD = γ S   − γ L   ⇒ 3µV = γ S   − γ L  
 6   6   6   6 
D2
µ= (γ S − γ L )
18V

The above equation is governing equation for falling sphere type
viscometer.

For a particular temperature, D, γs and γL are constant. So we can
write ;
1
µα
V

Thus, velocity of fall is inversely proportional to viscosity and
is indicative of viscosity in falling sphere type viscometer.

Note: This method can only be used for transparent liquids

45
Problem: 11.1.10

Dt

D=Ds=Diameter of sphere=0.25in
D

Dt=Diameter of tube or cylinder=2.25in

Vt=velocity of sphere in tube (s/t)=0.15fps
A
γ S = S sγ w
γ L = S Lγ w
s

46
Problem: 11.1.10
2 D 1
V 9 D  9 D  if ≤
≈ 1 +   +   + ... = 1.313 Dt 3
Vt  4 Dt   4 Dt 
V = 1.313(0.15) = 0.197 fps

D2
µ= (γ S − γ L ) = 0.0806 lb.s / ft 2
18V

ρVD
Reynolds no. = Re = <1
µ

47
Surface Tension

The tension force created at the imaginary
thin surface due to unbalanced-molecular
attraction is termed as surface tension. B

v2 A

Molecule A in figure above is situated at a certain depth below the

surface. It is acted upon by equal force from all sides whereas
molecule B (situated at the surface ) is acted upon by unbalanced
forces from below.

Thus a tight skin/film/surface is formed at the surface due to inward

molecular pull.

48
Types of molecular attraction

Cohesion: It is the attraction force between the molecules of same
material

Adhesion: It is the attraction force between the molecules of
different materials

Surface tension depends upon the relative magnitude of cohesion

and adhesion but primarily it depend upon the cohesion.

With the increase in temperature cohesion reduces and hence
surface tension also reduces.

Concept of surface tension is used in capillarity action

49
Capillarity

It is the rise of fall of liquid in a small diameter (< 0.5”) tube due to
surface tension and adhesion between liquid and solid.

For capillary action diameter of tube is less than 0.5inch while for
large diameter tubes this phenomenon become negligible.
D

σ
θ
D
h

θ h
v2 v2
σ

Water Θ<90 Mercury Θ>90

The curved surface that develops in tube is called meniscus
50
 Capillarity D

D= diameter of tube σ
θ

γ=specific weight of liquid

h=capillary rise h

θ=angle of contact or contact angle

σ=force of surface tension per unit length
v2

Derivation of expression for capillary rise/fall

Let’s take ∑ Fy = 0
π 2 

Weight of column of liquid acting downward= γ (vol ) = γ  D h 
4 

Vertical component of force of surface tension= σ (πD )cos θ

51
Capillarity

Equating both equations
π 2 
σ (πD ) cos θ = γ  D h
4 

π 2 
σ (πD ) cos θ = γ  D h
4 
γhD 4σ cos θ
σ= or h =
4 cos θ γD

The above equation is used to compute capillary rise/fall.

Note: Fall has –ve sign

52
Problem. 2.29

Solution:

At 50oF γ = 62.41lb / ft 3 σ = 0.00509lb / ft

With θ=0o
4σ cos θ 4(0.00509 )
h= =
γD 62.41(0.04 / 12 )
= 0.0979 ft = 1.174in

True static height=6.78-1.174in=5.61in

53
Vapor Pressure of liquids

Vapor Pressure: It is the pressure at which liquid transforms into
vapors or it is the pressure exerted by vapors of liquid.

All the liquids have tendency to

release their molecules in the space
above their surface.

If the liquid in container have limited
space above it, then the surface is filled
with the vapors.

These vapors when released from liquid exert pressure known as

vapor pressure.

It is the function of temperature. More the temperature more will
be vapor pressure.
54
Vapor Pressure of liquids

Saturated vapor pressure: It is the vapor pressure that
corresponds to the dynamic equilibrium conditions (saturation) i.e.,
when rate of evaporation becomes equal to rate of condensation

Boiling vapor pressure: The pressure at which vapor pressure

becomes equal to atmospheric pressure.

55
Sample MCQs

1.Specific gravity of a liquid is equal to

(a). Ratio of mass density of water to mass density of liquid

(b). inverse of mass density

(c). Ratio of specific weight of liquid to specific weight of water

(d). None of all

2. What happens to the viscosity of a liquid when its temperature is raised?

(a). The viscosity of the liquid increases

(b). The viscosity of the liquid stays the same

(c).The viscosity of the liquid decreases

(d).The temperature of a liquid does not rise

3. What happens to the specific weight of a liquid when its temperature is
raised?

(a). It increases

(b). It stays the same

(c). It decreases

(d). The temperature of a liquid does not rise

56
Sample MCQs

4. In a falling sphere viscometer, according to force balance we have

(a). Weight=Drag+Buoyancy

(b). Drag=Weight - Buoyancy

(c). Buoyancy=Weight +Drag

(d). None of all

5. The kinematic viscosity is

(a). Multiplication of dynamic viscosity and density

(b). division of dynamic viscosity by density

(c). Multiplication of dynamic viscosity and pressure

(d). None of the above

6. As a result of capillary action

(a) liquid rise in capillary tube

(b) liquid falls down in capillary tube

© Both (a) and (b)

(d) None of all
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 Thank you

Questions….

Feel free to contact:

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