Taller de Autoaprendizaje No 3

16/5/2018 Taller de Autoaprendizaje No 3
Taller de Autoaprendizaje No 3
Due: 11:59pm on Sunday, May 27, 2018
You will receive no credit for items you complete after the assignment is due. Grading Policy
Understanding Work Done by a Constant Force
Learning Goal:
To explore the definition of work and learn how to find the work done by a force on an object.
The word "work" has many meanings when used in everyday life. However, in physics work has a very specific definition. This definition is important to learn
and understand. Work and energy are two of the most fundamental and important concepts you will learn in your study of physics. Energy cannot be created or
destroyed; it can only be transformed from one form to another. How this energy is transferred affects our daily lives from microscopic processes, such as
protein synthesis, to macroscopic processes, such as the expansion of the universe!
When energy is transferred either to or away from an object by a force F ⃗ acting over a displacement d ⃗ , work W is done on that object. The amount of work
done by a constant force can be found using the equation
W = F d cos θ ,
where F is the magnitude of F ,⃗ d is the magnitude of d ⃗ , and θ is the angle between F ⃗ and d ⃗ .
The SI unit for work is the joule, J. A single joule of work is not very big. Your heart uses about 0.5 J each time it beats, and the 60-watt lightbulb in your desk
lamp uses 216, 000 J each hour. A joule is defined as follows:
2
kg m
1J = 1Nm = 1
2
s
The net work done on an object is the sum of the work done by each individual force acting on that object. In other words,
Wnet = W1 + W2 + W3 + ⋯ = ∑ Wi
i
.
The net work can also be expressed as the work done by the net force acting on an object, which can be represented by the following equation:
Wnet = F net d cos θ .
Knowing the sign of the work done on an object is a crucial element to understanding work. Positive work indicates that an object has been acted on by a force
that tranfers energy to the object, thereby increasing the object's energy. Negative work indicates that an object has been acted on by a force that has reduced
the energy of the object.
The next few questions will ask you to determine the sign of the work done by the various forces acting on a box that is being pushed across a rough floor. As
illustrated in the figure , the box is being acted on by a normal force n⃗ , the force due to gravity w⃗ , the
force of kinetic friction f k⃗ , and the pushing force F p⃗ . The displacement of the box is d ⃗ .
Part A
Which of the following statements accurately describes the sign of the work done on the box by the force of the push?
Hint 1. Find the angle
The work done on the box by the pushing force depends on the angle θ between F p⃗ and the displacement d ⃗ . What is this angle?
ANSWER:
https://session.masteringphysics.com/myct/assignmentPrintView?assignmentID=6248358 1/129
0 degrees
45 degrees
90 degrees
180 degrees
ANSWER:
positive
negative
zero
Correct
Part B
Which of the following statements accurately decribes the sign of the work done on the box by the normal force?
Hint 1. Finding theta
The work done on the box by the normal force depends on the angle θ between n⃗ and the displacement d ⃗ . What is this angle?
ANSWER:
0 degrees
45 degrees
90 degrees
180 degrees
ANSWER:
positive
negative
zero
Correct
Part C
Which of the following statements accurately decribes the sign of the work done on the box by the force of kinetic friction?
Hint 1. Finding theta

⃗
The work done on the box by the force of kinetic friction depends on the angle θ between f k
and the displacement d ⃗ . What is this angle?
ANSWER:
0 degrees
45 degrees
90 degrees
180 degrees
ANSWER:
positive
negative
zero
Correct
Part D
Which of the following statements accurately decribes the sign of the work done on the box by the force of gravity?
Hint 1. Finding the angle
The work done on the box by the weight depends on the angle θ between w⃗ and the displacement d ⃗ . What is this angle?
ANSWER:
0 degrees
45 degrees
90 degrees
180 degrees
ANSWER:
positive
negative
zero
Correct
Making generalizations
You may have noticed that the force due to gravity and normal forces do no work on the box. Any force that is perpendicular to the displacement of the object
on which it acts does no work on the object.
The force of kinetic friction did negative work on the box. In other words, it took energy away from the box. Typically, this energy gets transformed into heat, like
the heat that radiates from your skin when you get a rug burn due to the friction between your skin and the carpet. A force that acts on an object in a direction
opposite to the direction of the object's displacement does negative work on the object.
The pushing force acts on the box in the same direction as the object's displacement and does positive work on the box.
These generalizations allow physicists to rewrite the equation for work as
W = F∥ d ,
where F|| is the component of F ⃗ that is either parallel or antiparallel to the displacement. If F|| is parallel to d ⃗ , as in the case of F p⃗ , then the work done is
positive. If F|| is antiparallel to d ⃗ , as in the case of f k⃗ , then the work done is negative.
Part E
You have just moved into a new apartment and are trying to arrange your bedroom. You would like to move your dresser of weight 3,500 N across the
carpet to a spot 5 m away on the opposite wall. Hoping to just slide your dresser easily across the floor, you do not empty your clothes out of the drawers
before trying to move it. You push with all your might but cannot move the dresser before becoming completely exhausted. How much work do you do on
the dresser?
ANSWER:
4
W > 1.75 × 10 J
4
W = 1.75 × 10 J
4
1.75 × 10 J > W > 0 J
W = 0 J
Correct
Remember that to a physicist work means something very specific, and since you were unable to move the dresser, d = 0 and therefore W = 0.
However, you got tired and sweaty trying to move the dresser, just as you do when you go to "work out" at the gym.Your muscles are not static
strips of fibrous tissue. They continually contract and expand a slight amount when you exert them. Chemical energy from food is being
transformed into the energy needed to move your muscles. Work is being done inside your muscles, but work is not being done on the dresser.
Part F
A box of mass m is sliding down a frictionless plane that is inclined at an angle ϕ above the horizontal, as shown in the figure . What is the work done on
the box by the force due to gravity w, if the box moves a distance d?
Hint 1. Finding Theta.

The work done on the box by the force of gravity depends on the angle between the weight and the displacement; this is the angle θ that goes into
the equation
W = F d cos θ .
ANSWER:
W = wd cos ϕ
W = wd cos(90 − ϕ)
W = 0
None of these
Correct
The angle given to you in a problem is not always the same angle that you use in the equation for work!
Part G
The planet Earth travels in a circular orbit at constant speed around the Sun. What is the net work done on the Earth by the gravitational attraction between
it and the Sun in one complete orbit? Assume that the mass of the Earth is given by Me , the mass of the Sun is given by Ms , and the Earth-Sun distance
is given by res .
Hint 1. Newton's law of universal gravitation

The magnitude of the force of attraction between two objects of masses M1 and M2 that are separated by a distance r is given by:
M1 M2
F = G
2
.
r
Hint 2. Circumference of a circle

The circumference of a circle with radius r is
C = 2πr
Hint 3. Finding the angle

The work done on the Earth by the gravitational attraction between it and the Sun depends on the angle between the gravitational force and the
displacement of the Earth; this is the angle θ that goes into
W = F d cos θ .
The force of attraction always points from the Earth toward the Sun along the radius of the Earth's orbit. At any instant in time the displacement of
the Earth is considered to be tangent to its orbit; perpendicular to the radius.
ANSWER:
Me Ms
W = 2πG
res
W = GπMe Ms
W = 0
None of these.
Correct
An object undergoing uniform circular motion experiences a net force that is directed in toward the center of the circle; this net force is called the
centripetal force. This force is always perpendicular to the distance the object moves and therefore never does any work on the object.
Part H
A block of mass m is pushed up against a spring with spring constant k until the spring has been compressed a distance x from equilibrium. What is the
work done on the block by the spring?
Hint 1. Hooke's Law

The force exerted by a spring with spring constant k is given by
⃗
F = −kx⃗ ,
where x is the spring's displacement from equilibrium position xeq .
ANSWER:
2
W = kx
2
W = −kx
W = 0
None of these.
Correct
The equation for work presented in this problem requires that the force be constant. Because the force exerted on an object varies with the
spring's displacement from equilibrium (F ⃗ = ) you cannot use W
kx⃗ = F d cos θ to find the work done by a spring. In actuality the work done by
a spring is given by the equation
1
W spring = − kx
2
.
2
Congratulations! Now that you have the basics down and have been exposed to some tricky situations involving the equation for work, you are
ready to apply this knowledge to new situations.
± All Work and No Play
Learning Goal:
To be able to calculate work done by a constant force directed at different angles relative to displacement
If an object undergoes displacement while being acted upon by a force (or several forces), it is said that work is being done on the object. If the object is moving
in a straight line and the displacement and the force are known, the work done by the force can be calculated as
⃗ ⃗
∣ ∣
W = F ⋅ s ⃗ = F ∣s ∣
∣ ∣
⃗ cos θ ,
where W is the work done by force F ⃗ on the object that undergoes displacement s ⃗ directed at angle θ relative to F .⃗
Note that depending on the value of cos θ, the work done can be positive, negative, or zero.
In this problem, you will practice calculating work done on an object moving in a straight line. The first series of questions is related to the accompanying figure.
Part A
What can be said about the sign of the work done by the force F 1⃗ ?
ANSWER:
It is positive.
It is negative.
It is zero.
There is not enough information to answer the question.
Correct
When θ = 90
∘
, the cosine of θ is zero, and therefore the work done is zero.
Part B
What can be said about the work done by force F 2⃗ ?

ANSWER:
It is positive.
It is negative.
It is zero.
Correct
When 0∘ < θ < 90
∘
, cos θ is positive, and so the work done is positive.
Part C
The work done by force F 3⃗ is

ANSWER:
positive
negative
zero
Correct
When 90 ∘ < θ < 180
∘
, cos θ is negative, and so the work done is negative.
Part D

ANSWER:
positive
negative
zero
Correct
Part E

ANSWER:
positive
negative
zero
Correct
Part F

ANSWER:
positive
negative
zero
Correct
Part G

ANSWER:
positive
negative
zero
Correct
⃗ ∣ ∣
⃗
In the next series of questions, you will use the formula W = F ⋅ s ⃗ = F ∣
∣
s∣
∣∣ ∣
⃗ cos θ
to calculate the work done by various forces on an object that moves 160 meters to the right.
Part H
Find the work W done by the 18-newton force.
Use two significant figures in your answer. Express your answer in joules.
ANSWER:
W = 2900 J
Correct
Part I
ANSWER:
W = 4200 J
Correct
Part J
ANSWER:
W = -1900 J
Correct
Part K
ANSWER:
W = -1800 J
Correct
± The Work Done in Pulling a Supertanker
Two tugboats pull a disabled supertanker. Each tug exerts a constant force of 2.10×106 N , one at an angle 19.0 ∘ west of north, and the other at an angle 19.0
∘
east of north, as they pull the tanker a distance 0.730 km toward the north.
Part A
What is the total work done by the two tugboats on the supertanker?
Express your answer in joules, to three significant figures.
Hint 1. How to approach the problem

There are two ways to calculate the total work done on an object when several forces act on it. You can compute the quantities of work done on the
object by each force and then add them together. Alternatively, you can compute the work done on the object by the net force acting on it. The hints
that follow are meant to help you to calculate the total work using the first method.
Hint 2. Find the work done by one tugboat

What is the work done on the tanker by the tugboat that exerts a force in the direction west of north?
Express your answer in joules, to three significant figures.
Hint 1. The definition of work
The work W done by a constant force F ⃗ acting on an object that undergoes a straight-line displacement d ⃗ is given by the formula
W = F d cos ϕ ,
where ϕ is the angle between the direction of the force and the direction of displacement.
ANSWER:
1.45×109 J
ANSWER:
2.90×109 J
Correct
Understanding Work and Kinetic Energy
Learning Goal:
To learn about the Work-Energy Theorem and its basic applications.
In this problem, you will learn about the relationship between the work done on an object and the kinetic energy of that object.
The kinetic energy K of an object of mass m moving at a speed v is defined as K = (1/2)mv 2 . It seems reasonable to say that the speed of an object--and,
therefore, its kinetic energy--can be changed by performing work on the object. In this problem, we will explore the mathematical relationship between the work
done on an object and the change in the kinetic energy of that object.
First, let us consider a sled of mass m being pulled by a constant, horizontal force of magnitude F along a rough, horizontal surface. The sled is speeding up.
Part A
How many forces are acting on the sled?
ANSWER:
one
two
three
four
Correct
Part B
The work done on the sled by the force of gravity is __________.
ANSWER:
zero
negative
positive
Correct
Part C
The work done on the sled by the normal force is __________.
ANSWER:
zero
negative
positive
Correct
Part D
The work done on the sled by the pulling force is __________.
ANSWER:
zero
negative
positive
Correct
Part E
The work done on the sled by the force of friction is __________.
ANSWER:
zero
negative
positive
Correct
Part F
The net work done on the sled is __________.
Hint 1. Which force is bigger?

In the situation described, which statement is true?
ANSWER:
The magnitude of the pulling force is greater than that of the force of friction.
The magnitude of the pulling force is less than that of the force of friction.
The magnitude of the pulling force is the same as that of the force of friction.
ANSWER:
zero
negative
positive
Correct
Part G
In the situation described, the kinetic energy of the sled __________.
ANSWER:
remains constant
decreases
increases
Correct
Let us now consider the situation quantitatively. Let the mass of the sled be m and the magnitude of the net force acting on the sled be Fnet . The sled starts
from rest.
Consider an interval of time during which the sled covers a distance s and the speed of the sled increases from v 1 to v 2 . We will use this information to find the
relationship between the work done by the net force (otherwise known as the net work) and the change in the kinetic energy of the sled.
Part H
Find the net force Fnet acting on the sled.
Express your answer in terms of some or all of the variables m, s, v 1 , and v 2 .

According to Newton's 2nd law,
F net = ma .
Therefore, you need to simply find the acceleration of the sled. Once you've found that, multiply it by m to get the force. You can use kinematics to
find the acceleration.
Hint 2. Find the acceleration

Find the acceleration a of the sled.
Express your answer in terms of some or all of the variables s, v 1 , and v 2 .
Hint 1. Some useful kinematics

The definition of acceleration is
v2 −v1
a= .
t
If the acceleration is a constant, the average velocity can be found as
v1 +v2
vavg = .
2
Finally, the distance can be expressed as
s = v avg t.
Combining these equations and eliminating t and v avg gives the desired answer.
ANSWER:
2 2
(v2 ) −(v1 )
a =
2s
ANSWER:
2 2
m(v2 −v1 )
F net =
2s
Correct
Part I
Find the net work Wnet done on the sled.
Express your answer in terms of some or all of the variables Fnet and s.
Hint 1. Work, force, and displacement
In general, the work done by a constant force F ⃗ can be found as
W = F s cos(θ) ,
where θ is the angle between vectors F ⃗ and s .⃗ However, when the net force and displacement have the same direction (as is the case here),
cos(θ) = 1.
ANSWER:
Wnet = F net s
Correct
Part J
Combine your results from Part H & Part I to find the net work Wnet done on the sled.
Express your answer in terms of some or all of the variables m, v 1 , and v 2 .
ANSWER:
2 2
m(v2 −v1 )
Wnet =
2
Correct
Your answer can also be rewritten as
1 2 1 2
W net = mv − mv
2 2 2 1
or
Wnet = K2 − K1 ,
where K1 and K2 are, respectively, the initial and the final kinetic energies of the sled. Finally, one can write
Wnet = ΔK .
This formula is known as the Work-Energy Theorem. The calculations done in this problem illustrate the applicability of this theorem in a particlar
case; however, they should not be interpreted as a proof of this theorem.
Nevertheless, it can be shown that the Work-Energy Theorem is applicable in all situations, including those involving nonconstant forces or forces
acting at an angle to the displacement of the object. This theorem is quite useful in solving problems, as illustrated by the following example.
Here is a simple application of the Work-Energy Theorem.
Part K
A car of mass m accelerates from speed v 1 to speed v 2 while going up a slope that makes an angle θ with the horizontal. The coefficient of static friction
is μs , and the acceleration due to gravity is g. Find the total work W done on the car by the external forces.
Express your answer in terms of the given quantities. You may or may not use all of them.

You are asked to find, in effect, the net work done on an object. Use the Work-Energy Theorem.
ANSWER:
2 2
m(v2 −v1 )
W =
2
Correct
± PSS 6.1 Work and Kinetic Energy
Learning Goal:
To practice Problem-Solving Strategy 6.1 Work and Kinetic Energy.
Your cat “Ms.” (mass 8.00 kg ) is trying to make it to the top of a frictionless ramp 2.00 m long and inclined 19.0 ∘ above the horizontal. Since the poor cat
can’t get any traction on the ramp, you push her up the entire length of the ramp by exerting a constant 59.0 N force parallel to the ramp. If Ms. is moving at
2.00 m/s at the bottom of the ramp, what is her speed when she reaches the top of the incline?
Problem-Solving Strategy: Work and kinetic energy
IDENTIFY the relevant concepts:

The work–energy theorem, Wtot = K2 − K1 , is extremely useful when you want to relate a body’s speed v 1 at one point in its motion to its speed v 2 at a
different point. (It’s less useful for problems that involve time.)
SET UP the problem using the following steps:
1. Choose the initial and final positions of the body, and draw a free-body diagram showing all the forces that act on the body.
2. Choose a coordinate system. (If the motion is along a straight line, it’s usually easiest to have both the initial and final positions lie along the x
axis.)
3. List the unknown and known quantities; decide which ones are your target variables.
EXECUTE the solution as follows:
⃗
1. Calculate the work W done by each force. If the force is constant and the displacement is a straight line, use W = F s cos ϕ or W .
= F ⋅ s ⃗
⃗ ⃗
Recall that W must be positive if F has a component in the direction of the displacement, negative if F has a component opposite to the
displacement, and zero if the force and the displacement are perpendicular.
2. Add the amounts of work done by each force to find the total work Wtot . Sometimes it’s easier to find the work done by the net force acting on
the body; this value is also equal to Wtot .
3. Write expressions for the initial and final kinetic energies, K1 and K2 . Note that kinetic energy involves mass, not weight.
4. Finally, use Wtot = K2 − K1 to solve for the target variable. Remember that K2 − K1 is the final kinetic energy minus the initial kinetic
energy, never the other way around.
EVALUATE your answer:

Check whether your answer makes physical sense.
IDENTIFY the relevant concepts
The target variable in this problem is the cat's speed at the top of the ramp. Because you are given the cat's speed at the bottom of the ramp, you can use the
work–energy theorem to relate the cat's speed at the two different points in her motion.
SET UP the problem using the following steps
Part A
The initial and final positions of the cat are at the bottom and the top of the ramp, respectively. Since the forces acting on the cat are constant, a free-body
diagram can be drawn at any arbitrary position in her motion. Use the diagram below to draw a free-body diagram showing all the forces acting on the cat.
The cat is represented by the black dot.
Draw the vectors starting at the black dot. The location and orientation of the vectors will be graded. The length of the vectors will not be
graded.
ANSWER:
No elements selected
Select the elements from the list and add them to the canvas setting the appropriate attributes.
Answer Requested
Now, make your own sketch of a free-body diagram for this problem. If you haven't done so yet, make sure the magnitudes of vectors in the diagram
are physically reasonable.
Part B
Now, draw the most convenient coordinate system for this problem.
The orientation of the vectors will be graded. The location and length of the vectors will not be graded.
ANSWER:
Correct
Since the motion is along a straight line, it’s usually easiest to have both the initial and final positions lie along the x axis. In this way, any force
perpendicular to that axis will do no work on the body.
Now, make a list of the known and unknown variables, and complete your sketch like this:
EXECUTE the solution as follows
Part C
What is the cat's speed v 2 when she reaches the top of the incline?
Express your answer in meters per second to three significant figures.
Hint 1. How to use the work–energy theorem

To find a body's speed at the initial and final positions of its motion using energy considerations, calculate the total work done on the body and the
body's kinetic energy. As explained in the strategy, you can calculate the total work Wtot done on the body by adding the amounts of work done by
each force acting on the body. Alternatively, you can calculate the vector sum of the forces (the net force) and then find the work done by the net
force. In this tutorial, we'll use the second method.
Hint 2. Find the total work done on the cat

Calculate the total work Wtot done on the cat when she reaches the top of the ramp.
Express your answer in joules to three significant figures.
Hint 1. Find the x component of the net force acting on the cat
Find Fx,net , the component of the net force acting on the cat parallel to the displacement. Recall that if a force does not point directly in the x
or y direction, you will have to find its x and y components.
Express your answer in newtons to three significant figures.
Hint 1. Trigonometric relations

In a right triangle such as the one shown in the figure below, the sides of the triangle are related to the angle ϕ by the following
equations:
a = c cos ϕ and b = c sin ϕ
ANSWER:
F x,net = 33.5 N
ANSWER:
Wtot = 67.0 J
Hint 3. Find the cat's initial kinetic energy

If the cat takes a running start so that she is moving at 2.00 m/s at the bottom of the ramp, what is her kinetic energy K1 at that point?
Hint 1. Kinetic energy

The kinetic energy of a body of mass m that moves with speed v is defined as
1 2
K= mv
2
ANSWER:
K1 = 16.0 J
Hint 4. Find the cat's final kinetic energy

Use the results you found in the previous hints and apply the work–energy theorem to find the cat's final kinetic energy, K2 .
ANSWER:
K2 = 83.0 J
ANSWER:
v2 = 4.55 m/s
Correct
EVALUATE your answer
Part D
This problem can also be done without the work–energy theorem.Since the forces acting on the cat are constant, the cat is moving up the ramp with a
constant acceleration. Therefore, if you know her acceleration, you can use the equations of motion for constant acceleration to find her final speed. Use
Newton's 2nd law to find the magnitude a of the cat's acceleration.
Express your answer in meters per second squared to three significant figures.
Hint 1. Find the net force

Find Fx,net , the component of the net force acting on the cat parallel to the displacement. Note that you may have already found this information
while working through Part C.
ANSWER:
F x,net = 33.5 N
ANSWER:
a = 4.18 m/s
2
All attempts used; correct answer displayed

Now, use the equation v 22 = v 21 + 2as, where s is the length of the ramp, to find the cat's final speed v 2 . As you can see, you get the same result as
you obtained in Part C using the work–energy approach, but there you avoided the intermediate step of finding the acceleration. When a problem can
be done by two different methods, doing it by both methods is a very good way to check your work!
When Push Comes to Shove
Two forces, of magnitudes F1 = 60.0 N and F2 = 45.0 N , act in opposite directions on a block, which sits atop a frictionless surface, as shown in the figure.
Initially, the center of the block is at position xi = -3.00 cm . At some later time, the block has moved to the right, and its center is at a new position, xf = 3.00
cm .
Part A
Find the work W1 done on the block by the force of magnitude F1 = 60.0 N as the block moves from xi = -3.00 cm to xf = 3.00 cm .
Express your answer numerically, in joules.
Hint 1. Formula for the work done by a force
The work W done by a force F ⃗ in producing a displacement s ⃗ is given by
⃗ ∣ ⃗
∣
W = F ⋅ s ⃗ = F ∣s ∣
∣ ∣
⃗ cos ϕ ,
⃗ ⃗
where ∣
∣
F
∣
∣
and ∣∣s ∣∣⃗ are the magnitudes of F and s ⃗ respectively, and ϕ is the smaller angle between the two vectors.
The scalar that results from the operation F ⃗ ⋅ s ⃗ is called the scalar product, or the dot product, of the vectors F ⃗ and s .⃗
ANSWER:
W1 = 3.60 J
Correct
Part B
Find the work W2 done by the force of magnitude F2 = 45.0 N as the block moves from xi = -3.00 cm to xf = 3.00 cm .
Hint 1. Is the work positive or negative?

The force of magnitude F2 acts in the opposite direction to that of the motion of the block. Therefore, the work done by that force must be negative.
ANSWER:
W2 = -2.70 J
Correct
Part C
What is the net work Wnet done on the block by the two forces?

ANSWER:
Wnet = 0.900 J
Correct
Part D
Determine the changeKf − Ki in the kinetic energy of the block as it moves from xi = -3.00 cm to xf = 3.00 cm .
Hint 1. Conservation of energy

The work done on the block goes into changing its kinetic energy. Thus the net work done by the two forces is equal to the change in the kinetic
energy.
ANSWER:
Kf − Ki = 0.900 J
Correct
Delivering Rescue Supplies
You are a member of an alpine rescue team and must project a box of supplies, with mass m, up an incline of constant slope angle α so that it reaches a
stranded skier who is a vertical distance h above the bottom of the incline. The incline is slippery, but there is some friction present, with kinetic friction
coefficient μk .
Part A
Use the work-energy theorem to calculate the minimum speed v that you must give the box at the bottom of the incline so that it will reach the skier.
Express your answer in terms of some or all of the variables m, g, h, μk , and α.

In order to use the work-energy theorem,
Wtotal = ΔK = Kf inal − Kinitial ,
you need to find an expression for the total work done on the box and for the box's initial and final kinetic energies. At least one of these quantities
will depend on the unknown initial speed of the box.
Hint 2. Find the total work done on the box

What is Wtotal , the total work done on the box between the moment it is projected and the moment it reaches the skier?
Hint 1. Find the work done by gravity

What is Wgravity , the work done by gravity?
ANSWER:
Wgravity = −mgh
Hint 2. Find the work done by friction

What is Wf riction , the work done by friction on the box?
Hint 1. A formula for work

The work done by a constant force on an object moving in a straight line is equal to the dot product of the force vector with the
displacement vector of the object.
Hint 2. Find the force of friction

What is Ff riction , the magnitude of the frictional force?
ANSWER:
F f riction = mgcos(α)μ
k
Hint 3. Find the distance over which friction acts

What is d, the distance over which kinetic friction acts?
ANSWER:
h
d =
sin(α)
ANSWER:
−h
Wf riction = mgcos(α)μk
sin(α)
ANSWER:
h
Wtotal = −mgh − mgcos(α)μ
k
sin(α)
Hint 3. What is the initial kinetic energy?

Write Kinitial , the initial kinetic energy of the box, in terms of the magnitude of its initial velocity v and other given variables.
Express your answer in terms of some or all of the variables m, g, h, μk , v , and α.
ANSWER:
1
Kinitial = mv
2
Hint 4. What is the final kinetic energy?

If the box just reaches the skier, what is Kf inal , the kinetic energy of the box when it arrives?
Express your answer in terms of some or all of the variables m, g, h, μk , v , and α.
ANSWER:
Kf inal = 0
ANSWER:
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
v = √ 2gh(μ cot(α) + 1)
k
Correct
Principle of Virtual Work
Suppose that a structure of arbitrary complexity has a number of forces applied to it (at various points) and yet is in static equilibrium. The principle of virtual
work allows one to write an equation that relates the applied forces. To find this relationship, you must imagine (hence the term "virtual" work) that the structure
is disturbed slightly from its equilibrium position, and then calculate the ratio of the resulting displacements at the points where the forces are applied.
We illustrate this principle by considering the two downward forces, F1 and F2 , applied to the ends of a massless lever (see the figure). Initially, the lever is in
static equilibrium. Imagine that the lever starts in the horizontal position, shown in black, and then tilts
infinitesimally to the position shown in blue. Under this infinitesimal rotation, the left end of the lever
moves a distance H1 , while the right end moves a distance H2 .
The net work done by the forces on the lever in this process is zero. (This is because equilibrium can
also be defined as an energy extremum of the system. Therefore dWequilibrium = 0 .)
Part A
Find an expression for the force F2 using arguments based on work (do not use a torque argument).
Express F2 in terms of F1 , H1 , and H2 .
Hint 1. Find the work done by F1

Find the work W1 done by the force F1 as the lever moves from horizontal to the slightly tilted position shown in the figure.
ANSWER:
W1 = F 1 H1
Hint 2. Find the work done by F2

Find the work W2 done by the force F2 as the lever moves from horizontal to the slightly tilted position shown in the figure.
Hint 1. Consider the sign of the work

If the direction of motion is opposite to that of the applied force, then the work done by the force is considered negative (i.e., the system does
work on the agent supplying the force).
ANSWER:
W2 = −F 2 H2
Hint 3. Obtaining the solution

The total work done on the lever is the sum of the work done by the two individual forces:
Wtotal = W1 + W2 .
From the previous hints, you should have expressions for Wtotal , W1 , and W2 , all in terms of given quantities. Substitute these expressions into
the equation for total work and solve for F2 in terms of F1 , H1 , and H2 .
ANSWER:
F1 H 1
F2 =
H2
Correct
The result you just obtained is usually derived using an argument based on torque: The sum of all torques on an object in static equilibrium (i.e.,
an object that is not rotating) must be zero. If you have studied torque, check that the answer you obtained here agrees with what you would have
found had you used the concept of torque to solve for F2 .
Note that there was another force acting on the lever: the normal force acting at the pivot point. However, since the lever rotates about the pivot
point, the displacement at this point is zero. This implies that the work done by the normal force acting at the pivot point is zero.
Work on a Sliding Block
A block of weight w sits on a frictionless inclined plane, which makes an angle θ with respect to the horizontal, as shown. A force of magnitude F , applied
parallel to the incline, pulls the block up the plane at constant speed.
Part A
The block moves a distance L up the incline. The block does not stop after moving this distance but continues to move with constant speed. What is the
total work Wtot done on the block by all forces? (Include only the work done after the block has started moving, not the work needed to start the block
moving from rest.)
Express your answer in terms of given quantities.
Hint 1. What physical principle to use

To find the total work done on the block, use the work-energy theorem:
Wtot = Kf − Ki .
Hint 2. Find the change in kinetic energy

What is the change in the kinetic energy of the block, from the moment it starts moving until it has been pulled a distance L? Remember that the
block is pulled at constant speed.
Hint 1. Consider kinetic energy

If the block's speed does not change, its kinetic energy cannot change.
ANSWER:
Kf − Ki = 0
ANSWER:
Wtot = 0
Correct
Part B
What is Wg , the work done on the block by the force of gravity as the block moves a distance L up the incline?
Express the work done by gravity in terms of the weight w and any other quantities given in the problem introduction.
Hint 1. Force diagram
Hint 2. Force of gravity component

What is the component of the force of gravity in the direction of the block's displacement (along the inclined plane)?
Express your answer in terms of w and θ.
Hint 1. Relative direction of the force and the motion

Remember that the force of gravity acts down the plane, whereas the block's displacement is directed up the plane.
ANSWER:
F g|| = −wsin(θ)
ANSWER:
Wg = −wh
Correct
Part C
What is WF , the work done on the block by the applied force F as the block moves a distance L up the incline?
Express your answer in terms of F and other given quantities.
Hint 1. How to find the work done by a constant force

Remember that the work done on an object by a particular force is the integral of the dot product of the force and the instantaneous displacement of
the object, over the path followed by the object. In this case, since the force is constant and the path is a straight segment of length L up the
inclined plane, the dot product becomes simple multiplication.
ANSWER:
WF = FL
Correct
Part D
What is Wnormal , the work done on the block by the normal force as the block moves a distance L up the inclined plane?
Express your answer in terms of given quantities.
Hint 1. First step in computing the work

The work done by the normal force is equal to the dot product of the force vector and the block's displacement vector. The normal force and the
block's displacement vector are perpendicular. Therefore, what is their dot product?
ANSWER:
⃗
N ⋅L
⃗
= 0
ANSWER:
Wnormal = 0
Correct
The Work-Energy Theorem
Learning Goal:
To understand the meaning and possible applications of the work-energy theorem.
In this problem, you will use your prior knowledge to derive one of the most important relationships in mechanics: the work-energy theorem. We will start with a
special case: a particle of mass m moving in the x direction at constant acceleration a. During a certain interval of time, the particle accelerates from v initial to
v f inal , undergoing displacement s given by s = xf inal − xinitial .
Part A
Find the acceleration a of the particle.
Express the acceleration in terms of v initial , v f inal , and s.
Hint 1. Some helpful relationships from kinematics

By definition for constant acceleration,
vf inal −vinitial
a= .
t
Furthermore, the average speed is
vinitial +vf inal
vavg = ,
2
and the displacement is
s = v avg t .
Combine these relationships to eliminate t.
ANSWER:
2 2
vf inal −vinitial
a =
2s
Correct
Part B
Find the net force F acting on the particle.
Express your answer in terms of m and a.
Hint 1. Using Newton's laws

Which of Newton's laws may be helpful here?
ANSWER:
F = ma
Correct
Part C
Find the net work W done on the particle by the external forces during the particle's motion.
Express your answer in terms of F and s.
ANSWER:
W = Fs
Correct
Part D
Substitute for F from Part B in the expression for work from Part C. Then substitute for a from the relation in Part A. This will yield an expression for the net
work W done on the particle by the external forces during the particle's motion in terms of mass and the initial and final velocities. Give an expression for
the work W in terms of those quantities.
Express your answer in terms of m, v initial , and v f inal .
ANSWER:
1 1
W = mvf inal
2
− mvinitial
2
2 2
Correct
The expression that you obtained can be rearranged as
1 2 1 2
W = mvf inal − mvinitial .
2 2
1 2
The quantity mv has the same units as work. It is called the kinetic energy of the moving particle and is denoted by K . Therefore, we can
2
write
1 2 1 2
K initial = mvinitial and K f inal = mvf inal .
2 2
Note that like momentum, kinetic energy depends on both the mass and the velocity of the moving object. However, the mathematical
expressions for momentum and kinetic energy are different. Also, unlike momentum, kinetic energy is a scalar. That is, it does not depend on the
sign (therefore direction) of the velocities.
Part E
Find the net work W done on the particle by the external forces during the motion of the particle in terms of the initial and final kinetic energies.
Express your answer in terms of Kinitial and Kf inal .
ANSWER:
W = Kf inal − Kinitial
Correct
This result is called the work-energy theorem. It states that the net work done on a particle equals the change in kinetic energy of that particle.
Also notice that if Kinitial is zero, then the work-energy theorem reduces to
W = Kf inal .
In other words, kinetic energy can be understood as the amount of work that is done to accelerate the particle from rest to its final velocity.
The work-energy theorem can be most easily used if the object is moving in one dimension and is being acted upon by a constant net force
directed along the direction of motion. However, the theorem is valid for more general cases as well.
Let us now consider a situation in which the particle is still moving along the x axis, but the net force, which is still directed along the x axis, is no longer
constant. Let's see how our earlier definition of work,
⃗
⃗
W = F ⋅ s,
needs to be modified by being replaced by an integral. If the path of the particle is divided into very small displacements dx, we can assume that over each of
these small displacement intervals, the net force remains essentially constant and the work dW done to move the particle from x to x + dx is
dW = F dx,
where F is the x component of the net force (which remains virtually constant for the small displacement from x to x + dx). The net work W done on the
particle is then given by
x f inal x f inal
W = ∫ dW = ∫ F dx.
x initial x initial
Now, using
F = ma
and
dv dv dx dv
a= = =v ,
dt dx dt dx
it can be shown that
vf inal
W = ∫ mv dv.
vinitial
Part F
vf inal
Evaluate the integral W = ∫
vinitial
mv dv.
Express your answer in terms of m, v initial , and v f inal .
Hint 1. An integration formula

b
The formula for ∫a t dt is
b 2 2
b −a
∫
a
t dt = .
2
ANSWER:
2 2
m(−vinitial +vf inal )
W =
2
Correct
The expression that you havejust obtained is equivalent to W = Kf inal − Kinitial . Not surprisingly, we are back to the same expression of the
work-energy theorem! Let us see how the theorem can be applied to problem solving.
Part G
A particle moving in the x direction is being acted upon by a net force F (x) = Cx2 , for some constant C . The particle moves from xinitial = L to
xf inal = 3L . What is ΔK , the change in kinetic energy of the particle during that time?
Express your answer in terms of C and L.
Hint 1. Finding the work
Integrate F (x) dx to calculate the work done on the particle.
Hint 2. An integration formula

b
2
The formula for ∫a u du is
b 3 3
b −a
∫ u
2
du = .
a 3
ANSWER:
26 3
ΔK = CL
3
Correct
It can also be shown that the work-energy theorem is valid for two- and three-dimensional motion and for a varying net force that is not
necessarily directed along the instantaneous direction of motion of the particle. In that case, the work done by the net force is given by the line
integral
→
S f inal
⃗
W = ∫ F ⋅ dL ,
S initial
→
where Sinitial and Sf inal are the initial and the final positions of the particle, dL is the vector representing a small displacement, and F ⃗ is the net
force acting on the particle.
± Hooke's Law
Learning Goal:
To understand the use of Hooke's law for a spring.
Hooke's law states that the restoring force F ⃗ on a spring when it has been stretched or compressed is proportional to the displacement x⃗ of the spring from its
equilibrium position. The equilibrium position is the position at which the spring is neither stretched nor compressed.
Recall that F ⃗ ∝ x⃗ means that F ⃗ is equal to a constant times x⃗ . For a spring, the proportionality constant is called the spring constant and denoted by k. The
spring constant is a property of the spring and must be measured experimentally. The larger the value of k, the stiffer the spring.
In equation form, Hooke's law can be written
⃗
F = −kx⃗ .
The minus sign indicates that the force is in the opposite direction to that of the spring's displacement from its equilibrium length and is "trying" to restore the
spring to its equilibrium position. The magnitude of the force is given by F = kx, where x is the magnitude of the displacement.
In Haiti, public transportation is often by taptaps, small pickup trucks with seats along the sides of the pickup bed and railings to which passengers can hang on.
Typically they carry two dozen or more passengers plus an assortment of chickens, goats, luggage, etc. Putting this much into the back of a pickup truck puts
quite a large load on the truck springs.
A truck has springs for each wheel, but for simplicity assume that the individual springs can be treated as one spring with a spring constant that includes the
effect of all the springs. Also for simplicity, assume that all four springs compress equally when weight is added to the truck and that the equilibrium length of the
springs is the length they have when they support the load of an empty truck.
Part A
A 70 kg driver gets into an empty taptap to start the day's work. The springs compress 2.5×10−2 m . What is the effective spring constant of the spring
system in the taptap?
Enter the spring constant numerically in newtons per meter using two significant figures.

The compression of the springs is governed by Hooke's law. The amount the springs are compressed when the driver climbs into the truck is given
in the problem statement. The force that acts to compress the springs is the force caused by the driver getting into the truck.
ANSWER:
k = 2.7×104 N/m
Correct
If you need to use the spring constant in subsequent parts, use the full precision value you calculated, only rounding as a final step before
submitting your answer.
Part B
After driving a portion of the route, the taptap is fully loaded with a total of 23 people including the driver, with an average mass of 70 kg per person. In
addition, there are three 15-kg goats, five 3-kg chickens, and a total of 25 kg of bananas on their way to the market. Assume that the springs have
somehow not yet compressed to their maximum amount. How much are the springs compressed?
Enter the compression numerically in meters using two significant figures.
Hint 1. How to find the compression of the spring

The spring compression is governed by Hooke's law. Use the spring constant you calculated to full precision in Part A prior to rounding your answer.
To find the force add the total weight of the load on the truck. Only round as a final step before submitting your answer.
ANSWER:
x = 0.61 m
Correct
Part C
Whenever you work a physics problem you should get into the habit of thinking about whether the answer is physically realistic. Think about how far off the
ground a typical small truck is. Is the answer to Part B physically realistic?
Select the best choice below.
ANSWER:
No, typical small pickup truck springs are not large enough to compress 0.61 m .
Yes, typical small pickup truck springs can easily compress 0.61 m .
Correct
The answer to Part B is not physically realistic because the springs of a typical light truck will compress their maximum amount (typically about 10
cm) before the total weight of all the passengers and other cargo given in Part B is added to the truck. When this maximum compression is
reached, the springs will bottom out, and the ride will be very rough.
Part D
Now imagine that you are a Haitian taptap driver and want a more comfortable ride. You decide to replace the springs with new springs that can handle the
typical heavy load on your vehicle. What spring constant do you want your new spring system to have?
ANSWER:
substantially larger
slightly larger
The new springs should have a spring constant that is than the spring constant of the old springs.
slightly smaller
substantially smaller
Correct
A spring constant with a large value is a stiff spring. It will take more force to compress (or stretch) a stiff spring. On a taptap, stiffer springs are
less likely to bottom out under a heavy load. However, with a lighter load, for most vehicles, very stiff springs will not compress as much for a
bump in the road. Hence very stiff springs will give a better ride with a very heavy load, but less-stiff springs (lower spring constant) will give a
smoother ride with a light load. This is why larger vehicles need stiffer springs than smaller vehicles.
Work Done by a Spring
Consider a spring, with spring constant k, one end of which is attached to a wall. The spring is initially
unstretched, with the unconstrained end of the spring at position x = 0.
Part A
The spring is now compressed so that the unconstrained end moves from x = 0 to x = L . Using the work integral
xf
⃗
W = ∫ F (x⃗ ) ⋅ dx⃗ ,
xi
find the work done by the spring as it is compressed.

Express the work done by the spring in terms of k and L.
Hint 1. Spring force as a function of position
The spring force vector F ⃗ as a function of displacement x from the spring's equilibrium position, is given by
⃗ ^
F = −kx i
where k is the spring constant and î is a unit vector in the direction of the displacement of the spring (in this case, towards the right).
Hint 2. Integrand of the work integral

The work done by the spring is given by the integral of the dot product of the spring force and an infinitesimal displacement of the end of the spring:
xf xf
⃗ ⃗ ^
W = ∫ F (x⃗ ) ⋅ dx⃗ = ∫ F (x) ⋅ i dx,
xi xi
⃗
where the infinitesmal displacement vector dx⃗ has been written as î dx. Write F (x) in terms of given quantities, and then compute the dot product
to find an expression for the integrand. (Note, î ⋅ î = 1 .)
Express your answer in terms of k, x, and dx.
ANSWER:
⃗ ^
F (x) ⋅ i dx = −kxdx
Hint 3. Upper limit of the work integral

The lower limit of the work integral will be at xi = 0 . What will be the integral's upper limit?
ANSWER:
xf = L
ANSWER:
2
W = −
k
L
2
Correct
± Baby Bounce with a Hooke
One of the pioneers of modern science, Robert Hooke (1635-1703), studied the elastic properties of springs and formulated the law that bears his name. Hooke
found the relationship among the force a spring exerts, F ,⃗ the distance from equilibrium the end of the spring is displaced, x⃗ , and a number k called the spring
constant (or, sometimes, the force constant of the spring). According to Hooke, the force of the spring is directly proportional to its displacement from
equilibrium, or
⃗
F = −kx⃗ .
In its scalar form, this equation is simply
F = kx .
Where F is the force exerted on the spring and x is the extension of the spring from equilibrium caused by the force F . The value of k depends on the
geometry and the material of the spring; it can be easily determined experimentally using this scalar equation.
Toy makers have always been interested in springs for the entertainment value of the motion they produce. One well-known application shown in is a baby
bouncer, which consists of a harness seat for a toddler, attached to a spring. The entire contraption
hooks onto the top of a doorway. The idea is for the baby to hang in the seat with his or her feet just
touching the ground so that a good push up will get the baby bouncing, providing potentially hours of
entertainment.
Part A
The following chart and accompanying graph shown in depict an experiment to determine the
spring constant for a baby bouncer.
Displacement from Force exerted on

equilibrium, x the spring, F
(m) (N)
0 0
0.005 2.5
0.010 5.0
0.015 7.5
0.020 10
What is the spring constant k of the spring being tested for the baby bouncer?
Express your answer to two significant figures in newtons per meter.

Look at the pattern in the data to determine what number must multiply the distance to achieve the force exerted on the spring. Look at both the
table and the graph.
Hint 2. Find the spring constant from the graph

The relationship between the displacement and force is linear. This set of data follows the form of y = mx + b, where m is the slope of the line and
b is the y intercept. For all springs, the force is 0 when the displacement is 0 so b = 0 . This leaves the slope of the line to determine the relationship
between displacement and force. What is the slope that you get from the graph?
Express your answer as a fraction in unsimplified form.
Hint 1. Slope equation

Slope is given by the change in y divided by the change in x. In this case, m = ΔF /Δx.
ANSWER:
k = 500 N/m
ANSWER:
k = 500 N/m
Correct
Part B
One of the greatest difficulties with setting up the baby bouncer is determining the right height above the floor so that the child can push off and bounce.
Knowledge of physics can be really helpful here.
If the spring constant k = 5.0 × 10 2 N/m, the baby has a mass m = 11 kg, and the baby's legs reach a distance d = 0.15 m from the bouncer, what
should be the height h of the "empty" bouncer above the floor?
Express your answer in meters to two significant figures.

Use Hooke's law to determine the displacement x of the spring from equilibrium given the force the spring must exert to hold up the baby. The
displacement must lower the baby toward the floor until the baby's feet can touch.
Hint 2. Which force to use

The force the spring exerts is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the force exerted on it by the weight w of the baby.
Hint 3. Find the force exerted by the baby

The weight of the baby is equal to the force exerted on the spring. What is the weight of the baby?
Hint 1. Formula for weight

Recall that the weight of an object is given by
w = mg ,
where m is the mass of the object and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
ANSWER:
w = 108 N
Hint 4. Find the displacement of the spring

Use Hooke's law to determine how far the spring would stretch downward once the baby is placed in the seat. How far does the bottom end of the
spring move?
ANSWER:
x = -0.22 m
ANSWER:
h = 0.37 m
Correct
A displacement of −0.22 m for the spring holding up a baby may not seem very large but you must consider how small babies are. Also, once
the baby begins jumping up and down, the extra energy allows the spring to stretch further than 0.22 m and a resonant frequency may be
achieved. At resonance the bouncing may become too violent, leading to a potentially dangerous situation for the little bouncer.
± The Power of One
Learning Goal:
To learn the definition of power and how power, force, and velocity are related.
The definition of work done by a force (W = F ⃗ ⋅ s )⃗ does not include time. For practical purposes, however, it is often important to know how fast work is being
done. The rate at which work is being done is called power P . The average power Pavg can be calculated as
ΔW
Pavg = ,
Δt
where ΔW is the amount of work done during the time interval Δt.
The power created by a force may be a constant; that is, work is being done at constant rate. However, this is not always the case. If the rate of performing
work is changing, it makes sense to talk about the instantaneous power, defined as
dW
P = .
dt
The SI unit of power is the watt (W). One watt is defined as the power created when one joule of work is done each second. In equation form, one writes
1 W = 1 J/s .
A commonly used unit of work is the kilowatt-hour (kW-hour). One kilowatt-hour is the amount of work done in one hour when the power is one kilowatt. In
equation form, this is
-
1 kW hour = 1 kW ⋅ 1 hour
= 10
3
W ⋅ 3.6 × 10
3
.
s = 3.6 MJ
In this problem, you will answer several questions that will help familiarize you with power and enable you to derive a formula relating power, force, and velocity.
A sled of mass m is being pulled horizontally by a constant horizontal force of magnitude F . The coefficient of kinetic friction is μk . During time interval t, the
sled moves a distance s, starting from rest.
Part A
Find the average power Pavg created by the force F .
Express your answer in terms of the given quantities and, if necessary, appropriate constants. You may or may not use all of the given
quantities.
Hint 1. Find the work W done by the force F .

Find the work W done by the force F .
quantities.
ANSWER:
W = Fs
Answer Requested
Note that all you have to do is to apply the definition of work; most of the quantities given in the problem are, in fact, irrelevant.
ANSWER:
P avg = Fs
Correct
Part B
Find the average velocity v avg of the sled during that time interval.
quantities.
ANSWER:
s
v avg =
t
Correct
Part C
Find the average power Pavg created by the force F in terms of the average speed v avg of the sled.
Express your answer in terms of F and v avg .
ANSWER:
P avg = F v avg
Correct
You just obtained a very useful formula for the average power:
Fs
P = = F v.
t
If an object is moving at a constant speed, and the force F is also constant, this formula can be used to find the average power. If v is changing,
the formula can be used to find the instantaneous power at any given moment (with the quantity v in this case meaning the instantaneous
velocity, of course).
Part D
A sled of mass m is being pulled horizontally by a constant upward force of magnitude F that makes an angle θ with the direction of motion. The
coefficient of kinetic friction is μk . The average velocity of the sled is v avg .
Find the average power Pavg created by force F .
Express your answer in terms of F , θ, and v avg .
Hint 1. Find the work done

When the directions of the force and the velocity vectors are the same, W = Fs . When the two vectors make an angle θ, which of the following
formulas can be applied?
ANSWER:
W = F s tan θ
W = F s sin θ
W = F s cos θ
Fs
W =
cos θ
ANSWER:
P avg = v avg F cosθ
Correct
Another way to express this formula is this
P = F || v,
where F|| is the component of force parallel to the velocity of the object.
Let us now consider several questions that include numeric data.
A sled is being pulled along a horizontal surface by a horizontal force F ⃗ of magnitude 600 N. Starting from rest, the sled speeds up with acceleration 0.08 m/s
2
for 1 minute.
Part E
Find the average power Pavg created by force F .⃗
Express your answer in watts to three significant figures.
Hint 1. Find the work W done by force F .⃗
Find the work W done by force F .⃗

Hint 1. Find the displacement of the sled

Which formula is useful in finding the displacement of the sled?
ANSWER:
s = vt
v
s=
t
at
s=
2
2
at
s=
2
ANSWER:
W = 8.64×104 J
ANSWER:
P avg = 1440 W
Part F
Find the instantaneous power P created by force F ⃗ at t = 10 s .

Hint 1. Find the speed

Find the speed v of the sled after 10 s..
Express your answer in meters per second.
ANSWER:
v = 0.8 m/s
Correct
ANSWER:
P = 480 W
Correct
Part G
Find the instantaneous power P created by the normal force at t = 10 s . The magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity is g 2
= 9.8 m/s .
Hint 1. Work done by the normal force

Recall that the normal force is directed upward, while the sled is moving horizontally. Given these directions, what is the angle between the force
and the direction of motion? What does this tell you about how much work the normal force does?
ANSWER:
P = 0 W
Answer Requested
When vectors F ⃗ and v ⃗ are perpendicular, the power created by force F ⃗ is zero.
Fat: The Fuel of Migrating Birds
Small birds like that in can migrate over long distances without feeding, storing energy mostly as fat rather than carbohydrate. Fat is a good form of energy
storage because it provides the most energy per unit mass: 1.00 grams of fat provides about 9.40 (food) Calories, compared to 4.20 (food) Calories per 1.00
grams of carbohydrate. Remember that Calories associated with food, which are always capitalized, are not exactly the same as calories used in physics or
chemistry, even though they have the same name. More specifically, one food Calorie is equal to 1000 calories of mechanical work or 4184 joules. Therefore, in
this problem use the conversion factor 1 Cal = 4184 J.
Part A
Consider a bird that flies at an average speed of 10.7 m/s and releases energy from its body fat reserves at an average rate of 3.70 W (this rate
represents the power consumption of the bird). Assume that the bird consumes 4.00 g of fat to fly over a distance db without stopping for feeding. How far
will the bird fly before feeding again?
Express your answer in kilometers.

From the average speed of the bird, you can calculate how far the bird can fly without stopping if you know the duration of the flight. To determine
the duration of the flight, first find the amount of energy available from converting 4 grams of fat, and then use the definition of power.
Hint 2. Find the energy used during the flight

How much energy Eb does the bird have available when it converts 4 grams of fat?
Express your answer in kilojoules.
Hint 1. Converting fat into energy

As stated in the introduction of this problem, 1.00 grams of fat provides about 9.40 (food) Calories. Also keep in mind that
1 Calorie = 1000 calories = 4184 J.
ANSWER:
Eb = 157 kJ
Hint 3. Find the duration of the flight

If the bird consumes energy at a rate of 3.70 W , how many hours tb can it fly using the energy supply provided by 4.00 grams of fat?
Express your answer in hours.
Hint 1. Definition of power

ΔE
The average power P (measured in watts) is the ratio of the energy ΔE transformed in the time interval Δt: P = . Note that power
Δt
measures either the rate at which energy is transferred (or transformed) or the rate at which work is performed.
Hint 2. Power: units

Power is measured in watts. One watt is equal to 1 joule per second (i.e., 1 W = 1 J/s ).
ANSWER:
tb = 11.8 hr
Hint 4. Find the distance in terms of average velocity
Which of the following expressions gives the distance d traveled in the time interval t at an average speed v ?
ANSWER:
v/t
2
vt
d =
vt
t/v
ANSWER:
db = 455 km
Correct
Part B
How many grams of carbohydrate mcarb would the bird have to consume to travel the same distance db ?
Express your answer in grams

As stated in the introduction of this problem, 1.00 gram of fat provides about 9.40 Calories, while 1.00 grams of carbohydrate provides 4.20
Calories.
ANSWER:
m carb = 8.95 g
Correct
This is more than twice the amount of fat that was needed! In addition, to store 1 gram of carbohydrate (in the form of glycogen, the most common
form of animal carbohydrate) about 3 grams of water are needed. Therefore, if energy were stored as carbohydrates, the bird would need to carry
more than eight times the fuel mass to perform the same migratory flight!
Part C
Field observations suggest that a migrating ruby-throated hummingbird can fly across the Gulf of Mexico on a nonstop flight traveling a distance of about
800 km . Assuming that the bird has an average speed of 40.0 km/hr and an average power consumption of 1.70 W , how many grams of fat mf at does
a ruby-throated hummingbird need to accomplish the nonstop flight across the Gulf of Mexico?
Express your answer in grams.

In Part A you were given the amount of fat consumed over the entire flight and were asked to calculate the distance traveled by the migrating bird.
Now you need to solve the reverse problem. That is, given the distance traveled, calculate the amount of energy required to perform the flight. Thus,
apply the same method as the one used in part A, only in reverse. From the information on distance and average speed, calculate the duration of
the nonstop flight. Then use your result and the given power consumption to determine the amount of energy required for the flight. Finally, calculate
how many grams are needed to provide that amount of energy.
Hint 2. Find the duration of the flight

How many hours th will the ruby-throated hummingbird fly to travel a distance of 800 km at an average speed of 40.0 km/hr ?
Express your answer in hours

ANSWER:
th = 20.0 hr
Hint 3. Find the energy required for the nonstop flight

Given that the hummingbird consumes energy at an average rate of 1.70 W , how much energy Eh will it require during the nonstop flight over the
Gulf of Mexico?
Express your answer in joules.
Hint 1. How to use power and time

Remember that power is energy transferred (or transformed) per unit time. Make sure you are using the correct unit for time.
ANSWER:
Eh = 1.22×105 J
ANSWER:
m f at = 3.11 g
Correct
Considering that in normal conditions the mass of a ruby-throated hummingbird is only 3 or 4 grams, the bird will need to almost double its body
mass to store enough fat to perform the nonstop flight.
A Car with Constant Power
The engine in an imaginary sports car can provide constant power to the wheels over a range of speeds from 0 to 70 miles per hour (mph). At full power, the car
can accelerate from zero to 32.0 mph in time 1.30 s .
Part A
At full power, how long would it take for the car to accelerate from 0 to 64.0 mph ? Neglect friction and air resistance.
Express your answer in seconds.
Hint 1. Energy and power

In the absence of friction, the constant power of the engine implies that the kinetic energy of the car increases linearly with time.
Hint 2. Find the ratio of kinetic energies

Find the (numerical) ratio of the car's kinetic energy K1 at speed 64.0 mph to K2 , the kinetic energy at speed 32.0 mph .
ANSWER:
K1
= 4
K2
ANSWER:
5.20 s
Correct
Of course, neglecting friction, especially air friction, is completely unrealistic at such speeds.
Part B
A more realistic car would cause the wheels to spin in a manner that would result in the ground pushing it forward with a constant force (in contrast to the
constant power in Part A). If such a sports car went from zero to 32.0 mph in time 1.30 s , how long would it take to go from zero to 64.0 mph ?
Express your answer numerically, in seconds.

Constant force means constant acceleration. Use this fact to find how the speed increases with time.
ANSWER:
2.60 s
Correct
This is probably the first and last time you will come across an imaginary car that goes slower than the real one!
Introduction to Potential Energy
Learning Goal:
Understand that conservative forces can be removed from the work integral by incorporating them into a new form of energy called potential energy that must
be added to the kinetic energy to get the total mechanical energy.
The first part of this problem contains short-answer questions that review the work-energy theorem. In the second part we introduce the concept of potential
energy. But for now, please answer in terms of the work-energy theorem.
Work-Energy Theorem
The work-energy theorem states
Kf = Ki + Wall ,
where Wall is the work done by all forces that act on the object, and Ki and Kf are the initial and final kinetic energies, respectively.
Part A
The work-energy theorem states that a force acting on a particle as it moves over a ______ changes the ______ energy of the particle if the force has a
component parallel to the motion.
Choose the best answer to fill in the blanks above:
ANSWER:
distance / potential
distance / kinetic
vertical displacement / potential
none of the above
Correct
It is important that the force have a component acting in the direction of motion. For example, if a ball is attached to a string and whirled in uniform
circular motion, the string does apply a force to the ball, but since the string's force is always perpendicular to the motion it does no work and
cannot change the kinetic energy of the ball.
Part B
To calculate the change in kinetic energy, you must know the force as a function of _______. The work done by the force causes the kinetic energy change.
Choose the best answer to fill in the blank above:
ANSWER:
acceleration
work
position
potential energy
Correct
Part C
To illustrate the work-energy concept, consider the case of a stone falling from xi to xf under the influence of gravity.
Using the work-energy concept, we say that work is done by the gravitational _____, resulting in an increase of the ______ energy of the stone.
ANSWER:
force / kinetic
potential energy / potential
force / potential
potential energy / kinetic
Correct
Potential Energy You should read about potential energy in your text before answering the following questions.
Potential energy is a concept that builds on the work-energy theorem, enlarging the concept of energy in the most physically useful way. The key aspect that
allows for potential energy is the existence of conservative forces, forces for which the work done on an object does not depend on the path of the object, only
the initial and final positions of the object. The gravitational force is conservative; the frictional force is not.
The change in potential energy is the negative of the work done by conservative forces. Hence considering the initial and final potential energies is equivalent to
calculating the work done by the conservative forces. When potential energy is used, it replaces the work done by the associated conservative force. Then only
the work due to nonconservative forces needs to be calculated.
In summary, when using the concept of potential energy, only nonconservative forces contribute to the work, which now changes the total energy:
Kf + Uf = Ef = Wnc + Ei = Wnc + Ki + Ui ,where Uf and Ui are the final and initial potential energies, and Wnc is the work due only to
nonconservative forces.
Now, we will revisit the falling stone example using the concept of potential energy.
Part D
Rather than ascribing the increased kinetic energy of the stone to the work of gravity, we now (when using potential energy rather than work-energy) say
that the increased kinetic energy comes from the ______ of the _______ energy.
ANSWER:
work / potential
force / kinetic
change / potential
Correct
Part E
This process happens in such a way that total mechanical energy, equal to the ______ of the kinetic and potential energies, is _______.
ANSWER:
sum / conserved
sum / zero
sum / not conserved
difference / conserved
Correct
PSS 7.1 Problems Using Mechanical Energy I
Learning Goal:
To practice Problem-Solving Strategy 7.1 Problems Using Mechanical Energy I.
Tarzan, in one tree, sights Jane in another tree. He grabs the end of a vine with length 20 m that makes an angle of 45∘ with the vertical, steps off his tree
limb, and swings down and then up to Jane’s open arms. When he arrives, his vine makes an angle of 30∘ with the vertical. Determine whether he gives her a
tender embrace or knocks her off her limb by calculating Tarzan’s speed just before he reaches Jane. You can ignore air resistance and the mass of the vine.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Problems using mechanical energy I

Decide whether the problem should be solved by energy methods, by using directly ΣF ⃗ = ma⃗ , or by a combination of these. The energy approach is best
when the problem involves varying forces, motion along a curved path, or both.
1. Decide what the initial and final states of the system are. Use the subscript 1 for the initial state and the subscript 2 for the final state. It helps to
draw sketches.
2. Define your coordinate system, particularly the level at which y = 0. We suggest that you always choose the positive y direction to be upward
because this is what Ugrav = mgy assumes.
3. Identify all forces that do work that can’t be described in terms of potential energy. A free-body diagram is always helpful.
4. List the unknown and known quantities, including the coordinates and velocities at each point. Decide which unknowns are your target variables.

Write expressions for the initial and final kinetic and potential energies—that is, K1 , K2 , Ugrav,1 , and Ugrav,2 . Then, relate the kinetic and potential energies
and the work done by other forces, Wother , using K1 + Ugrav,1 + Wother = K2 + Ugrav,2 . If no other forces do work, this expression becomes
K1 + Ugrav,1 = K2 + Ugrav,2 . It’s helpful to draw bar graphs showing the initial and final values of K , Ugrav , and E = K + Ugrav . Then, solve to find
whatever unknown quantity is required.

Check whether your answer makes physical sense. Keep in mind that the work done by each force must be represented either in
Ugrav,1 − Ugrav,2 = −ΔUgrav or as Wother but never in both places.

The problem involves motion along a curved path, so the energy approach might be the best method to solve this problem.
Part A
Take point 1 to be where Tarzan steps off his tree limb, and point 2 to be where Tarzan reaches Jane. Which of the following sketches correctly represents
the initial and final states of the system?
ANSWER:
Diagram A
Diagram B
Diagram C
Diagram D
Correct
Part B
The black dot shown below represents Tarzan hanging at the end of a massless vine at an arbitrary instant in his motion toward Jane. Draw a free-body
diagram showing all the forces acting on Tarzan at that instant.
graded.
ANSWER:
Answer Requested
If we ignore the mass of the vine and the effect of air resistance, there are only two forces in this system: Tarzan’s weight and the tension in the vine.
To solve the problem using the energy approach, you will need to determine whether the tension, which is the only force in the system that cannot be
described in terms of potential energy, does work on Tarzan. If it does, calculate this work and set it equal to Wother ; if it doesn’t, set Wother = 0 and
use conservation of mechanical energy. Your target variable is Tarzan's final speed.Note that in the diagram above, a coordinate system was provided
where the height y = 0 was chosen to be at the vine's pivoting point. This is the coordinate system used in the rest of this problem; however, keep in
mind that this is an arbitrary choice. In principle, you can choose the height y = 0 to be wherever you like.
Part C
What is Tarzan’s speed v 2 just before he reaches Jane?
Express your answer in meters per second to two significant figures.
Hint 1. Find expressions for Tarzan’s initial and final kinetic energies
Let Tarzan’s initial and final speeds be v 1 and v 2 , respectively. Let m and g be Tarzan's mass and the acceleration due to gravity, respectively.
Write the expressions for his initial kinetic energy K1 and his final kinetic energy K2 . Recall that Tarzan simply steps off the tree without any initial
push.
Express your answer in terms of some or all of the variables g, m, v 1 , and v 2 .
ANSWER:
1
K1 , K2 = 0 , mv2
2
Hint 2. Find expressions for Tarzan’s initial and final potential energies
Let Tarzan’s initial and final speeds be v 1 and v 2 , respectively. Let m and g be Tarzan's mass and the acceleration due to gravity, respectively.
Using the coordinate system shown in Part B, write the expressions for Tarzan’s initial potential energy Ugrav,1 and final potential energy Ugrav,2 .
Express your answer in terms of some or all of the variables g, m, v 1 , and v 2 .
Hint 1. Right triangles

Recall that for a right triangle as shown in the picture below, the following rules hold:
a = c sin θ and b = c cos θ
Hint 2. Find Tarzan’s initial position

Using the coordinate system shown in Part B, calculate Tarzan’s initial height y1 .
Express your answer in meters.
ANSWER:
y
1
= -14.1 m
Hint 3. Find Tarzan’s final position

Using the coordinate system shown in Part B, calculate Tarzan’s final height y2 .
ANSWER:
y
2
= -17.3 m
ANSWER:
π π
Ugrav,1 , Ugrav,2 = −mg⋅20cos( ),−mg⋅20cos( )
4 6
Hint 3. Find the work done by other forces

What is the work done by the tension on Tarzan?
Hint 1. How to calculate work

To find the work done by the tension, you will need to determine the angle between the tension and the displacement at an arbitrary instant in
Tarzan's motion. Recall that the work W done by a force of magnitude F is given by the product of the magnitude of the displacement, s,
and the component of the force along the displacement, F cos θ, where θ is the angle between the force vector and the displacement. In
symbols, W = sF cos θ. This means that W must be positive if the force has a component in the direction of the displacement, negative if
the force has a component opposite to the displacement, and zero if the force and displacement are perpendicular.
Hint 2. The relative direction of tension and displacement

At any point in Tarzan's motion, the tension is perpendicular to the path, whereas the displacement is always tangent to the path.
ANSWER:
Wother = 0 J
ANSWER:
v2 = 7.9 m/s
Correct
Part D
As you found out while solving Part C, the only force acting on Tarzan that does work on him is gravity. An important property of gravity is that the work
done by this force on a body moving along a curved path is the same as if the body were displaced vertically. Therefore, you can evaluate your previous
work using the kinematics equations for free fall.
What vertical distance Δy does a free-falling particle travel from the moment it starts to the moment it reaches a speed of 7.9 m/s if it starts from rest?
Work out your solution using one of the equations for vertical motion with constant acceleration, specifically,v 2f = v 2i + 2aΔywhere v i and v f are,
respectively, the particle’s initial and final speed, and a is the particle’s acceleration.
ANSWER:
Δy = 3.2 m
Correct
You can easily verify that the vertical distance traveled by the free-falling particle is the same as the difference in height used in Part C to compute
how Tarzan’s gravitational energy changes. So, your result from Part C does make sense!
Kinetic and Potential Energy of Baseball Graphing Question
A baseball is thrown directly upward at time t = 0 and is caught again at time t = 5 s. Assume that air resistance is so small that it can be ignored and that the
zero point of gravitational potential energy is located at the position at which the ball leaves the thrower's hand.
Part A
Sketch a graph of the kinetic energy of the baseball.
Plot points at half second intervals.
Hint 1. Determine the sign of the initial kinetic energy

At the instant the ball leaves the thrower's hand, is its kinetic energy positive, negative, or zero?
ANSWER:
positive
negative
zero
Hint 2. The shape of the kinetic energy graph

The ball's speed decreases linearly from its initial value, which we can denote by v 0 , because of the constant acceleration due to gravity. The
velocity of the ball can be described by the equation
v(t) = v 0 − gt.
Since kinetic energy depends on the square of velocity, how does the kinetic energy vary with time?
Also, note that the ball reaches its maximum height halfway between the time that it leaves the thrower's hand and the moment it is caught. What is
the speed of the ball when it reaches the maximum height?
ANSWER:
Correct
Part B
Based on the graph of kinetic energy given (gray curve in the graphing window), sketch a graph of the baseball's gravitational potential energy.
Hint 1. Initial gravitational potential energy

The point at which the ball leaves the thrower's hand is defined to be the origin of the y axis, and the gravitational potential energy of the ball
depends on the ball's height above the origin.
Hint 2. The shape of the gravitational potential energy graph

The potential energy of the ball is proportional to its height, and the height of the ball can be described by the equation
1 2
h(t) = v0 t − gt .
2
Hint 3. Using conservation of energy

Since there are no nonconservative forces acting on the ball, the total energy must remain the same throughout the motion. Therefore, your graph of
potential energy should be shaped such that potential energy plus kinetic energy does not change during the motion.
ANSWER:
Correct
Part C
Based on the kinetic and potential energy graphs given, sketch a graph of the baseball's total energy.
Hint 1. Total energy

The total energy of the baseball is the sum of its kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy.
ANSWER:
Correct
Loop the Loop
A roller coaster car may be approximated by a block of mass m. The car, which starts from rest, is
released at a height h above the ground and slides along a frictionless track. The car encounters a
loop of radius R, as shown. Assume that the initial height h is great enough so that the car never
loses contact with the track.
Part A
Find an expression for the kinetic energy of the car at the top of the loop.
Express the kinetic energy in terms of m, g, h, and R.
Hint 1. Find the potential energy at the top of the loop

What is the potential energy of the car when it is at the top of the loop? Define the gravitational potential energy to be zero at h = 0 .
Express your answer in terms of R and other given quantities.

ANSWER:
Utop = mg(2R)
ANSWER:
K = mgh − mg2R
Correct
Part B
Find the minimum initial height h at which the car can be released that still allows the car to stay in contact with the track at the top of the loop.
Express the minimum height in terms of R.
Hint 1. How to approach this part

Meaning of "stay in contact"
For the car to just stay in contact through the loop, without falling, the normal force that acts on the car when it's at the top of the loop must be zero
(i.e., N = 0).
Find the velocity at the top such that the remaining force on the car i.e. its weight provides the necessary centripetal acceleration. If the velocity
were any greater, you would additionally require some force from the track to provide the necessary centripetal acceleration. If the velocity were any
less, the car would fall off the track.
Use the above described condition to find the velocity and then the result from the above part to find the required height.
Hint 2. Acceleration at the top of the loop

Assuming that the speed of the car at the top of the loop is v top , and that the car stays on the track, find the acceleration of the car. Take the
positive y direction to be upward.
Express your answer in terms of v top and any other quantities given in the problem introduction.
ANSWER:
2
−vtop
atop =
R
Hint 3. Normal force at the top of the loop

Suppose the car stays on the track and has speed v top at the top of the loop. Use Newton's 2nd law to find an expression for N , the magnitude of
the normal force that the loop exerts on the car when the car is at the top of the loop.
Express your answer in terms of m, g, R, and v top .
Hint 1. Find the sum of forces at the top of the loop

Find the sum of the forces acting on the car at the top of the loop. Remember that the positive y direction is upward.
Express your answer in terms of N , m, and g .
ANSWER:
∑ F top = −N − mg
ANSWER:
2
vtop
N = m( − g)
R
Hint 4. Solving for h

The requirement to stay in contact results in an expression for v 2top in terms of R and g. Substitute this into your expression for kinetic energy, found
in Part A, to determine a relation between h and R.
ANSWER:
hmin = 2.5R
Correct
For h > 2.5 R the car will still complete the loop, though it will require some normal reaction even at the very top.
For h < R the car will just oscillate. Do you see this?
For R < h < 2.5 R , the cart will lose contact with the track at some earlier point. That is why roller coasters must have a lot of safety features. If
h
you like, you can check that the angle at which the cart loses contact with the track is given by θ = arcsin( 2 ( − 1)) . Where θ is the
3 R
angle measured counterclockwise from the horizontal positive x-axis, where the origin of the x-axis is at the center of the loop.
Work and Potential Energy on a Sliding Block with Friction
A block of weight w sits on a plane inclined at an angle θ as shown. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the plane and the block is μ.
A force F ⃗ is applied to push the block up the incline at constant speed.
Part A
What is the work Wf done on the block by the force of friction as the block moves a distance L up the incline?
Express your answer in terms of some or all of the following: μ, w, θ, L.
Hint 1. A formula for work

The work done by a constant force is given by the dot product of the force vector with the vector representing the displacement over which the force
is applied.
Hint 2. Find the magnitude of the frictional force

What is the magnitude f f of the frictional force?
Express your answer in terms of μ, w, and θ.
Hint 1. Compute the normal force

Find the magnitude n of the normal force on the block.
Express your answer in terms of w and θ.

ANSWER:
n = wcos(θ)
ANSWER:
f
f
= μwcos(θ)
ANSWER:
Wf = −wcos(θ)μL
Correct
Part B
What is the work W done by the applied force of magnitude F ?
ANSWER:
W = wsin(θ)L + wcos(θ)μL
Correct
Part C
What is the change in the potential energy of the block, ΔU , after it has been pushed a distance L up the incline?
ANSWER:
ΔU = wLsin(θ)
Correct
Now the applied force is changed so that instead of pulling the block up the incline, the force F ⃗ pulls the block down the incline at a constant speed.
Part D
What is the change in potential energy of the block, ΔU , as it moves a distance L down the incline?

ANSWER:
ΔU = −wLsin(θ)
Correct
Part E
What is the work W done by the applied force of magnitude F ?
ANSWER:
W = −wsin(θ)L + wcos(θ)μL
Correct
Part F
What is the work Wf done on the block by the frictional force?
ANSWER:
Wf = −wcos(θ)μL
Correct
Work Raising an Elevator
Click on the image below to launch the video: Raising Elevator. Once you have watched the entire video, answer the graded follow-up questions on the right.
You can watch the video again at any point.
The video shows an elevator with a small initial upward velocity being raised by a cable. The tension in the cable is constant. The energy bar graphs are
marked in intervals of 600 J.
Part A
What is the mass m of the elevator? Use g = 10 m/s

2
for the magnitude of the acceleration of gravity.
Express your answer in kilograms to two significant figures.
Hint 1. Using the graphs

Think about which graph(s) show energies that are directly related to the mass of the elevator. There may be more than one. You would like to get
the most accurate number you can, so choose the graph that you can read most accurately.
Hint 2. Needed formula

Recall that the gravitational potential energy U near the earth's surface is given by U = mgh , where m is the mass of the object, g is the
magnitude of the gravitational acceleration, and h is the height above the ground.
ANSWER:
m = 60 kg
Correct
Part B
Find the magnitude of the tension T in the cable. Be certain that the method you are using will be accurate to two significant figures.
Express your answer in newtons to two significant figures.

In the previous part, you could use the graph of potential energy to determine the mass to two significant figures because when the elevator
stopped, the top of the potential energy bar lay right on one of the grid lines. In this problem, you could use the graph of work to find the tension, but
since it lies somewhere between the grid lines, it is unlikely that you could determine the tension to the necessary accuracy. However, it is a good
way to get an estimate with which to check your answer.
The numerical data given in the window beneath the graphs do have two significant figures of accuracy, and thus they could be used in combination
with the data in the graph of the final energy to get a more accurate value for the work done on the elevator. Recall, in fact, that the work done on
the elevator by the tension must equal the change in mechanical energy of the system.
Hint 2. Find the change in mechanical energy

From the information given in the video and the information found in Part A, determine the change in the total mechanical energy of the system ΔE .
Express your answer in joules to two significant figures.
Hint 1. Find the initial mechanical energy

Assuming that the potential energy of the elevator at the instant when you run the simulation is zero, what is the initial mechanical energy
Einitial of the system?
Express your answer in joules to two significant figures.
Hint 1. Definition of mechanical energy

Recall that the mechanical energy of a system is defined as the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy:
E = K +U
Note that, at the instant when you run the simulation, the potential energy U of the elevator is zero. Thus, the total initial mechanical
energy of the system is simply given by the initial kinetic energy of the elevator K = (1/2)mv 2 , which can be evaluated from the
information about the mass of the elevator found in Part A, and the information about the initial speed of the elevator given in the
window beneath the bar graphs in the video.
ANSWER:
Einitial = 480 J
ANSWER:
ΔE = 1900 J
ANSWER:
T = 480 N
Correct
PSS 7.2 Problems Using Mechanical Energy II
Learning Goal:
To practice Problem-Solving Strategy 7.2 Problems Using Mechanical Energy II.

The Great Sandini is a 60.0-kg circus performer who is shot from a cannon (actually a spring gun). You don’t find many men of his caliber, so you help him
design a new gun. This new gun has a very large spring with a very small mass and a force constant of 1100 N/m that he will compress with a force of 4400
N . The inside of the gun barrel is coated with Teflon, so the average friction force will be only 40.0 N during the 4.00 m he moves in the barrel. At what speed
will he emerge from the end of the barrel, 2.50 m above his initial rest position?
Problem-Solving Strategy: Problems using mechanical energy II

The energy approach is useful in solving problems that involve elastic forces as well as gravitational forces, provided the additional elastic potential energy is
included in the potential energy U .
1. Decide what the initial and final states of the system are. Use the subscript 1 for the initial state and the subscript 2 for the final state. It helps to
draw sketches.
2. Define your coordinate system, particularly the level at which y = 0. We suggest that you always choose the positive y direction to be upward
because this is what Ugrav = mgy assumes.
3. Identify all forces that do work, including those that can’t be described in terms of potential energy. A free-body diagram is always helpful.
4. List the unknown and known quantities, including the coordinates and velocities at each point. Decide which unknowns are your target variables.
Write expressions for the initial and final kinetic and potential energies—that is, K1 , K2 , U1 , and U2 . The potential energy U now includes both the
1 2
gravitational potential energy Ugrav and the elastic potential energy Uel = kx , where x is the displacement of the spring from its unstretched length.
2
Then, relate the kinetic and potential energies and the work done by other forces, Wother , using K1 + U1 + Wother = K2 + U2 . If no other forces do work,
this expression becomes K1 + U1 = K2 + U2 . It’s helpful to draw bar graphs showing the initial and final values of K , U , and E = K + U . Then, solve to
find whatever unknown quantity is required.

Check whether your answer makes physical sense. Keep in mind that the work done by the gravitational and elastic forces is accounted for by their potential
energies; the work of the other forces, Wother , has to be included separately.

The problem involves a spring gun. Therefore, to account for the potential energy associated with its elastic force, the energy approach might be the best
method to solve this problem.
Part A
Below is a sketch of the initial state of the situation described in this problem. Draw the most suitable set of coordinate axes for this problem. Note that
even though you can choose the y = 0 level to be wherever you like, in most situations it is best to set the zero height to coincide with either the initial or
final position, so that the calculations for the gravitational potential energy become easier. For this reason, in this particular problem place the origin of your
coordinate axes on the black dot marking the performer's initial position. Draw only the positive portion of the coordinate axes.
graded.
ANSWER:
Correct
This is the coordinate system used in the rest of this problem. Note that since the origin of the axes coincides with the location of the performer's
feet, all vertical distances are calculated relative to his feet, and not relative to his center of mass.
Now, draw a sketch for the final state showing the performer at the exit of the gun barrel, and identify all the forces that do work on the performer
as he travels from the initial to the final state.
Part B
Below is a list of variables representing some of the relevant quantities in this problem. Which ones are known quantities?
Check all that apply.

ANSWER:
l , distance traveled between initial and final state
m , mass of body in motion
v2 , final speed
y
2
, final height
f , magnitude of friction
y
1
, initial height
v1 , initial speed
F , magnitude of compressing force
k , force constant of spring
Correct
Now, make sure that you list all the known quantities on your sketches for the initial and final states of the system. You have identified only one
unknown, v 2 , the final speed of the performer. This is your target variable. However, as you work through the next part, you will find that there
may be other unknown quantities that need to be found in order to solve the problem.
Part C
At what speed v 2 will The Great Sandini emerge from the end of the gun barrel?
Express your answer in meters per second to three significant figures.
Hint 1. Find expressions for the performer’s initial and final kinetic energies
Let v 1 and v 2 be the initial and final speeds of the performer, respectively, m his mass, and g the acceleration due to gravity. Write expressions for
the initial and final kinetic energies, K1 and K2 , of the system.
Express your answers in terms of some or all of the variables g, m, v 1 , and v 2 , separated by a comma.
ANSWER:
K1 , K2 = 0 ,1 mv2
2
2
Hint 2. Find the performer’s initial and final gravitational potential energies
Using the coordinate system shown in Part A, calculate the initial and final potential energies, Ugrav,1 and Ugrav,2 , of the system. Take 9.81 m/s2
as the acceleration due to gravity.
Express your answers in joules to three significant figures, separated by a comma.
Hint 1. Find the performer’s initial position
Using the coordinate system shown in Part A, calculate the performer’s initial height y1 . Keep in mind that all vertical distances are
calculated relative to the initial location of the performer's feet, and not relative to his center of mass.
Express your answer in meters to three significant figures.
ANSWER:
y
1
= 0 m
Hint 2. Find the performer’s final position

Using the coordinate system shown in Part A, determine the performer’s final height y2 . Keep in mind that all vertical distances are
calculated relative to the initial location of the performer's feet, and not relative to his center of mass.

ANSWER:
y2 = 2.50 m
ANSWER:
Ugrav,1 , Ugrav,2 = 0,1470 ,

J J
Hint 3. Find the initial and final elastic potential energies

Given that the new gun has a very large spring with a very small mass and a force constant of 1100 N/m and that The Great Sandini will compress
the spring with a force of 4400 N , what are the initial and final elastic potential energies, Uel,1 and Uel,2 , respectively, that are stored in the spring
and transferred to the performer?
Hint 1. Find the initial compression of the spring

Given that the new gun has a very large spring with a very small mass and a force constant of 1100 N/m and that The Great Sandini will
compress the spring with a force of 4400 N , by what distance d1 is the spring initially compressed?
Hint 1. Ideal spring

Recall that to keep an ideal spring stretched (or compressed) by a distance x, you must exert a force F = kx , where k is the force
constant of the spring.
ANSWER:
d1 = 4.00 m
Hint 2. Find the final compression of the spring

Given that The Great Sandini will initially compress the spring with a force of 4400 N , by what distance d2 will the spring be compressed as
the performer reaches its final position at the end of the gun barrel?

ANSWER:
d2 = 0 m
ANSWER:
Uel,1 , Uel,2 = 8800,0 J J,
Hint 4. Find Wother
The only force acting on the performer that cannot be described in terms of potential energy is friction, so you will need to determine the work done
by this additional force separately.
Given that the average friction force between the performer's body and the inside of the gun barrel is 40.0 N during the 4.00 m the performer
moves in the barrel, what is the work, Wother , done by friction?
ANSWER:
Wother = -160 J
ANSWER:
v2 = 15.5 m/s
Correct
Part D
To evaluate whether your result makes sense, it's useful to use bar graphs showing the initial and final values of kinetic and potential energies. These
graphs will help you verify whether energy is conserved.
The picture to the right is a bar graph showing the initial values of potential energy U
(gravitational potential energy + elastic potential energy), kinetic energy K , and total energy
E = U + K . Which of the following graphs shows the correct final values for U , K , and E ?
ANSWER:
Diagram A
Diagram B
Diagram C
Diagram D
Diagram E
Diagram F
Correct
According to your calculations, the total energy E = U + K decreases by 160 J. You can verify that this equals the amount of energy lost to
friction, which you previously computed as Wother . So your results make sense. The initial elastic potential energy is for the most part
transformed into gravitational and kinetic energy, with a small loss due to friction. In the absence of friction, energy would be conserved and The
Great Sandini would emerge from the end of the barrel at an even higher speed.
Energy in a Spring Graphing Question
A toy car is held at rest against a compressed spring, as shown in the figure. When released, the car
slides across the room. Let x = 0 be the initial position of the car. Assume that friction is negligible.
Part A
Sketch a graph of the total energy of the spring and car system. There is no scale given, so your graph should simply reflect the qualitative shape of the
energy vs. time plot.
ANSWER:
Correct
Part B
Sketch a plot of the elastic potential energy of the spring from the point at which the car is released to the equilibrium position of the spring. Make your
graph consistent with the given plot of total energy (the gray line given in the graphing window).
Hint 1. Determine the sign of the initial elastic potential energy
At the instant the car is released, the spring is compressed. Therefore, is the spring's initial elastic potential energy positive, negative, or zero?
ANSWER:
positive
negative
zero
Hint 2. Determine the sign of the initial kinetic energy

Is the initial kinetic energy of the cart positive, negative, or zero?
ANSWER:
positive
negative
zero
Hint 3. Determine the sign of the final elastic potential energy

When the car reaches the equilibrium position of the spring, is the elastic potential energy positive, negative, or zero?
ANSWER:
positive
negative
zero
Hint 4. The shape of the elastic potential energy graph

The elastic potential energy of a spring with spring constant k that is stretched or compressed to position x is given by
1 2
U = k(x − x 0 ) ,
2
where x0 is the equilibrium position of the spring.
ANSWER:
Correct
Part C
Sketch a graph of the car's kinetic energy from the moment it is released until it passes the equilibrium position of the spring. Your graph should be
consistent with the given plots of total energy (gray line in graphing window) and potential energy (gray parabola in graphing window).
ANSWER:
Correct
Shooting a ball into a box
Two children are trying to shoot a marble of mass m into a small box using a spring-loaded gun that is fixed on a table and shoots horizontally from the edge of
the table. The edge of the table is a height H above the top of the box (the height of which is negligibly small), and the center of the box is a distance d from the
edge of the table. The spring has a spring constant k. The first child compresses the spring a distance x1 and finds that the marble falls short of its target by a
horizontal distance d12 .
Part A
By what distance, x2 , should the second child compress the spring so that the marble lands in the middle of the box? (Assume that height of the box is
negligible, so that there is no chance that the marble will hit the side of the box before it lands in the bottom.)
Express the distance in terms of m, k, g, H , and d.
Hint 1. General method for finding x2

For this part of the problem, you don't need to consider the first child's toss. (The quantities x1 and d12 should not appear in your answer.) Consider
the energy conservation and kinematic relations for the marble, and solve for its range, d, in terms of m, k, x2 , and H .
Hint 2. Initial speed of the marble

Use conservation of energy to find the initial speed, v 2 , of the second marble.
Express your answer in terms of m, k, and x2 .

ANSWER:
−−
k
v2 = x2 √
m
Hint 3. Time for the marble to hit the ground

Use kinematics to find t2 , the time it takes the second marble to hit the ground after it is shot off the table.
Express your answer in terms of H and g.
ANSWER:
−−−
2H
t2 = √
g
Hint 4. Combining equations and solving for x2

The kinematic equation for the motion along the x axis is v 2 t2 = d . Using the expressions for t2 and v 2 from the previous hints, solve for x2 in
terms of the quantities m, k, g, H , and d.
ANSWER:
x2 = √
2kH
mg
Correct
Part B
Now imagine that the second child does not know the mass of the marble, the height of the table above the floor, or the spring constant. Find an expression
for x2 that depends only on x1 and distance measurements.
Express x2 in terms of x1 , d, and d12 .
Hint 1. Compute x1
Use your answer to Part A to write x1 in terms of m, k, g, H , d, and d12 .
ANSWER:
−−−−
mg
x1 = (d − d12 )√
2H k
ANSWER:
x1 d
x2 =
d−d12
Correct
Spring and Projectile
A child's toy consists of a block that attaches to a table with a suction cup, a spring connected to that block, a ball, and a launching ramp. The spring has a
spring constant k, the ball has a mass m, and the ramp rises a height y above the table, the surface
of which is a height H above the floor.
Initially, the spring rests at its equilibrium length. The spring then is compressed a distance s, where
the ball is held at rest. The ball is then released, launching it up the ramp. When the ball leaves the
launching ramp its velocity vector makes an angle θ with respect to the horizontal.
Throughout this problem, ignore friction and air resistance.
Part A
Relative to the initial configuration (with the spring relaxed), when the spring has been compressed, the ball-spring system has
ANSWER:
gained kinetic energy
gained potential energy
lost kinetic energy
lost potential energy
Correct
Part B
As the spring expands (after the ball is released) the ball-spring system
ANSWER:
gains kinetic energy and loses potential energy
gains kinetic energy and gains potential energy
loses kinetic energy and gains potential energy
loses kinetic energy and loses potential energy
Correct
Part C
As the ball goes up the ramp, it
ANSWER:
Correct
Part D
As the ball falls to the floor (after having reached its maximum height), it
ANSWER:
Correct
Part E
Which of the graphs shown best represents the potential energy of the ball-spring system as a function of the ball's horizontal displacement? Take the
"zero" on the distance axis to represent the point at which the spring is fully compressed. Keep in
mind that the ball is not attached to the spring, and neglect any recoil of the spring after the ball
loses contact with it.
ANSWER:
Correct
Part F
Calculate v r , the speed of the ball when it leaves the launching ramp.
Express the speed of the ball in terms of k, s, m, g, y, and/or H .
Hint 1. General approach

Find an expression for the mechanical energy (kinetic plus potential) of the spring and ball when the spring is compressed. Then find an expression
for the mechanical energy of the ball when it leaves the launching ramp. ( v r will be an unknown in this expression.) Since energy is conserved, you
can set these two expressions equal to each other, and solve for v r .
Hint 2. Find the initial mechanical energy

Find the total mechanical energy of the ball-spring system when the spring is fully compressed. Take the gravitational potential energy to be zero at
the floor.
Hint 1. What contributes to the mechanical energy?

The total initial mechanical energy is the sum of the potential energy of the spring, the gravitational potential energy, plus any initial kinetic
energy of the ball.
ANSWER:
1
Ei = ks
2
+ mgH
2
Hint 3. Find the mechanical energy at the end of the ramp

Find the total mechanical energy of the ball when it leaves the launching ramp. (At this point, assume that the spring is relaxed and has no stored
potential energy.) Again, take the gravitational potential energy to be zero at the floor.
Express your answer in terms of v r and other given quantities.

ANSWER:
1
Er = mvr
2
+ mg(H + y)
2
Hint 4. Is energy conserved?

Because no nonconservative forces act on the system, energy is conserved: Ei = Er .
ANSWER:
−−−−−−−−
ks2
vr = √ − 2gy
m
Correct
Part G
With what speed will the ball hit the floor?
Express the speed in terms of k, s, m, g, y, and/or H .
Hint 1. General approach

Find an expression for the initial mechanical energy (kinetic plus potential) of the spring and ball. Then find an expression for the mechanical energy
of the ball when it hits the floor. ( v f will be an unknown in this expression.) Since energy is conserved, you can set these two expressions equal to
each other, and solve for v f .
Hint 2. Initial mechanical energy

For the initial mechanical energy, you can use either the expression you found for the mechanical energy of the ball at the top of the ramp or that for
the total mechanical energy of the ball plus spring just before the ball was launched. These two expressions are equal.
Hint 3. Find the final mechanical energy

Find the total mechanincal energy Ef of the ball when it hits the floor.
Express your answer in terms of v f and other given quantities.
ANSWER:
1
Ef = mvf
2
Hint 4. Is energy conserved?

Only conservative forces (gravity, spring) are acting on the ball, so energy is conserved: Ei = Er = Ef .
ANSWER:
−−−−−−−−−
ks2
vf = √ + 2gH
m
Correct
Spring Gun
A spring-loaded toy gun is used to shoot a ball straight up in the air. The ball reaches a maximum
height H , measured from the equilibrium position of the spring.
Part A
The same ball is shot straight up a second time from the same gun, but this time the spring is compressed only half as far before firing. How far up does
the ball go this time? Neglect friction. Assume that the spring is ideal and that the distance by which the spring is compressed is negligible compared to H .
Hint 1. Potential energy of the spring

The potential energy of a spring is proportional to the square of the distance the spring is compressed. The spring was compressed half the
distance, so the mass, when launched, has one quarter of the energy as in the first trial.
Hint 2. Potential energy of the ball
At the highest point in the ball's trajectory, all of the spring's potential energy has been converted into gravitational potential energy of the ball.
ANSWER:
H
height =
4
Correct
Where's the Energy?
Learning Goal:
To understand how to apply the law of conservation of energy to situations with and without nonconservative forces acting.
The law of conservation of energy states the following:
In an isolated system the total energy remains constant.
If the objects within the system interact through gravitational and elastic forces only, then the total mechanical energy is conserved.
The mechanical energy of a system is defined as the sum of kinetic energy K and potential energy U . For such systems where no forces other than the
gravitational and elastic forces do work, the law of conservation of energy can be written as
K i + Ui = K f + Uf ,
where the quantities with subscript "i" refer to the "initial" moment and those with subscript "f" refer to the final moment. A wise choice of initial and final
moments, which is not always obvious, may significantly simplify the solution.
The kinetic energy of an object that has mass m and velocity v is given by
1 2
K= mv .
2
Potential energy, instead, has many forms. The two forms that you will be dealing with most often in this chapter are the gravitational and elastic potential
energy. Gravitational potential energy is the energy possessed by elevated objects. For small heights, it can be found as
Ug = mgh ,
where m is the mass of the object, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the elevation of the object above the zero level. The zero level is the elevation
at which the gravitational potential energy is assumed to be (you guessed it) zero. The choice of the zero level is dictated by convenience; typically (but not
necessarily), it is selected to coincide with the lowest position of the object during the motion explored in the problem.
Elastic potential energy is associated with stretched or compressed elastic objects such as springs. For a spring with a force constant k, stretched or
compressed a distance x, the associated elastic potential energy is
1 2
Ue = kx .
2
When all three types of energy change, the law of conservation of energy for an object of mass m can be written as
1 1 1 1
mv
2
+ mghi + kx
2
= mv
2
+ mghf + kx
2
.
2 i 2 i 2 f 2 f
The gravitational force and the elastic force are two examples of conservative forces. What if nonconservative forces, such as friction, also act within the
system? In that case, the total mechanical energy would change. The law of conservation of energy is then written as
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
mv
i
+ mghi + kx
i
+ W nc = mv + mghf + kx ,
2 2 2 f 2 f
where Wnc represents the work done by the nonconservative forces acting on the object between the initial and the final moments. The work Wnc is usually
negative; that is, the nonconservative forces tend to decrease, or dissipate, the mechanical energy of the system.
In this problem, we will consider the following situation as depicted in the diagram : A block of mass
m slides at a speed v along a horizontal, smooth table. It next slides down a smooth ramp,
descending a height h, and then slides along a horizontal rough floor, stopping eventually. Assume
that the block slides slowly enough so that it does not lose contact with the supporting surfaces
(table, ramp, or floor).
You will analyze the motion of the block at different moments using the law of conservation of energy.
Part A
Which word in the statement of this problem allows you to assume that the table is frictionless?
ANSWER:
straight
smooth
horizontal
Correct
Although there are no truly "frictionless" surfaces, sometimes friction is small enough to be neglected. The word "smooth" often describes such
low-friction surfaces. Can you deduce what the word "rough" means?
Part B
Suppose the potential energy of the block at the table is given by mgh/3. This implies that the chosen zero level of potential energy is __________.
Hint 1. Definition of U
Gravitational potential energy is given by
Ug = mgh,
where h is the height relative to the zero level. Note that h > 0 when the object is above the chosen zero level; h < 0 when the object is below the
chosen zero level.
ANSWER:
a distance h/3 above the floor
a distance h/3 below the floor
a distance 2h/3 above the floor
a distance 2h/3 below the floor
on the floor
Correct
Part C
If the zero level is a distance 2h/3 above the floor, what is the potential energy U of the block on the floor?
Express your answer in terms of some or all the variables m, v , and h and any appropriate constants.
ANSWER:
2mgh
U = −
3
Correct
Part D
Considering that the potential energy of the block at the table is mgh/3 and that on the floor is −2mgh/3, what is the change in potential energy ΔU of
the block if it is moved from the table to the floor?
Hint 1. Definition of ΔU
By definition, the change in potential energy is given by ΔU = Uf − Ui . In general, change is always defined as the "final" quantity minus the
"initial" one.
ANSWER:
ΔU = −mgh
Correct
As you may have realized, this choice of the zero level was legitimate but not very convenient. Typically, in such problems, the zero level is
assumed to be on the floor. In solving this problem, we will assume just that: the zero level of potential energy is on the floor.
Part E
Which most simplified form of the law of conservation of energy describes the motion of the block when it slides from the top of the table to the bottom of
the ramp?

Think about these questions:
Are there any nonconservative forces acting on the block during this part of the trip?
Are there any objects involved that can store elastic potential energy?
Is the block changing its height?
Is the block changing its speed?
ANSWER:
1 2 1 2
mv + mghi + W nc = mv + mghf
2 i 2 f
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
mv + kx = mv + kx
2 i 2 i 2 f 2 f
1 2 1 2
mv + mghi = mghf + kx
2 i 2 f
1 2 1 2
mv + mghi = mv + mghf
2 i 2 f
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
mv + mghi + kx + W nc = mv + mghf + kx
2 i 2 i 2 f 2 f
Correct
Part F
As the block slides down the ramp, what happens to its kinetic energy K , potential energy U , and total mechanical energy E ?
ANSWER:
K decreases;U increases;E stays the same
K decreases;U increases;E increases
K increases;U increases;E increases
K increases;U decreases;E stays the same
Correct
Part G
Using conservation of energy, find the speed v b of the block at the bottom of the ramp.

Use the equation for the law of conservation of energy that describes the motion of the block as it slides down the ramp. Then substitute in all known
values and solve for the unknown.
ANSWER:
− − −−−−−
vb = 2
√ v + 2gh
Correct
Part H
Which most simplified form of the law of conservation of energy describes the motion of the block as it slides on the floor from the bottom of the ramp to the
moment it stops?

Think about these questions:
Are there any nonconservative forces acting on the block during this part of the trip?
Are there any objects involved that can store elastic potential energy?
Is the block changing its height?
Is the block changing its speed?
ANSWER:
1 2 1 2
mv + mghi + W nc = mv + mghf
2 i 2 f
1 2 1 2
mv = mv
2 i 2 f
1 2
mv + W nc = 0
2 i
1 2 1 2
mv + mghi = mv + mghf
2 i 2 f
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
mv + mghi + kx + W nc = mv + mghf + kx
2 i 2 i 2 f 2 f
Correct
Part I
As the block slides across the floor, what happens to its kinetic energy K , potential energy U , and total mechanical energy E ?
ANSWER:
K decreases;U increases;E decreases
K increases;U decreases;E decreases
K decreases;U stays the same;E decreases
K increases;U stays the same;E decreases
K decreases;U increases;E stays the same
K increases;U decreases;E stays the same
Correct
Part J
What force is responsible for the decrease in the mechanical energy of the block?
ANSWER:
tension
gravity
friction
normal force
Correct
Part K
Find the amount of energy E dissipated by friction by the time the block stops.

Use the equation for the law of conservation of energy that you selected as the most appropriate for the block sliding on the floor. Then substitute in
all known values and solve for the unknown. You will need to use the value for v b that you found earlier in Part G, as your initial speed.
ANSWER:
1
E = mv
2
+ mgh
2
Correct
A Mass-Spring System with Recoil and Friction
An object of mass m is traveling on a horizontal surface. There is a coefficient of kinetic friction μ between the object and the surface. The object has speed v
when it reaches x = 0 and encounters a spring. The object compresses the spring, stops, and then recoils and travels in the opposite direction. When the
object reaches x = 0 on its return trip, it stops.
Part A
Find k, the spring constant.
Express k in terms of μ, m, g, and v .
Hint 1. Why does the object stop?

Why does the object come to rest when it returns to x = 0 ?
Although more than one answer may be true of the system, you must choose the answer that explains why the object ultimately comes to
a stop.
ANSWER:
When the object reaches x = 0 the second time all of its initial energy has gone into the compression and extension of the spring.
When the object reaches x = 0 the second time all of its initial energy has been dissipated by friction.
x = 0 is an equilibrium position and at this point the spring exerts no force on the object.
At x = 0 the force of friction exactly balances the force exerted by the spring on the object.
Hint 2. How does friction affect the system?
Indicate which of the following statements regarding friction is/are true.
ANSWER:
Work done by friction is equal to −mgμd, where m is the mass of an object, g is the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity, μ is
the coefficient of kinetic friction, and d is the distance the object has traveled.
Energy dissipated by friction is equal to (1/2)μgmt2 , where μ is the coefficient of friction, g is the acceleration due to gravity, m is the
mass of the object, and t is the amount of time (since encountering the spring) the object has been moving.
Friction is a conservative force.
Work done by friction is exactly equal to the negative of the energy dissipated by friction.
Hint 3. Energy stored in a spring

The potential energy stored in a spring having constant k that is compressed a distance d is
d 2
1
Espring = − ∫ F dx = ∫
0
kx dx = kd .
2
Hint 4. Compute the compression of the spring

By what distance d does the object compress the spring?
Look at the initial condition when the object originally hits the spring and the final condition when the object returns to x = 0 .
Express d in terms of v , μ, and g.
Hint 1. How to approach this question

Use the fact that
Ef inal = Einitial + Wnonconservative
to solve for the distance the spring was compressed.
Hint 2. The value of Ef inal

In its final position, the object is not moving. Also the spring is not compressed. Therefore Ef inal = 0 .
Hint 3. Find Einitial

What is the value of Einitial ?
Express your answer in terms of some or all of the variables m, v , μ, and d and g, the acceleration due to gravity.

Initially the spring is uncompressed, so the only contribution to the system's energy comes from the kinetic energy of the object.
ANSWER:
1
Einitial = 2
mv
2
Hint 4. Find Wnonconservative

What is the value of Wnonconservative ?
Express your answer in terms of some or all of the variables m, v , μ, and d and g, the acceleration due to gravity.

The only nonconservative force in the system is the frictional force between the object and the surface it's on. If the object moves
through a distance x, the work done by friction Wf riction is
⃗
Wf riction = f ⋅ s ⃗ = −μmgx
ANSWER:
Wnonconservative = −μmg(2d)
ANSWER:
2
v
d =
4μg
Hint 5. Putting it all together

In the previous part, at the two ends of the motion considered, the spring had no energy, so k was not part of the equation. However, you were able
to find a relation for d in terms of the known quantities. To obtain an equation involving k, use conservation of energy again,
Ef inal = Einitial + Wnonconservative ,
but this time, take the initial condition to be the moment when the spring is at its maximum compression and the final condition to be the moment
when the spring returns to x = 0. So now Einitial can be written in terms of k and other variables.
Hint 6. The value of Ef inal

The value of Ef inal is again zero.
Hint 7. Find Einitial for this part of the motion

What is the value of Einitial for this part of the motion?
Express your answer in terms of d and k, the spring constant, so that you end up with an equation containing k.

Since the spring is at its maximum compression, the object must be momentarily at rest. So the only contribution to the energy is from the
potential energy of the spring.
ANSWER:
2
Einitial = 1
kd
2
Hint 8. Find Wnonconservative for this part of the motion

What is the value of Wnonconservative for this part of the motion?
Express your answer in terms of m, μ, d, and g, the acceleration due to gravity.

The only nonconservative force in the system is the frictional force between the object and the surface it's on. If the object moves through a
distance x, the work done by friction Wf riction is
⃗
Wf riction = f ⋅ s ⃗ = −μmgx .
ANSWER:
Wnonconservative = −μmgd
ANSWER:
2
μg
k = 8m( )
v
Correct
Shooting a Block up an Incline
A block of mass m is placed in a smooth-bored spring gun at the bottom of the incline so that it compresses the spring by an amount xc . The spring has spring
constant k. The incline makes an angle θ with the horizontal and the coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the incline is μ. The block is released,
exits the muzzle of the gun, and slides up an incline a total distance L.
Part A
Find L, the distance traveled along the incline by the block after it exits the gun. Ignore friction when the block is inside the gun. Also, assume that the
uncompressed spring is just at the top of the gun (i.e., the block moves a distance xc while inside of the gun). Use g for the magnitude of acceleration due
to gravity.
Express the distance L in terms of xc , k, m, g, μ, and θ.

This is an example of a problem that would be very difficult using only Newton's laws and calculus. Instead, use the Work-Energy Theorem:
Ef inal − Einitial = Wext , where Ef inal is the final energy, Einitial is the initial energy, and Wext is the work done on the system by external forces.
Let the gravitational potential energy be zero before the spring is released. Then, Einitial is the potential energy due to the spring, Ef inal is the
potential energy due to gravity, and Wext is the work done by friction. Once you've set up this equation completely, solve for L.
Hint 2. Find the initial energy of the block

Find the initial energy Einitial of the block. Take the gravitational potential energy to be zero before the spring is released.
Express your answer in terms of parameters given in the problem introduction.
Hint 1. Potential energy of a compressed spring
Recall that the potential energy U of a spring with spring constant k compressed a distance x is U = (1/2)kx
2
.
ANSWER:
1 2
Einitial = kx c
2
Hint 3. Find the work done by friction

Find Wf riction , the work done by friction on the block.
Express Wf riction in terms of L, m, g, μ, and θ.
Hint 1. How to compute work

The work done by a force acting along the direction of motion of an object is equal to the magnitude of the force times the distance over
which the object moves. Work is negative if the force directly opposes the motion.
ANSWER:
Wf riction = −Lmgcos(θ)μ
Hint 4. Find the final energy of the block

Find an expression for the final energy Ef inal of the block (the energy when it has traveled a distance L up the incline). Assume that the
gravitational potential energy of the block is zero before the spring is released and that the block moves a distance xc inside of the gun.
Your answer should contain L and xc .
Hint 1. What form does the energy take?

When the block stops sliding up the ramp, all of its energy is in the form of gravitational potential energy.
ANSWER:
Ef inal = mg(L + xc )sin(θ)
ANSWER:
(0.5x c 2 k)−mgsin(θ)x c
L =
mg(sin(θ)+cos(θ)μ)
Correct
Potential Energy Calculations
Learning Goal:
To understand the relationship between the force and the potential energy changes associated with that force and to be able to calculate the changes in
potential energy as definite integrals.
Imagine that a conservative force field is defined in a certain region of space. Does this sound too abstract? Well, think of a gravitational field (the one that
makes apples fall down and keeps the planets orbiting) or an electrostatic field existing around any electrically charged object.
If a particle is moving in such a field, its change in potential energy does not depend on the particle's path and is determined only by the particle's initial and
final positions. Recall that, in general, the component of the net force acting on a particle equals the negative derivative of the potential energy function along
the corresponding axis:
dU (x)
Fx = − .
dx
Therefore, the change in potential energy can be found as the integral
2
⃗
ΔU = − ∫ F ⋅ ds ,⃗
1
where ΔU is the change in potential energy for a particle moving from point 1 to point 2, F ⃗ is the net force acting on the particle at a given point of its path, and
ds ⃗ is a small displacement of the particle along its path from 1 to 2.
Evaluating such an integral in a general case can be a tedious and lengthy task. However, two circumstances make it easier:
1. Because the result is path-independent, it is always possible to consider the most straightforward way to reach point 2 from point 1.
2. The most common real-world fields are rather simply defined.
In this problem, you will practice calculating the change in potential energy for a particle moving in three common force fields.
Note that, in the equations for the forces, î is the unit vector in the x direction, ^
j is the unit vector in the y direction, and ^
r is the unit vector in the radial direction
in case of a spherically symmetrical force field.
Part A
Consider a uniform gravitational field (a fair approximation near the surface of a planet). Find
yf
⃗
U (yf ) − U (y0 ) = − ∫ F g ⋅ ds ,⃗
y0
where
⃗ ^
F g = −mg j and ds ⃗ = ^
dy j .
Express your answer in terms of m, g, y0 , and yf .
Hint 1. Relative directions of F g⃗ and ds ⃗
Note that F g⃗ and ds ⃗ are parallel, and their dot product is simply the product of their magnitudes. That is,
⃗
F g ⋅ ds ⃗ = −mg dy .
ANSWER:
U (y ) − U (y )
f 0
= mg(y
f
−y )
0
Answer Requested
Part B
Consider the force exerted by a spring that obeys Hooke's law. Find
xf
⃗
U (x f ) − U (x 0 ) = − ∫ F s ⋅ ds ,⃗
x0
where
⃗ ^
F s = −kx i ,
^
ds ⃗ = dx i ,
and the spring constant k is positive.
Express your answer in terms of k, x0 , and xf .
Hint 1. Relative directions of F s⃗ and ds ⃗
Note that F s⃗ and ds ⃗ are parallel, and their dot product is simply the product of their magnitudes. That is,
⃗
F s ⋅ ds ⃗ = −kx dx .
ANSWER:
k
U (xf ) − U (x0 ) = (x f
2
− x0
2
)
2
Answer Requested
Part C
Finally, consider the gravitational force generated by a spherically symmetrical massive object. The magnitude and direction of such a force are given by
Newton's law of gravity:
Gm 1 m 2
⃗
FG = − ^,
r
r2
where ds ⃗ = dr r ;
^ G m1 , , and m2 are constants; and r > 0 . Find
rf
⃗
U (rf ) − U (r0 ) = − ∫ F G ⋅ ds .⃗
r0
Express your answer in terms of G, m1 , m2 , r0 , and rf .
⃗
Hint 1. Relative directions of F G and ds ⃗
⃗
Note that F G and ds ⃗ are parallel, and their dot product is simply the product of their magnitudes. That is,
⃗ Gm 1 m 2
F G ⋅ ds ⃗ = − dr .
r2
Hint 2. Integrating 1/r2
Recall that
dr 1
∫
2
=−
r
.
r
Carefully account for all the negative signs in your calculations.
ANSWER:
1 1
U (rf ) − U (r0 ) = (Gm1 m2 )(
r0
−
rf
)
Answer Requested
As you can see, the change in potential energy of the particle can be found by integrating the force along the particle's path. However, this method, as
we mentioned before, does have an important restriction: It can only be applied to a conservative force field. For conservative forces such as gravity or
tension the work done on the particle does not depend on the particle's path, and the potential energy is the function of the particle's position.
In case of a nonconservative force--such as a frictional or magnetic force--the potential energy can no longer be defined as a function of the particle's
position, and the method that you used in this problem would not be applicable.
Springs in Two Dimensions
The ends of two identical springs are connected. Their unstretched lengths ℓ are negligibly small and each has spring constant k. After being connected, both
springs are stretched an amount L and their free ends are anchored at y = 0 and x = ±L as shown . The point where the springs are connected to each
other is now pulled to the position (x, y). Assume that (x, y) lies in the first quadrant.
Part A
What is the potential energy of the two-spring system after the point of connection has been moved to position (x, y), as shown in ? Keep in mind that the
unstretched length of each spring ℓ is much less than L and can be ignored (i.e., ℓ ≪ L).
Express the potential in terms of k, x, y, and L.
Hint 1. An important property of the potential energy

Recall that potential energy is a scalar and hence can be added like a number. You should find the potential energies of each of the springs, then
add these two energies together to get the total potential energy of the system.
Hint 2. Potential energy of the left-hand spring
Find the potential energy of the spring on the left side of the figure when the point where the two springs are connected is pulled to the position (x,
y ).
Hint 1. Stretched length of the left-hand spring

Find the total elongation of the spring on the left when its end (the point at which it connects to the other spring) is at the point (x, y).
ANSWER:
−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2
elongation
lef t
= √ ((L + x) +y
2
)
ANSWER:
2
Ulef t = .5k((L + x) + (y
2
))
ANSWER:
2 2 2
U = 0.5k((−L − x) + (L − x) + 2(−y) )
Correct
Part B
Based on the same setup from Part A, find the force F ⃗ on the junction point, the point where the two springs are attached to each other.
Express F ⃗ as a vector in terms of the unit vectors î and ^

j.

Once you have obtained the potential energy you can calculate the corresponding force as the gradient of the potential energy.
Hint 2. Components of the force vector

The components of the force are
dU dU
Fx = − and Fy = − .
dx dy
ANSWER:
⃗ ^ ^
F = (−2kx) i + (−2ky) j
Answer Requested
Notice how much more difficult it would have been to obtain the force via vector addition (computing the two components of the force from each
spring, then adding them). This is the power of scalar potential functions: They allow you to simply add up the contributions, without having to worry
about vectors or coordinate axes. By taking the gradient of the potential, you automatically obtain the desired vector quantities.
Potential Energy Graphs and Motion
Learning Goal:
To be able to interpret potential energy diagrams and predict the corresponding motion of a particle.
Potential energy diagrams for a particle are useful in predicting the motion of that particle. These diagrams allow one to determine the direction of the force
acting on the particle at any point, the points of stable and unstable equilibrium, the particle's kinetic energy, etc.
Consider the potential energy diagram shown. The curve represents the value of potential energy U as a function of the particle's coordinate x. The horizontal
line above the curve represents the constant value of the total energy of the particle E . The total energy E is the sum of kinetic (K ) and potential (U ) energies
of the particle.
The key idea in interpreting the graph can be expressed in the equation
dU (x)
F x (x) = − ,
dx
where Fx (x) is the x component of the net force as function of the particle's coordinate x. Note the
negative sign: It means that the x component of the net force is negative when the derivative is
positive and vice versa. For instance, if the particle is moving to the right, and its potential energy is
increasing, the net force would be pulling the particle to the left.
If you are still having trouble visualizing this, consider the following: If a massive particle is increasing
its gravitational potential energy (that is, moving upward), the force of gravity is pulling in the opposite
direction (that is, downward).
If the x component of the net force is zero, the particle is said to be in equilibrium. There are two
kinds of equilibrium:
Stable equilibrium means that small deviations from the equilibrium point create a net force
that accelerates the particle back toward the equilibrium point (think of a ball rolling between two hills).
Unstable equilibrium means that small deviations from the equilibrium point create a net force that accelerates the particle further away from the
equilibrium point (think of a ball on top of a hill).
In answering the following questions, we will assume that there is a single varying force F acting on the particle along the x axis. Therefore, we will use the
term force instead of the cumbersome x component of the net force.
Part A
The force acting on the particle at point A is __________.
Hint 1. Sign of the derivative

If a function increases (as x increases) in a certain region, then the derivative of the function in that region is positive.
Hint 2. Sign of the component

If x increases to the right, as in the graph shown, then a (one-dimensional) vector with a positive x component points to the right, and vice versa.
ANSWER:
directed to the right
directed to the left
equal to zero
Correct
Consider the graph in the region of point A. If the particle is moving to the right, it would be "climbing the hill," and the force would "pull it down,"
that is, pull the particle back to the left. Another, more abstract way of thinking about this is to say that the slope of the graph at point A is positive;
therefore, the direction of F ⃗ is negative.
Part B
The force acting on the particle at point C is __________.
Hint 1. Sign of the derivative

If a function increases (as x increases) in a certain region, then the derivative of the function in that region is positive, and vice versa.
Hint 2. Sign of the component

If x increases to the right, as in the graph shown, then a (one-dimensional) vector with a positive x component points to the right, and vice versa.
ANSWER:
equal to zero
Correct
Part C
The force acting on the particle at point B is __________.
Hint 1. Derivative of a function at a local maximum

At a local maximum, the derivative of a function is equal to zero.
ANSWER:
equal to zero
Correct
The slope of the graph is zero; therefore, the derivative dU /dx = 0 , and |F |⃗ = 0 .
Part D
The acceleration of the particle at point B is __________.
Hint 1. Relation between acceleration and force

The relation between acceleration and force is given by Newton's 2nd law,
F = ma .
ANSWER:
equal to zero
Correct
If the net force is zero, so is the acceleration. The particle is said to be in a state of equilibrium.
Part E
If the particle is located slightly to the left of point B, its acceleration is __________.
Hint 1. The force on such a particle

To the left of B, U (x) is an increasing function and so its derivative is positive. This implies that the x component of the force on a particle at this
location is negative, or that the force is directed to the left, just like at A. What can you say now about the acceleration?
ANSWER:
equal to zero
Correct
Part F
If the particle is located slightly to the right of point B, its acceleration is __________.
Hint 1. The force on such a particle

To the right of B, U (x) is a decreasing function and so its derivative is negative. This implies that the x component of the force on a particle at this
location is positive, or that the force is directed to the right, just like at C . What can you now say about the acceleration?
ANSWER:
equal to zero
Correct
As you can see, small deviations from equilibrium at point B cause a force that accelerates the particle further away; hence the particle is in
unstable equilibrium.
Part G
Name all labeled points on the graph corresponding to unstable equilibrium.
List your choices alphabetically, with no commas or spaces; for instance, if you choose points B, D, and E , type your answer as BDE.
Hint 1. Definition of unstable equilibrium

Unstable equilibrium means that small deviations from the equilibrium point create a net force that accelerates the particle further away from the
equilibrium point (think of a ball on top of a hill).
ANSWER:
BF
Correct
Part H
Name all labeled points on the graph corresponding to stable equilibrium.
Hint 1. Definition of stable equilibrium

Stable equilibrium means that small deviations from the equilibrium point create a net force that accelerates the particle back toward the equilibrium
point. (Think of a ball rolling between two hills.)
ANSWER:
DH
Correct
Part I
Name all labeled points on the graph where the acceleration of the particle is zero.
Hint 1. Relation between acceleration and force

The relation between acceleration and force is given by Newton's 2nd law,
F = ma .
ANSWER:
BDFH
Correct
Your answer, of course, includes the locations of both stable and unstable equilibrium.
Part J
Name all labeled points such that when a particle is released from rest there, it would accelerate to the left.
Hint 1. Determine the sign of the x component of force

If the acceleration is to the left, so is the force. This means that the x component of the force is __________.
ANSWER:
positive
negative
Hint 2. What is the behavior of U (x)?
If the x component of the force at a point is negative, then the derivative of U (x) at that point is positive. This means that in the region around the
point U (x) is __________.
ANSWER:
increasing
decreasing
ANSWER:
AE
Correct
Part K
Consider points A, E , and G. Of these three points, which one corresponds to the greatest magnitude of acceleration of the particle?
Hint 1. Acceleration and force

The greatest acceleration corresponds to the greatest magnitude of the net force, represented on the graph by the magnitude of the slope.
ANSWER:
Correct
Kinetic energy
If the total energy E of the particle is known, one can also use the graph of U (x) to draw conclusions about the kinetic energy of the particle since
K = E −U .
As a reminder, on this graph, the total energy E is shown by the horizontal line.
Part L
What point on the graph corresponds to the maximum kinetic energy of the moving particle?
Hint 1. K , U , and E
Since the total energy does not change, the maximum kinetic energy corresponds to the minimum potential energy.
ANSWER:
Correct
It makes sense that the kinetic energy of the particle is maximum at one of the (force) equilibrium points. For example, think of a pendulum (which
has only one force equilibrium point--at the very bottom).
Part M
At what point on the graph does the particle have the lowest speed?
ANSWER:
Correct
As you can see, many different conclusions can be made about the particle's motion merely by looking at the graph. It is helpful to understand the
character of motion qualitatively before you attempt quantitative problems. This problem should prove useful in improving such an understanding.
Fun with a Spring Gun
A spring-loaded toy gun is used to shoot a ball of mass m = 1.50 kg straight up in the air, as shown in . The spring has spring constant k = 667 N/m. If the
spring is compressed a distance of 25.0 centimeters from its equilibrium position y = 0 and then released, the ball reaches a maximum height hmax (measured
from the equilibrium position of the spring). There is no air resistance, and the ball never touches the inside of the gun. Assume that all movement occurs in a
straight line up and down along the y axis.
Part A
Which of the following statements are true?
Hint 1. Nonconservative forces

Dissipative, or nonconservative, forces are those that always oppose the motion of the object on which they act. Forces such as friction and drag
are dissipative forces.
Hint 2. Forces acting on the ball

The ball is acted on by the spring force only when the two are in contact. The force of tension in the spring is a conservative force. Also, the ball is
always acted on by gravity, which is also a conservative, or nondissipative, force.
ANSWER:
Mechanical energy is conserved because no dissipative forces perform work on the ball.
The forces of gravity and the spring have potential energies associated with them.
No conservative forces act in this problem after the ball is released from the spring gun.
Correct
Part B
Find v m the muzzle velocity of the ball (i.e., the velocity of the ball at the spring's equilibrium position y = 0 ).
Hint 1. Determine how to approach the problem

What physical relationship can you use to solve this problem? Choose the best answer.
ANSWER:
kinematics equations
Newton's second law
law of conservation of energy
conservation of momentum
Hint 2. Energy equations

Recall that kinetic energy is given by the equation
1 2
mv ,
2
where v is the speed of the object and m is the object's mass.
Gravitational potential energy is given by
mgy ,
where y is the object's height measured from y = 0 .
The elastic potential energy of a spring is given by
1
kx
2
,
2
where k is the spring constant and x is the spring's displacement from equilibrium.
Hint 3. Determine which two locations you should examine

Pick the two points along the ball's path that would be most useful to compare in order to find the solution to this problem. Choose from among the
following three points:

ANSWER:
y = −25 cm , the location of the ball when the spring is compressed.
y = 0 , the equilibrium position of the spring.
y = hmax , the maximum height that the ball reaches above the point y = 0 .
Hint 4. Find the initial energy of the system

A useful statement of mechanical energy conservation relating the initial and final kinetic (K ) and potential (U ) energies is
Kinitial + Uinitial = Kf inal + Uf inal .

In this situation, the initial position is y = −25.0 cm and the final position is y = 0 , which is the equilibrium position of the spring. What kind(s) of
energy does the system "spring-ball" have at the initial position?
ANSWER:
kinetic only
elastic potential only
gravitational potential only
kinetic and gravitational potential
kinetic and elastic potential
elastic and gravitational potentials
Hint 5. Determine the final energy

A useful statement of mechanical energy conservation relating the initial and final kinetic (K ) and potential (U ) energies is

In this situation, the initial position is y = −25.0 cm and the final position is y = 0 , which is the equilibrium position of the spring. What kind(s) of
energy does the system "spring-ball" have at the final position?
ANSWER:
kinetic only
Hint 6. Creating an equation

From the hints you now know what kinds of energy are present at the initial and final positions chosen for the ball in this part of the problem. You
also know that
It has been determined that Kinitial is zero and Uinitial consists of two terms: gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy. In addition,
Uf inal is zero.
ANSWER:
vm = 4.78 m/s
Correct
Part C
Find the maximum height hmax of the ball.
Express your answer numerically, in meters.
Hint 1. Choose two locations to examine

Pick the two points along the ball's movement that would be most useful to compare in order to find a solution to this problem. Choose from among
the following three points:
ANSWER:
y = −25 cm , the location of the ball when the spring is compressed.
y = 0 , the equilibrium position of the spring.
y = hmax , the maximum height that the ball reaches measured from y = 0 .
Hint 2. Find the initial energy

A useful statement of mechanical energy conservation is
Kinital + Uinitial = Kf inal + Uf inal .
Recall that in the problem statement, y = 0 is set to correspond to the equilibrium position of the spring. Therefore, in this situation, the initial
location is at y = −25 cm and the final position should be taken as y = hmax .
What kind(s) of energy does the ball have at the initial location?
ANSWER:
kinetic only
Hint 3. Determine the final energy

A useful statement of mechanical energy conservation is
In this situation, the initial location is at y = −25 cm , and the final position should be taken as y = hmax . What kind(s) of energy does the ball
have at y = hmax ?
Hint 1. Find the speed of the ball at the top of its trajectory
What is the speed v top of the ball at the top of its trajectory?
Express your answer numerically, in meters per second.
Hint 1. Motion in the vertical direction

Recall from kinematics that a ball travels upward until its speed decreases to zero, at which point it starts falling back to Earth.
ANSWER:
v top = 0 m/s
ANSWER:
kinetic only
Hint 4. Creating an equation

From the above hints, you now know what kind of energy is present at the inital and final positions chosen for the ball in this part of the problem. You
know that
It was determined that Kinitial is zero and that Uinitial consists of two terms: gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy. In addition,
Kf inal is zero.
ANSWER:
hmax = 1.17 m
Correct
In this problem you practiced applying the law of conservation of mechanical energy to a physical situation to find the muzzle velocity and the
maximum height reached by the ball.
Part D
Which of the following actions, if done independently, would increase the maximum height reached by the ball?
ANSWER:
reducing the spring constant k
increasing the spring constant k
decreasing the distance the spring is compressed
increasing the distance the spring is compressed
decreasing the mass of the ball
increasing the mass of the ball
tilting the spring gun so that it is at an angle θ < 90 degrees from the horizontal
Correct
Are Coulomb Forces Conservative?
Learning Goal:
To review the concept of conservative forces and to understand that electrostatic forces are, in fact, conservative.
As you may recall from mechanics, some forces have a very special property, namely, that the work done on an object does not depend on the object's
trajectory; rather, it depends only on the initial and the final positions of the object.
Such forces are called conservative forces. If only conservative forces act within a closed system, the total amount of mechanical energy is conserved within
the system (hence the term "conservative"). Such forces have a number of properties that simplify the solution of many problems.
You may also recall that a potential energy function can be defined with respect to a conservative force. This property of conservative forces will be of particular
interest of us.
Not all forces that we deal with are conservative, of course. For instance, the amount of work done by a frictional force very much depends on the object's
trajectory. Friction, therefore, is not a conservative force. In contrast, the gravitational force is the most common example of a conservative force. What about
electrostatic (Coulomb) forces? Are they conservative, and is there a potential energy function associated with them?
In this problem, you will be asked to use the given diagram to calculate the work done by the electric
field E⃗ on a particle of charge q and see for yourself whether that work appears to be trajectory-
independent. Recall that the force acting on a charged particle in an electric field is given by
⃗ ⃗
F = Eq .
Recall that the work W done on an object by a constant force is
W = F d cos θ,
where F is the magnitude of the force acting on the object, d is the magnitude of the displacement
that the object undergoes, and θ is the angle between the vectors F ⃗ and d ⃗ .
Consider a uniform electric field E⃗ and a rectangle ABCD, as shown in the figure. Sides AB and CD
are parallel to E⃗ and have length L; let α be angle BAC.
Part A
Calculate the work WAB done by the electrostatic force on a particle of charge q as it moves from A to B.
Express your answer in terms of some or all the variables E , q, L, and α.

With reference to the given expression for the work done by a constant force, what value of θ should you use here?
ANSWER:
0
α
∘
90 −α
∘
90
∘
180 −α
∘
180
ANSWER:
WAB = EqL
Correct
The angle θ between the force and the displacement is zero here, so cos θ = 1 , and the general formula for work becomes W .
= Fd
Part B
Calculate the work WBC done by the electrostatic force on the charged particle as it moves from B to C.
ANSWER:
WBC = 0
Correct
Now the angle θ between the force and the displacement is 90∘ , so cos θ , and the work done is zero.
= 0
Part C
Calculate the total amount of work WABC done by the electrostatic force on the charged particle as it moves from A to B to C.

ANSWER:
WABC = EqL
Correct
Part D
Now assume that the particle "chooses" a different way of traveling. Calculate the total amount of work WADC done by the electrostatic force on the
charged particle as it moves from A to D to C.
Express your answer in terms of some or all the variables E , q, L and α.
ANSWER:
WADC = EqL
Correct
Since WAB = WDC and WBC = WAD , it is clear that WABC = WADC . It appears that the work done by the electrostatic force on the particle is
the same for both paths that begin at point A and end at point C. We now have a reasonable suspicion that this force may, in fact, be
conservative. Let us check some more.
Part E
Calculate the work WAGC done by the electrostatic force on the charged particle as it moves from A straight to C.
Hint 1. Find the distance between A and C

Find the distance |AC| .
Express your answer in terms of L and α.

ANSWER:
L
|AC| =
cos(α)

What value of θ should you use in calculating the work done to move the charged particle from A straight to C?
ANSWER:
0
α
∘
90 −α
∘
90
∘
180 −α
∘
180
ANSWER:
WAGC = EqL
Correct
Though we have not proved it, it can be shown that the Coulomb force is indeed conservative. This implies that the amount of work WAFC done
by the electrostatic force on the charged particle as it moves in a curved path from A to F to C is also equal to qEL.
With the knowledge that the Coulomb force is conservative, and again referring to the diagram, answer the following questions. These questions are meant to
highlight some important properties of conservative forces.
Part F
Find the amount of work WBA done by the electrostatic force on the charged particle as it moves along the straight path from B to A.

What value of θ should you use here?
ANSWER:
0
α
∘
90 −α
∘
90
∘
180 −α
∘
180
ANSWER:
WBA = −EqL
Correct
The angle θ between the force and the displacement is 180∘ here, so cos θ = −1 , and the general formula for work becomes W .
= −F d
Note that WBA = −WAB .
The amount of work WABA done by the electrostatic force on the charged particle as it moves from A to B to A is equal to
WABA = WAB + WBA
= WAB + (−WAB )
= 0.
Part G
Find the amount of work WABCDA done by the electrostatic force on the charged particle as it moves from A to B to C to D to A.
Express your answer in terms of some or all the variables E , q, L and α.
ANSWER:
WABCDA = 0
Correct
Another important property of conservative forces, which can be very helpful in problem solving, is that the total work done by a conservative force
over a closed path is zero.
Electric Potential Energy of Three Point Charges
Part A
Three equal point charges, each with charge 1.95 μC , are placed at the vertices of an equilateral triangle whose sides are of length 0.250 m . What is the
electric potential energy U of the system? (Take as zero the potential energy of the three charges when they are infinitely far apart.)
2
Use ϵ0 = 8.85×10−12
C
for the permittivity of free space.
N⋅m2

Use the equation for the electric potential energy between two point charges to calculate the energy for each interaction between two of the three
point charges. The sum of these energies will be the total electric potential energy. Be careful to avoid double counting.
Hint 2. Find the electric potential energy of one pair

Assume that one charge is interacting with a second charge, ignoring any effects from the third charge. What is the electric potential energy U12 for
this single interaction?
Hint 1. Electric potential energy of a pair of charges

Recall that the electric potential energy U between two charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r is given by the formula
1 q1 q2
U =
r
.
4πϵ0
ANSWER:
U12 = 0.137 J
Hint 3. How many interactions are there?

How many pair interactions are there for the three charges?
Hint 1. Double counting

It is important to keep in mind that a pair of charges can interact only once, so if the first charge is interacting with the second charge for one
pair, the interaction of the second charge with the first charge cannot also be used, since the pair has already been counted.
ANSWER:
ANSWER:
U = 0.410 J
Correct
The potential energy is usually written
qi qj
U = ∑
i<j 4πϵ r
.
0 ij
This means that all pairs of charges (1-2, 1-3, and 2-3) will interact, but no charge can interact with itself (i = j), nor can any pair be counted
twice as a result of the condition i < j for all possible pairs. For example, i = 1, j = 2 will be counted, while i = 2, j = 1 will not.
Moving a Charge
Part A
A point charge with charge q1 = 2.00 μC is held stationary at the origin. A second point charge with charge q2 = -4.10 μC moves from the point
( 0.155 m , 0) to the point ( 0.265 m , 0.240 m ). How much work W is done by the electric force on the moving point charge?
Express your answer in joules. Use k = 8.99×109 N ⋅ m2 /C for Coulomb's constant: k =

2 1
.
4πϵ0

Use the equation for the electric potential energy between two point charges to calculate the work done by the electric force. Recall that the work
done by a conservative force is W = Ui − Uf = −ΔU , the difference between the initial and final potential energies. A conservative force is one
for which the work done on a particle by the force is independent of the path taken and depends only on the initial and final points. The electric force
is a conservative force. Gravity is another example of a conservative force.
Hint 2. Calculate the initial electric potential energy

Calculate the initial electric potential energy Ui when the moving point charge is at the point ( 0.155 m , 0).
Express your answer in joules. Use k = 8.99×109 N ⋅ m2 /C2 for Coulomb's constant: k = 1
.
4πϵ0
Hint 1. Derivation of electric potential energy
The force between two point charges q and Q is given by Coulomb's law as Fr = kqQ/r2 , where r is the separation between the charges
and k = 1/4πϵ0 . The work done by the electric force between the charges as one charge moves from point a to point b and the other is
b
⃗ ⃗
held fixed is calculated using W ab = ∫ F ⋅ dl . Since the force depends only on the distance between the charges, it follows that
a
rb kqQ 1 1
W ab = ∫ dr = kqQ( − ),
ra r2 ra rb
where ra and rb are the distances between the fixed charge and points a and b, respectively. Since the work done is equal to the change in
potential energy, this equation is consistent with defining the electric potential energy between two point charges a distance r apart by
kqQ
U =
r
.
ANSWER:
Ui = -0.476 J
Hint 3. Calculate the final electric potential energy

Calculate the final electric potential energy Uf when the moving charge is at the point ( 0.265 m , 0.240 m ).
Express your answer in joules. Use k = 8.99×109 N ⋅ m2 /C for Coulomb's constant: k =

2 1
.
4πϵ0
Hint 1. Derivation of electric potential energy
The force between two point charges q and Q is given by Coulomb's law as Fr = kqQ/r2 , where r is the separation between the charges
and k = 1/4πϵ0 . The work done by the electric force between the charges as one charge moves from point a to point b and the other is
b
⃗ ⃗
held fixed is calculated using W ab = ∫ F ⋅ dl . Since the force depends only on the distance between the charges, it follows that
a
rb kqQ 1 1
W ab = ∫ dr = kqQ( − ),
ra r2 ra rb
where ra and rb are the distances between the fixed charge and points a and b, respectively. Since the work done is equal to the change in
potential energy, this equation is consistent with defining the electric potential energy between two point charges a distance r apart by
kqQ
U =
r
.
ANSWER:
Uf = -0.206 J
ANSWER:
W = -0.269 J
Answer Requested
Electric Potential Energy versus Electric Potential
Learning Goal:
To understand the relationship and differences between electric potential and electric potential energy.
In this problem we will learn about the relationships between electric force F ,⃗ electric field E⃗ , potential energy U , and electric potential V . To understand these
concepts, we will first study a system with which you are already familiar: the uniform gravitational field.
Gravitational Force and Potential Energy

^
First we review the force and potential energy of an object of mass m in a uniform gravitational field that points downward (in the −k direction), like the
gravitational field near the earth's surface.
Part A
⃗
Find the force F (z) on an object of mass m in the uniform gravitational field when it is at height z = 0 .
⃗ ^
Express F (z) in terms of m, z, k , and g.
ANSWER:
⃗ ^
F (z) = −mgk
Correct
Because we are in a uniform field, the force does not depend on the object's location. Therefore, the variable z does not appear in the correct
answer.
Part B
Now find the gravitational potential energy U (z) of the object when it is at an arbitrary height z. Take zero potential to be at position z . Keep in mind
= 0
that the potential energy is a scalar, not a vector.
Express U (z) in terms of m, z, and g.

ANSWER:
U (z) = mgz
Correct
Part C
In what direction does the object accelerate when released with initial velocity upward?
ANSWER:
upward
downward
upward or downward depending on its mass
downward only if the ratio of g to initial velocity is large enough
Correct
Electric Force and Potential Energy

^
Now consider the analogous case of a particle with charge q placed in a uniform electric field of strength E , pointing downward (in the −k direction)
Part D
⃗
Find F (z) , the electric force on the charged particle at height z.
⃗
Express F (z) in terms of q, E , z, and ^
k.
Hint 1. Relationship between force and electric field
The force on a particle of charge q in an electric field E⃗ = ^

−E k is given by F ⃗ = qE .⃗
ANSWER:
⃗ ^
F (z) = −qEk
Correct
Part E
Now find the potential energy U (z) of this charged particle when it is at height z. Take zero potential to be at position z = 0 .
Express U (z) in terms of q, E , and z.
ANSWER:
U (z) = qEz
Correct
Part F
In what direction does the charged particle accelerate when released with upward initial velocity?
ANSWER:
upward
downward
upward or downward depending on its charge
downward only if the ratio of qE to initial velocity is large enough
Correct
Electric Field and Electric Potential

The electric potential V is defined by the relationship U = qV , where U is the electric potential energy of a particle with charge q.
Part G
Find the electric potential V of the uniform electric field E⃗ = ^

Ek . Note that this field is not pointing in the same direction as the field in the previous section
of this problem. Take zero potential to be at position z = 0.
Express V in terms of q, E , and z.
ANSWER:
V = −Ez
Correct
The SI unit for electric potential is the volt (V). The volt is a derived unit, which means that it can be written in terms of other SI units. In terms of
the fundamental units of length, mass, time and charge, the volt can be expressed as follows:
2
kg m
1V =
s2 C
Part H
The electric field can be derived from the electric potential, just as the electrostatic force can be determined from the electric potential energy. The
relationship between electric field and electric potential is E⃗ = ⃗
−∇V , where ∇⃗ is the gradient operator:
⃗ ∂V ^ ∂V ^ ∂V ^
∇V = i+ j+ k.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂V
The partial derivative means the derivative of V with respect to x, holding all other variables constant.
∂x
∂V ∂V
Consider again the electric potential V = −Ez corresponding to the field E⃗ = ^
Ek . This potential depends on the z coordinate only, so = =0
∂x ∂y
∂V dV
and = .
∂z dz
Find an expression for the electric field E⃗ in terms of the derivative of V .
Express your answer as a vector in terms of the unit vectors î , ^ ^

j , and/or k. Use dV /dz for the derivative of V with respect to z.
ANSWER:
⃗
dV ^
E = −
dz
k
Correct
Part I
A positive test charge will accelerate toward regions of ________ electric potential and ________ electric potential energy.
Choose the appropriate answer combination to fill in the blanks correctly.
Hint 1. Direction of the electric field

In what direction do electric fields point?
ANSWER:
from regions of higher electric potential to lower electric potential
from regions of lower electric potential to higher electric potential
Hint 2. Formula for the force on a charge in an electric field
The force F ⃗ on a charge q in an electric field E⃗ is given by
⃗ ⃗
F = q E.
This is similar to the equation F = mg for the force on a mass in a uniform gravitational field.
Hint 3. Formula for electric potential energy

The electric potential energy U of a charge q at electric potential V is given by
U = qV .
This is similar to the equation Ug = mVg = mgh , for the gravitational potential energy of a particle with mass m.
ANSWER:
higher; higher
higher; lower
lower; higher
lower; lower
Correct
Part J
A negative test charge will accelerate toward regions of ________ electric potential and ________ electric potential energy.
Choose the appropriate answer combination to fill in the blanks correctly.
Hint 1. Direction of the electric field

In what direction do electric fields point?
ANSWER:
from regions of higher electric potential to lower electric potential
from regions of lower electric potential to higher electric potential
Hint 2. Formula for the force on a charge in an electric field
The force F ⃗ on a charge q in an electric field E⃗ is given by
⃗ ⃗
F = q E.
This is similar to the equation F = mg for the force on a mass in a uniform gravitational field.
Hint 3. Formula for electric potential energy

The electric potential energy U of a charge q at electric potential V is given by
U = qV .
This is similar to the equation Ug = mVg = mgh for the gravitational potential energy of a particle with mass m. It works even for negative
charges. Negative masses are not known to exist.
ANSWER:
higher; higher
higher; lower
lower; higher
lower; lower
Correct
A charge in an electric field will experience a force in the direction of decreasing potential energy. Since the electric potential energy of a negative
charge is equal to the charge times the electric potential (U = qV ), the direction of decreasing electric potential energy is the direction of
increasing electric potential.
Electric Potential, Potential Energy, and Force
Learning Goal:
To review relationships among electric potential, electric potential energy, and force on a test charge
This problem is a review of the relationship between an electric field E⃗ , its associated electric potential V , the electric potential energy U , and the direction of
force on a test charge.
Part A
Electric field lines always begin at _______ charges (or at infinity) and end at _______ charges (or at infinity). One could also say that the lines we use to
represent an electric field indicate the direction in which a _______ test charge would initially move when released from rest. Which of the following fills in
the three missing words correctly?
ANSWER:
(positive; negative; negative)
(positive; negative; positive)
(negative; positive; negative)
(negative; positive; positive)
Correct
Note that the electric field vector E⃗ is everywhere tangent to the electric field lines. Like electric field lines, the electric field vector generally points
away from positive charges and toward negative charges.
Part B
Would a positive test charge released from rest move toward a region of higher or lower electric potential (compared to the electric potential at the point
where it is released)?
Hint 1. Potential, field, and force
The equation relating an electric field to electric potential is E⃗ = ⃗

−∇V . By definition, ∇⃗ V points in the direction in which V is most rapidly
⃗
increasing. Thus −∇V (or the electric field) points in the direction in which V is most rapidly decreasing. The force on a charge q in an electric field
is given by F ⃗ = qE ,⃗ so a positive charge will experience a force in the same direction as the electric field.
ANSWER:
higher electric potential
lower electric potential
Correct
Part C
Now imagine that the sign of our test particle is changed from positive to negative, but the electric potential remains the same. Which of the following
statements is correct?
Hint 1. Direction of field and force
The problem states that the electric potential does not change. The electric field is determined from E⃗ = −∇⃗ V , and the force from F ⃗ = qE,⃗ where
q is the charge. When the sign of the test charge changes, but the electric potential remains the same, what happens to the direction of the electric
field and the direction of the force on the charge?
ANSWER:
Both the electric field and force are unchanged.
The force is unchanged but the electric field is reversed.
Both the electric field and force are reversed.
The electric field is unchanged but the force is reversed.
Hint 2. Direction of force and potential energy gradient
Like other forms of potential energy, the electric potential energy U is always intimately related to the electric force by the equation F ⃗ = ⃗
−∇U .
⃗
Note that this relationship does not depend on the sign of the test charge. By definition, ∇U points in the direction in which U is most rapidly
increasing. Thus −∇⃗ U (or the force) points in the direction in which U is most rapidly decreasing.
ANSWER:
The direction of the force will change and it will point to regions of higher potential energy.
The direction of the force will not change and it will point to regions of higher potential energy.
The direction of the force will not change and it will point to regions of lower potential energy.
The direction of the force will change and it will point to regions of lower potential energy.
Correct
An Electron in a Diode
Before the advent of solid-state electronics, vacuum tubes were widely used in radios and other devices. A simple type of vacuum tube known as a diode
consists essentially of two electrodes within a highly evacuated enclosure. One electrode, the cathode, is maintained at a high temperature and emits electrons
from its surface. A potential difference of a few hundred volts is maintained between the cathode and the other electrode, known as the anode, with the anode
at the higher potential.
Part A
Suppose a diode consists of a cylindrical cathode with a radius of 6.200×10−2 cm , mounted coaxially within a cylindrical anode with a radius of 0.5580 cm
. The potential difference between the anode and cathode is 335 V . An electron leaves the surface of the cathode with zero initial speed (v initial = 0).
Find its speed v f inal when it strikes the anode.
Express your answer numerically in meters per second.

Try to draw a simple diagram of the diode, with the path of the electron going from the central cathode to the outer anode. Since the diode is a
cylinder, the symmetry implies that only radial motion needs to be considered for the electron, since any motion of the electron around the center will
not change its potential energy. Note that only a potential difference is given between the plates, so you will need to be careful about your
definitions. Use the equation for the conservation of energy to find the final speed of the electron.
Hint 2. Calculate the change in potential energy of the electron

Calculate the change in the potential energy ΔU of the electron as it moves from the inner cathode to the outer anode.
Express your answer numerically in joules.
Hint 1. Potential energy and potential

Recall that the potential energy Uq of a charge q in an electric field is related to the potential V0 of that field, evaluated at the position of the
charge, by the equation Uq = qV0 . In this problem, the potential is not known at either the anode or cathode. However, the potential
difference ΔV = Vanode − Vcathode is given, so use the relation above to find the change in the potential energy ΔU of the electron.
ANSWER:
ΔU = −5.36×10−17 J
Hint 3. Calculate the initial kinetic energy of the electron

Calculate the initial kinetic energy Kinitial of the electron at the cathode.
Hint 1. Initial velocity of the electron

Recall that the electron is emitted from the surface of the cathode with zero initial speed.
ANSWER:
Kinitial = 0 J

The equation of conservation of energy, Kinitial + Uinitial = Kf inal + Uf inal , can be rewritten as
Kf inal = Kinitial + Uinitial − Uf inal = Kinitial − ΔU . Since K = mv /2
2
, you now have enough information to find the final speed of the
electron.
ANSWER:
v f inal = 1.08×107 m/s
Correct
Note that the size of the diode makes no difference, as long as the potential difference between the two electrodes is a known constant. Also,
note that the potential at the surface of the anode and cathode are not known separately, but the potential difference is enough for these
calculations. In general, the potential at a particular point is not physically important. Only potential differences are important, just as only the
change in potential energy is important to mechanics problems.
Electric Potential and Potential Energy
A particle with charge 3.20×10−19 C is placed on the x axis in a region where the electric potential due to other charges increases in the +x direction but does
not change in the y or z direction.
Part A
The particle, initially at rest, is acted upon only by the electric force and moves from point a to point b along the x axis, increasing its kinetic energy by
1.60×10−18 J . In what direction and through what potential difference Vb − Va does the particle move?

Because no forces other than the electric force act on the particle, the positively charged particle must move in the direction parallel to the electric
field, and the field must do positive work on the particle. Recall that when the electric field does positive work on a charged particle, the potential
energy of the particle decreases. Thus, the particle must move in the direction in which its potential energy decreases (which is consistent with the
fact that the particle's kinetic energy increases as it moves from a to b). Moreover, from the definition of potential and the energy conservation
equation, you can directly calculate the potential difference Va − Vb .
Hint 2. Electric potential

The electric potential V at any point in an electric field is the electric potential energy U per unit charge associated with a test charge q ′ at that
point:
U
V = .
q′
Hint 3. Find the change in potential energy of the particle

What is the change in potential energy of the particle, Ub − Ua , as it moves from a to b?
Hint 1. Energy conservation

Recall that the total mechanical energy (kinetic plus potential) is conserved. That is,
K a + Ua = K b + Ub ,
where the subscripts refer to points a and b, and K and U are the corresponding kinetic and potential energies.
Hint 2. Find the change in kinetic energy of the particle

What is the change in kinetic energy of the particle, Kb − Ka , as it moves from a to b? Recall that particle is initially at rest, and its kinetic
energy at b is 1.60×10−18 J .
ANSWER:
Kb − Ka = 1.60×10−18 J
ANSWER:
Ub − Ua = −1.60×10−18 J
ANSWER:
The particle moves to the left through a potential difference of Vb − Va = 5.00 V .
The particle moves to the left through a potential difference of Vb − Va = -5.00 V
The particle moves to the right through a potential difference of Vb − Va = 5.00 V .
The particle moves to the right through a potential difference of Vb − Va = -5.00 V .
The particle moves to the left through a potential difference of Vb − Va = 50.0 V .
The particle moves to the right through a potential difference of Vb − Va = -50.0 V .
Correct
In general, if no forces other than the electric force act on a positively charged particle, the particle always moves toward a point at lower
potential.
Part B
If the particle moves from point b to point c in the y direction, what is the change in its potential energy, Uc − Ub ?

Recall that the electric potential increases in the +x direction but does not change in the y or z direction.
ANSWER:
+ 1.60×10−18 J
− 1.60×10−18 J
Correct
Every time a charged particle moves along a line of constant potential, its potential energy remains constant and the electric field does no work on
the particle.
Speed of an Electron in an Electric Field
Two stationary positive point charges, charge 1 of magnitude 4.00 nC and charge 2 of magnitude 1.50 nC , are separated by a distance of 58.0 cm . An
electron is released from rest at the point midway between the two charges, and it moves along the line connecting the two charges.
Part A
What is the speed v f inal of the electron when it is 10.0 cm from charge 1?
Express your answer in meters per second.
Only the final speed of the electron is needed, so an easy way to solve this problem is by using energy techniques. Since the only force that acts on
the electron is the conservative electric force, mechanical energy is conserved. Thus, find the potential energy at the initial and final positions of the
electron from the expression of the potential due to a collection of point charges. Also, you can easily determine the initial kinetic energy of the
electron, since it is released from rest. Now you have enough information to write the equation of conservation of energy and calculate the speed of
the electron from its final kinetic energy.
Hint 2. Calculate the potential at the midpoint

What is the potential Vmid at the midpoint between the two stationary positive charges?
Express your answer numerically in volts.
Hint 1. Electric potential

The potential V due to a single point charge is
1 q
V =
r
,
4πϵ0
where ϵ0 = 8.85×10−12 C /(N ⋅ m2 ) , r is the distance from the point charge to the point at which the potential is calculated, and q is the
2
charge. If instead of a single point charge, there is a collection of point charges, the total potential is given by the sum of the potentials due to
each charge.
Hint 2. Find the potential due to charge 1

What is the potential Vmid1 at the midpoint due to charge 1 alone?
ANSWER:
Vmid1 = 124 V
ANSWER:
Vmid = 171 V
Hint 3. Calculate the initial potential energy

Calculate the potential energy Uinit of the electron at the midpoint between the two stationary positive charges, using the potential at that point.
Hint 1. How to find the potential energy from the potential

Recall that the potential energy U associated with a test charge q is related to the potential V by the equation U = qV . In this case, the test
charge is the electron.
ANSWER:
Uinit = −2.73×10−17 J
Hint 4. Calculate the initial kinetic energy

Calculate the initial kinetic energy Kinit of the electron at the midpoint between the two stationary positive charges.
Hint 1. Initial velocity of the electron

Recall that the electron is initially at rest; thus its inital velocity is zero.
ANSWER:
Kinit = 0 J
Hint 5. Calculate the final potential energy

Calculate the potential energy Uf inal of the electron at its final position, a point along the line connecting the positive stationary charges at distance
10.0 cm from charge 1.
Hint 1. Calculate the potential at the final position of the electron

Calculate the potential Vf inal at the final position of the electron, that is, at a point along the line connecting the positive stationary charges
10.0 cm from charge 1.
ANSWER:
Vf inal = 388 V
ANSWER:
Uf inal = −6.20×10−17 J

Once you know the initial kinetic energy Kinit , the initial potential energy Uinit , and the final potential energy Uf inal of the electron, you can
calculate its final kinetic energy Kf inal by applying conservation of energy:
Kinit + Uinit = Kf inal + Uf inal .
Finally, use the equation for the kinetic energy of a particle (in this case, the moving electron) to calculate its speed, since the mass of the electron is
a known constant, 9.11×10−31 kg .
ANSWER:
v f inal = 8.74×106 m/s
Correct
Note that the electric field between the two charges is not constant, so the easiest way to do these calculations is to use conservation of energy. It
is possible to integrate along the path of the electron, using the electric field as a function of the distance from each charge, but this is much more
difficult to do and not necessary for the problem.
± PSS 23.1 Calculating Electric Potential
Learning Goal:
To practice Problem-Solving Strategy 23.1 Calculating Electric Potential.
An insulating, solid sphere has a uniform, positive charge density of ρ=7.40×10−7 C/m3 . The sphere has a radius R of 0.360 m . What is the electric potential
at a point located at a distance of r = 0.290 m from the center of the shell? Let the electric potential at r = ∞ be zero.
Problem Solving Strategy 23.1: Calculating Electric Potential

Remember that potential is potential energy per unit charge. Understanding this statement can get you a long way.
1. Make a drawing that clearly shows the locations of the charges and your choice of coordinate axes.
2. Indicate on your drawing the position of the point at which you want to calculate the electric potential V .
1. To find the potential due to a collection of point charges, use

U 1 qi
V =
q0
= ∑
i ri
.
4πϵ0
2. If you are given or can find the electric field, it may be easier to use
a
⃗ ⃗
Va − Vb = − ∫ E ⋅ dl
b
to calculate the potential difference between points a and b. When appropriate, make use of your freedom to define V to be zero at some
convenient place, and choose this place to be point b.
3. Remember that potential is a scalar quantity, not a vector. It does not have components! However, you may have to use components of the
vectors E⃗ and dl when
⃗
you use them in equations.

Check whether your answer agrees with your intuition. If your result gives V as a function of position, make a graph of this function to see whether it makes
sense. If you know the electric field, you can make a rough check of your result for V by verifying that V decreases if you move in the direction of E⃗ .

In this problem a uniform charge distribution resides in an insulating, solid sphere. You are asked to find the electric potential at a point inside the sphere.
Part A
Which drawing is a cross-sectional view of a uniform, positive charge distribution in an insulating, solid sphere?
ANSWER:
Correct
Part B
What is the potential Vr at a point located at r = 0.290 m from the center of the sphere?
Express the potential numerically in volts.

You must find the potential at a point located within the insulating sphere. Set the reference potential to be zero at r = ∞ . First, use Gauss's law to
find an expression for the electric field within the sphere. Then you can use the expression
a
⃗ ⃗
Va − Vb = − ∫ E ⋅ dl
b
to find Vr .
You will need to make careful choices for your limits of intergration, a and b. Since you want to find the potential at r, you should set a = r . You can
find the potential at the outer edge of the sphere by treating the charge distribution as a point source and using the equation
q
V =
4πϵ0 R
2
where q is the charge of the point source, R is the radius of the sphere, and the permittivity of free space ϵ0 = 8.85 × 10 −12 C /(N ⋅ m2 ) . Since
you know VR , you should take the other limit of integration to be b = R. This will leave you with the following expression to find Vr
r
⃗ ⃗
Vr = VR − ∫ E ⋅ dl .
R
Hint 2. Determine the total charge of the insulating sphere

What is the total charge Q of the insulating sphere?
Express your answer numerically in coulombs.
Hint 1. Determine the volume of the insulating sphere

What is the volume Vsphere of the insulating sphere?
Express your answer numerically in meters cubed to five significant figures.

ANSWER:
Vsphere = 0.19543 m
3
Hint 2. Find an expression for the total charge of the insulating sphere
What is an expression for the total charge of the insulating sphere in terms of the volume of the sphere Vsphere and the charge density ρ.
Express your answer in terms of Vsphere and ρ.
ANSWER:
Q = ρVsphere
ANSWER:
Q = 1.45×10−7 C
Hint 3. Determine the potential at the outer edge of the insulating sphere
What is the potential VR at the outer edge of the insulating sphere?
Hint 1. Find an expression for the potential at the outer edge of the insulating sphere
What is the expression for the potential VR at the outer edge of the insulating sphere r = R in terms of R, the total charge of the shell Q,
and the permittivity of free space ϵ0 ?
Express the potential in terms of R, Q, and ϵ0 .

ANSWER:
Q
VR =
4πϵ0 R
ANSWER:
VR = 3620 V
Hint 4. Find an expression for the potential within the insulating sphere
What is the expression for the potential at a point r within the sphere in terms of r, the radius of the sphere R, the potential at the sphere radius VR ,
the charge density ρ, and the permittivity of free space ϵ0 ? Keep in mind that r < R.
Express the potential in terms of r, R, VR , ρ, and ϵ0 .
Hint 1. Find an expression for the electric field inside the sphere
Use Gauss's law to find an expression for the magnitude of the electric field at a distance r from the center of the sphere in terms of r, the
charge density ρ, and the permittivity of free space ϵ0 . Keep in mind that r < R.
Express the electric field in terms of ρ, r, and ϵ0 .
Hint 1. Using Gauss's Law

Gauss's law relates the total electric field E that passes through a closed surface area A with the amount of charge contained within
the surface Qencl .
Qencl
E=
ϵ0 A
Keep in mind that for the insulating sphere, the charge is uniformly distributed throughout the volume. You are interested in only the
amount of charge enclosed by a Gaussian surface a distance r from the center of the sphere as shown in the figure here.
Hint 2. Find an expression for the charge within the Gaussian surface
Charge is uniformly distributed throughout the insulator. What is an expression for the amount of charge contained within the volume
of the insulator defined by a radius r as shown in the figure here?
Express the charge in terms of ρ and r.
ANSWER:
4
Qencl = ρ
3
πr
3
Hint 3. Find an expression for the surface area of the Gaussian surface
What is the surface area A of a sphere of radius r?
Express your answer in terms of r.
ANSWER:
A = 4πr
2
ANSWER:
ρr
E = 3ϵ0
Hint 2. Find the integrand

Evaluate the dot product of
⃗ ⃗
E ⋅ dl ,
in terms of charge density ρ, radius r, the permittivity of free space ϵ0 , and the finite radius element dr, where the magnitude of E⃗ is as
found above.
Express the integrand in terms of r, ρ, ϵ0 , and dr.
ANSWER:
ρr
⃗ ⃗ dr
E ⋅ dl = 3ϵ0
ANSWER:
ρ 2 2
Vr = VR + (R −r )
6ϵ0
ANSWER:
Vr = 4250 V
Answer Requested
Part C
How does the potential V vary with the position r in an insulating sphere of radius R with a uniform charge distribution?
ANSWER:
Correct
Outside the sphere, the charge distribution can be treated as a point source, so the potential follows an inverse square law between r = ∞ and
r = R. Within the sphere, the potential increases as the radius gets smaller because you must do work against the electric field to move a
positive charge through the charge distribution.
Stopping the Proton
An infinitely long line of charge has a linear charge density of 7.00×10−12 C/m . A proton is at distance 15.5 cm from the line and is moving directly toward the
line with speed 2900 m/s .
Part A
How close does the proton get to the line of charge?

Since the only force acting on the proton is the conservative electric force, the best way to approach the problem is to use energy conservation. The
initial speed of the proton when it is at distance 15.5 cm from the line of charge is given, and its final speed, when it comes to a stop, will be zero.
Thus, its initial and final kinetic energy can easily be calculated. The change in potential energy of the proton can be found from the potential
difference between the starting and ending points of the proton's path. Note that you can calculate the potential difference from the electric field. In
fact, the linear charge density is given, so the electric field around the line of charge can be calculated using the symmetry of the system.
Hint 2. Calculate the final kinetic energy

Calculate Kf inal , the final kinetic energy of the proton when it comes to a stop.
Hint 1. The final speed of the proton

When the proton comes to a stop, its speed is zero.
ANSWER:
Kf inal = 0 J
Hint 3. Calculate the initial kinetic energy

Calculate Kinitial , the initial kinetic energy of the proton when it is at distance 15.5 cm from the line of charge.
Hint 1. The initial speed of the proton

As stated in the problem introduction, when the proton is at distance 15.5 cm from the line of charge, its speed is 2900 m/s .
ANSWER:
Kinitial = 7.02×10−21 J
Hint 4. Electric field around a line of charge

An infinite line of charge will generate a field with only a radial component. The electric field E(r) around a line of charge is given by the equation
λ
E(r) = ,
2πϵ0 r
where 7.00×10−12 C/m is the linear charge density of the line and r is the radial distance from the line at which the electric field E(r) is evaluated.
Hint 5. Potential difference over the path of the proton
If the electric field E⃗ is known, the potential difference between two points a and b is given by the equation
b
⃗ ⃗
Va − Vb = ∫ E ⋅ dℓ ,
a
where dℓ ⃗ is an infinitesimal displacement along a path between a and b. For this problem, since the electric field caused by an infinitely long line of
charge has only a radial component, the equation above can be rewritten as
rf inal λ rf inal
Vinitial − Vf inal = ∫ E(r) dr = ln
rinitial
,
rinitial 2πϵ0
where Vinitial − Vf inal is the potential difference between the initial and the final locations of the proton, which are at rinitial = 15.5 cm and rf inal
from the line of charge. You already know values for 7.00×10−12 C/m , 8.85×10−12 C /N ⋅ m2 , and rinitial , but the other variables, Vinitial , Vf inal ,
2
and rf inal , are all still unknown.

Since the total energy of the proton must be constant, the sum of its initial kinetic and potential energies must be equal to the sum of its final kinetic
and potential energies; that is, Kinitial + Uinitial = Kf inal + Uf inal , which can be rewritten as Uinitial − Uf inal = Kf inal − Kinitial . Furthermore,
the potential energy of the proton will be related to the potential at any point by U = eV , where 1.60×10−19 C is the charge of the proton. Thus, you
can relate the change in potential energy of the proton to the potential difference Vinitial − Vf inal that you calculate by integrating the electric field
between the initial and final locations of the proton. Substitute your result into the equation of conservation of energy and solve for rf inal , the final
distance of the proton from the line of charge.
ANSWER:
0.109 m
Correct
Another way you could have solved this problem is by defining the point where V = 0 to be at either the initial or final location of the proton, and
calculating the corresponding potential at the other point. However, since only the potential difference is needed (or potential energy difference) to
solve the problem, this would be one more unnecessary step to worry about.
Prelecture Video: Work and Kinetic Energy
Click Play to watch the video. Answer the ungraded questions in the video and the graded follow-up questions at right.
Part A
Two identical cars are driving in opposite directions at the same speed. Their kinetic energies have ____.
ANSWER:
different magnitudes, but the same sign
the same magnitude and sign
the same magnitude, but opposite signs
different magnitudes and opposite signs
Correct
The kinetic energy of a moving object is always positive, regardless of the direction it is moving in, or the coordinate system used.
Part B
A motorcycle drives up a steeply inclined ramp. The work done on the motorcycle by the Earth’s gravitational force is ____.
ANSWER:
positive
zero
negative
Correct
When an object’s displacement has a component in a direction opposite that of a given force, that force does negative work on the object.
Part C
During a certain time interval, the net work done on an object is zero joules. We can be certain that ____.
ANSWER:
the object’s final speed was the same as its initial speed
the object was at rest at the end of this interval
the object was at rest during this entire interval
Correct
When the net work done on an object is zero, there is no overall change in the object’s kinetic energy.
Part D
The amount of kinetic energy an object has depends on its mass and its speed.
Rank the following sets of oranges and cantaloupes from least kinetic energy to greatest kinetic energy. If two sets have the same amount of
kinetic energy, place one on top of the other.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Least KE Greatest KE
The correct ranking cannot be determined.
Answer Requested
Video Tutor: Chin Basher?
First, launch the video below. You will be asked to use your knowledge of physics to predict the outcome of an experiment. Then, close the video window and
answer the question at right. You can watch the video again at any point.
Part A
Suppose our experimenter repeats his experiment on a planet more massive than Earth, where the acceleration due to gravity is g = 30 m/s2 . When he
releases the ball from chin height without giving it a push, how will the ball's behavior differ from its behavior on Earth? Ignore friction and air resistance.
(Select all that apply.)

To answer this question, you must evaluate how a change in g affects the pendulum’s trajectory (choices A and B), period (choices C and D), and
mass (choice E).
Trajectory: Here, the key is energy conservation. Think about how kinetic and potential energy interchange as a pendulum swings. For the
pendulum to return to a position higher than its starting point, the system of the pendulum and planet would have to gain mechanical energy. Where
would that energy come from? (The same argument applies to choice B.)
Period: You can answer this question by seeing whether the equation for the period of a pendulum includes g. Or you can use reasoning. A greater
downward acceleration g will cause the pendulum to reach the bottom of its swing more quickly. What does that say about the pendulum’s total
period?
Mass: The pendulum will weigh more on the massive planet. Will it have more mass?
ANSWER:
It will smash his face.
It will stop well short of his face.
It will take less time to return to the point from which it was released.
It will take more time to return to the point from which it was released.
Its mass will be greater.
Correct
The pendulum will swing back and forth more quickly (with a shorter period) because it is oscillating in a stronger gravitational field than that on
Earth.
Video Tutor: Charged Conductor with Teardrop Shape
First, launch the video below. You will be asked to use your knowledge of physics to predict the outcome of an experiment. Then, close the video window and
answer the question at right. You can watch the video again at any point.
Part A
Two conducting spheres are each given a charge Q. The radius of the larger sphere is three times greater than that of the smaller sphere. If the electric
field just outside of the smaller sphere is E0 , then the electric field just outside of the larger sphere is
Hint 1. How to approach the problem.

The electric field just outside of a conductor is proportional to the conductor's surface charge density. The surface charge density of a sphere is
calculated by dividing the total charge on the sphere by the sphere's surface area.
Think about how changing the radius of a sphere changes the sphere's surface area.
ANSWER:
3 E0
E0
9 E0
1/9 E0
1/3 E0
Correct
The larger sphere has nine times the surface area of the smaller one, and this reduces the surface charge density by a factor of nine.
Exercise 6.12
You apply a constant force F ⃗ = ^ ^

(−68.0 N) i + (36.0 N) j to a 380 kg car as the car travels 41.0 m in a direction that is 240.0 ∘ counterclockwise from the
+x-axis.
Part A
How much work does the force you apply do on the car?
Express your answer to three significant figures and include the appropriate units.
ANSWER:
W = 116 J
Correct
Exercise 6.30
A 31.0 kg crate is initially moving with a velocity that has magnitude 3.67 m/s in a direction 37.0 ∘ west of north.
Part A
How much work must be done on the crate to change its velocity to 5.47 m/s in a direction 63.0 ∘ south of east?
Express your answer to three significant figures and include the appropriate units.
ANSWER:
W = 255 J
Correct
Exercise 6.39
An air-track glider of mass 0.100 kg is attached to the end of a horizontal air track by a spring with force constant 20.0 N/m. Initially the spring is unstreched
and the glider is moving at 1.50 m/s to the right. With the air track turned off, the coefficient of kinetic friction is μk =0.47.
Part A
How large would the coefficient of static friction μs have to be to keep the glider from springing back to the left when it stops instantaneously?
Express your answer giving two significant figures.
ANSWER:
μ
s
= 1.7
Correct
Part B
If the coefficient of static friction between the glider and the track is μs = 0.75, what is the maximum initial speed v 1 that the glider can be given and still
remain at rest after it stops instantaneously?
Express your answer giving two significant figures.
ANSWER:
v1 = 0.78 m/s
Correct
Exercise 6.57
A ski tow operates on a slope of angle 14.4 ∘ of length 270 m . The rope moves at a speed of 12.1 km/h and provides power for 48 riders at one time, with an
average mass per rider of 67.0 kg .
Part A
Estimate the power required to operate the tow.
ANSWER:
P = 2.63×104 W
Correct
Exercise 7.3
A 130 kg mail bag hangs by a vertical rope 3.5 m long. A postal worker then displaces the bag to a position 2.2 m sideways from its original position, always
keeping the rope taut.
Part A
What horizontal force is necessary to hold the bag in the new position?
Express your answer using two significant figures.

ANSWER:
F = 1000 N
Correct
Part B
As the bag is moved to this position, how much work is done by the rope?

ANSWER:
W = 0 J
Correct
Part C
As the bag is moved to this position, how much work is done by the worker?

ANSWER:
Wworker = 990 J
Correct
Exercise 7.26
A 3.00 kg block on a horizontal floor is attached to a horizontal spring that is initially compressed 0.0340 m . The spring has force constant 895 N/m . The
coefficient of kinetic friction between the floor and the block is 0.45 . The block and spring are released from rest and the block slides along the floor.
Part A
What is the speed of the block when it has moved a distance of 0.0100 m from its initial position? (At this point the spring is compressed 0.0240 m .)
Express your answer with the appropriate units.

ANSWER:
m
v = 0.291 s
Correct
Exercise 7.32
While a roofer is working on a roof that slants at 45.0 ∘ above the horizontal, he accidentally nudges his 95.0 N toolbox, causing it to start sliding downward,
starting from rest.
Part A
If it starts 5.00 m from the lower edge of the roof, how fast will the toolbox be moving just as it reaches the edge of the roof if the kinetic friction force on it is
19.0 N ?
ANSWER:
v = 7.05 m/s
Correct
Exercise 7.37
A small block with mass 0.0400 kg is moving in the xy-plane. The net force on the block is described by the potential- energy function U (x, y) = (6.00 J/m2 )
x -(3.55 J/m )y .
2 3 3
Part A
What is the magnitude of the acceleration of the block when it is at the point x = 0.22 m , y = 0.54 m ?

ANSWER:
m
a = 102
s2
Correct
Part B
What is the direction of the acceleration of the block when it is at the point x = 0.22 m , y = 0.54 m ?
ANSWER:
θ = 130 ∘
counterclockwise from the +x-axis
Correct
Exercise 7.39
The potential energy of two atoms in a diatomic molecule is approximated by U (r) = a/r
12
− b/r
6
, where r is the spacing between atoms and a and b are
positive constants.
Part A
Find the force F (r)on one atom as a function of r.
Express your answer in terms of the variables a, b, and r.

ANSWER:
12a 6b
F (r) = −
r13 r7
Correct
Part B
Find the equilibrium distance between the two atoms.
Express your answer in terms of the variables a and b.
ANSWER:
−−
2a
rmin = 6
√
b
Correct
Part C
Is this equilibrium stable?
ANSWER:
yes
no
Correct
Part D
Suppose the distance between the two atoms is equal to the equilibrium distance found in part B. What minimum energy must be added to the molecule to
dissociate it-that is, to separate the two atoms to an infinite distance apart? This is called the dissociation energy of the molecule.
Express your answer in terms of the variables a and b.
ANSWER:
E0 = b
4a
Correct
Part E
For the molecule CO, the equilibrium distance between the carbon and oxygen atoms is 1.13 × 10 −10 m and the dissociation energy is 1.54 × 10 −18 J
per molecule. Find the value of the constant a.

ANSWER:
a = 6.68×10−138 J×m
12
Correct
Part F
Find the value of the constant b.
ANSWER:
b = 6.41×10−78 J×m
6
Correct
Exercise 23.1
A point charge with a charge q1 = 3.90 μC is held stationary at the origin. A second point charge with a charge q2 = -5.00 μC moves from the point
x = 0.120 m , y = 0 to the point x = 0.270 m , y = 0.270 m .
Part A
How much work is done by the electric force on q2 ?
ANSWER:
-1.00 J
Correct
Exercise 23.17
Point charges q1 = + 2.00 μC and q2 = − 2.00 μC are placed at adjacent corners of a square for which the length of each side is 1.00 cm . Point a is at
the center of the square, and point b is at the empty corner closest to q2 . Take the electric potential to be zero at a distance far from both charges.
Part A
What is the electric potential at point a due to q1 and q2 ?
ANSWER:
Va = 0V
Correct
Part B
What is the electric potential at point b?
ANSWER:
Vb = −5.27×105 V
Correct
Part C
A point charge q3 = -5.00 μC moves from point a to point b. How much work is done on q3 by the electric forces exerted by q1 and q2 ?
ANSWER:
Wab = -2.63 J
Correct
Exercise 23.32
A very long insulating cylinder of charge of radius 2.40 cm carries a uniform linear density of 18.0 nC/m .
Part A
If you put one probe of a voltmeter at the surface, how far from the surface must the other probe be placed so that the voltmeter reads 165 V ?
ANSWER:
d = 1.59 cm
PhET Tutorial: Energy Skate Park: Basics
Learning Goal:
To understand conservation of mechanical energy involving gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy.
For this problem, use the PhET simulation Energy Skate Park: Basics. This simulation allows you to explore the motion and energetics of a skater riding along a
track.
Start the simulation. When you click the simulation link, a new window will load. Click on Intro to get started.
You can click and drag the skater to any location and release the skater from rest.Watch the skater skate up and down the track.
Click on Bar Graph to see the relative magnitudes of the kinetic, potential, thermal, and total energies as a function of the skater's position. Try Pie Chart to
see the same information as a pie chart.
Play around with the simulation. When you are done, click on the Reset button before answering the questions.
Part A
Click on Bar Graph, and observe the kinetic energy bar as the skater goes back and forth. You can select Slow Motion below the track for a more accurate
observation.
Where on the track is the skater's kinetic energy the greatest?
The kinetic energy of an object is given by K = (1/2)mv 2 , where m is the mass of the object and v is the speed of the object. Thus, the skater is
moving the fastest where the skater's kinetic energy is the greatest and vice versa.
Look at the Bar Graph, and identify the location(s) where the skater's kinetic energy reaches its maximum value.
ANSWER:
at its maximum value at the locations where the skater turns and goes back in the opposite direction.
The skater's kinetic energy is the same everywhere.
at its maximum value at the lowest point of the track.
Correct
The kinetic energy of an object is given by K = (1/2)mv 2 , where v is the speed of the object and m is the mass of the object. Thus, the
skater's kinetic energy is greatest at the lowest point of the track, where the skater is moving the fastest.
Part B
Now observe the potential energy bar on the Bar Graph.
As the skater is skating back and forth, where does the skater have the most potential energy?

The gravitational potential energy of an object is given by U = mgy, where y is the object's height above the potential energy reference, which is
currently the ground. Thus, the skater's potential energy is greatest where the skater is the highest above the reference line.
Look at the Bar Graph, and identify the location(s) where the skater's potential energy reaches its maximum value.
ANSWER:
at its maximum value at the lowest point of the track.

The skater's potential energy is the same everywhere.
at its maximum value at the locations where the skater turns and goes back in the opposite direction.
Correct
The gravitational potential energy of an object is given by U = mgy, where y is the object's height above the potential energy reference, which is
currently the ground. Thus, the skater's potential energy is greatest at the locations where the skater turns to go back in the opposite direction,
where the skater is the highest above the reference line.
Notice that the skater's potential energy is greatest where the kinetic energy is the lowest, and vice versa.
Part C
Because we are ignoring friction, no thermal energy is generated and the total energy is the mechanical energy, the kinetic energy plus the potential
energy: E = K + U .
Observe the total energy bar on the Bar Graph. As the skater is skating back and forth, which statement best describes the total energy?
ANSWER:
The total energy is
greatest at the locations where the skater turns and goes back in the opposite direction and smallest at the lowest point of the track.
the same at all locations of the track.
smallest at the locations where the skater turns to go back in the opposite direction and greatest at the lowest point of the track.
Correct
The mechanical energy (kinetic plus potential) is conserved. (Since there is no friction, the mechanical energy is equal to the total energy.) When
the kinetic energy is relatively small, the potential energy is relatively large, and vice versa.
Part D
Ignoring friction, the total energy of the skater is conserved. This means that the kinetic plus potential energy at one location, say E1 = K1 + U1 , must be
equal to the kinetic plus potential energy at a different location, say E2 = K2 + U2 . This is the principle of conservation of energy and can be expressed
as E1 = E2 . Since the energy is conserved, the change in the kinetic energy is equal to the negative of the change in the potential energy:
K2 − K1 = −(U2 − U1 ), or ΔK1 = −ΔU2 .
At the bottom of the simulation window, click on Playground. For this part of the tutorial, you should have the Friction slider (in the upper right part of the
window) set to "None," which means no thermal energy is generated. Select the Show Grid option. Then, add a track by clicking and dragging on a new
track (the shape with three circles in the bottom left of the window) and placing it near the skater. You can then click and drag on individual circles to stretch
and /or bend the track and make it look as shown below. The bottom of the track should be 1 m above the ground, and both ends of the track should be at
a height of 7 m
Place the skater on the track 7 m above the ground, and look at the resulting motion and the Bar Graph showing the energetics.
Match the approximate numerical values on the left with the energy type categories on the right to complete the equations. Assume that the mass of the
skater is 75.0 kg and that the acceleration of gravity is 9.8 N/kg .
Drag the appropriate numerical values to their respective targets.

ANSWER:
Reset Help
5145 J
5145 J
735 J
0J
4410 J
0J 5145 J
5145 J
735 J
4410 J
Part E
Based on the previous question, which statement is true?
ANSWER:
equal to the initial potential energy.

The kinetic energy at the bottom of the ramp is equal to the amount of potential energy loss in going from the initial location to the bottom.
equal to the total energy.
Correct
Because the total energy is conserved, the kinetic energy at the bottom of the hill plus the potential energy at the bottom of the hill must equal the
initial potential energy (since the initial kinetic energy is zero): Kbottom + Ubottom = Uinitial . Solving for the kinetic energy, we get
Kbottom = Uinitial − Ubottom , or Kbottom = 5145 J − 735 J = 4410 J. More generally, the change in the kinetic energy is equal to the
negative of the change in the potential energy.
Part F
If the skater started from rest 4 m above the ground (instead of 7m), what would be the kinetic energy at the bottom of the ramp (which is still 1 m above
the ground)?

Use the Bar Graph to verify that the relationship between the kinetic, potential, and total energies still holds.
ANSWER:
2205 J
2940 J
735 J
4410 J
Correct
Notice that the skater only drops down 3 m, as compared to 6 m for the case when the skater started 7 m above the ground. In this case, the
skater loses half as much potential energy as in the previous case, so the kinetic energy at the bottom is only half as much as the previous case.
Part G
One common application of conservation of energy in mechanics is to determine the speed of an object. Although the simulation doesn’t give the skater's
speed, you can calculate it because the skater's kinetic energy is known at any location on the track.
Consider again the case where the skater starts 7 m above the ground and skates down the track. What is the skater's speed when the skater is at the
bottom of the track?
Express your answer numerically in meters per second to two significant figures.
Hint 1. Find the kinetic energy at the bottom of the track

What is the kinetic energy of the skater at the bottom of the track?
ANSWER:
4410 J
2205 J
735 J
5145 J
Hint 2. Find the speed at the bottom of the track

−−−−−
Because K = (1/2)mv
2
, the speed is given by √ 2K/m. What is the speed at the bottom of the track?
Express your answer numerically in meters per second to two significant figures.
ANSWER:
11 m/s
ANSWER:
11 m/s
Correct
For a 75-kg object having approximately 4410 J of energy, the speed must be roughly 11 m/s.
Part H
When the skater starts 7 m above the ground, how does the speed of the skater at the bottom of the track compare to the speed of the skater at the bottom
when the skater starts 4 m above the ground?
Hint 1. Find the kinetic energy at the bottom of the track

How much more kinetic energy does the skater have at the bottom of the track?
ANSWER:
twice as much
the same amount
four times as much
Hint 2. Find the ratio of the speeds

Because kinetic energy is proportional to the square of the speed, the ratio of the kinetic energy is equal to the ratio of the speeds squared:
2
K7m /K4m = (v 7m /v 4m ) . What is the ratio v 7m /v 4m of the speeds?
Express your answer numerically with two significant figures.
ANSWER:
v 7m /v 4m = 1.4
ANSWER:
four times as fast.
the same.
The speed is
twice as fast.
higher, but less than twice as fast.
Correct
The person will have twice as much kinetic energy. Because kinetic energy is proportional to the speed squared, the ratio of the speeds is equal
to the square root of the ratio of the kinetic energies. In this case, since the ratio of the kinetic energies is 2, the ratio of the speeds is equal to the
square root of 2, or roughly 1.4.
Part I
In the current window, click and drag a new track (the shape with three circles in the bottom left of the window), and place it near the upper left end of the
existing track until the two connect. Then, click and drag on the circles to stretch and/or bend the track to make it look as shown below.
If the skater starts from rest at position 1, rank, in increasing order from least to greatest, the kinetic energy of the skater at the five positions shown.
Rank from smallest to largest. To rank items as equivalent, overlap them.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
5
1 3 4
2
Answer Requested
PhET Interactive Simulations

University of Colorado
http://phet.colorado.edu
PhET Tutorial: Charges and Electric Potential
Learning Goal:
To understand the spatial distribution of the electric potential for a variety of simple charge configurations, and to understand how the electric field and electric
potential (voltage) are related.
For this problem, use the PhET simulation Charges and Fields. This simulation allows you to place multiple positive and negative point-charges in any
configuration and look at the resulting electric field and corresponding electric potential.
Start the simulation. You can click and drag positive charges (red) or negative charges (blue) into the main screen. If you select Show E-field in the green
menu, red arrows will appear, showing the direction of the electric field. Faint red arrows indicate that the electric field is weaker than at locations where the
arrows are brighter (this simulation does not use arrow length as a measure of field magnitude).
You can drag a positive charge into the main screen and place the cross-hairs of the electric potential (voltage) measurement tool on top of any point for which
you would like to see the voltage (for this tutorial, voltage will be taken to be the same as electric potential). To move the electric potential (voltage)
measurement tool, drag it by clicking and holding onto the body of the tool, and not the cross-hairs. Clicking plot on this device shows an equipotential line. All
points along an equipotential line have the same potential.
Click Clear All before beginning Part A.
Part A
The electric potential (voltage) at a specific location is equal to the potential energy per unit charge a charged object would have if it were at that location. If
the zero point of the voltage is at infinity, the numerical value of the voltage is equal to the numerical value of work done to bring in a unit charge from
infinity to that location.
Select Show numbers and grid in the green menu, and drag one positive charge to the middle of the screen, right on top of two intersecting bold grid
lines.
Using the voltage meter, you should find that 1 m away from the charge, the voltage is 9 V. What is the voltage 2 m away from the charge?
Express your answer numerically in volts to two significant figures.

ANSWER:
4.5 V
Correct
Unlike the magnitude of the electric field, the electric potential (voltage) is not proportional to the inverse of the distance squared.
Part B
What is the voltage 3 m away from the charge?
ANSWER:
3V
9V
1V
Correct
Based on this result, and the previous question, the electric potential (voltage) is inversely proportional to the distance r from the charge:
V ∝ 1/r . Recall that the magnitude of the electric field E ∝ 1/r .
2
Part C
Another way to study voltage and its relationship to electric field is by producing equipotential lines. Just like every point on a contour line has the same
elevation in a topographical map, every point on an equipotential line has the same voltage.
Click plot on the voltage tool to produce an equipotential line. Produce many equipotential lines by clicking plot as you move the tool around. You should
produce a graph that looks similar to the one shown below.
Place several E-Field Sensors at a few points on different equipotential lines, and look at the relationship between the electric field and the equipotential
lines. Which statement is true?
ANSWER:
At any point, the electric field is parallel to the equipotential line at that point.
At any point, the electric field is perpendicular to the equipotential line at that point, and it is directed toward lines of higher voltages.
At any point, the electric field is perpendicular to the equipotential line at that point, and it is directed toward lines of lower voltages.
Correct
All points on an equipotential line have the same voltage; thus, no work would be done in moving a test charge along an equipotential line. No
work is done because the electric field, and thus the force on the test charge, is perpendicular to the displacement of the test charge being moved
along the equipotential line.
Part D
Equipotential lines are usually shown in a manner similar to topographical contour lines, in which the difference in the value of consecutive lines is constant.
Clear the equipotential lines using the Clear button on the voltage tool. Place the first equipotential line 1 m away from the charge. It should have a value
of roughly 9 V. Now, produce several additional equipotential lines, increasing and decreasing by an interval of 3 V (e.g., one with 12 V, one with 15 V,
and one with 6 V). Don’t worry about getting these exact values. You can be off by a few tenths of a volt.Which statement best describes the distribution of
the equipotential lines?
ANSWER:
The equipotential lines are closer together in regions where the electric field is stronger.
The equipotential lines are equally spaced. The distance between each line is the same for all adjacent lines.
The equipotential lines are closer together in regions where the electric field is weaker.
Correct
Near the positive charge, where the electric field is strong, the voltage lines are close to each other. Farther from the charge, the electric field is
weaker and the lines are farther apart.
Part E
Now, remove the positive charge by dragging it back to the basket, and drag one negative charge toward the middle of the screen. Determine how the
voltage is different from that of the positive charge.How does the voltage differ from that of the positive charge?
ANSWER:
The voltages are positive, but the magnitude increases with increasing distance.
The voltages become negative instead of positive and keep the same magnitudes.
The voltage distribution does not change.
Correct
The voltage is still inversely proportional to the distance from the charge, but the voltage is negative everywhere rather than positive.
Part F
Now, remove the negative charge, and drag two positive charges, placing them 1 m apart, as shown below.
What is the voltage at the midpoint of the two charges?
ANSWER:
Exactly twice the voltage produced by only one of the charges at the same point
Greater than zero, but less than twice the voltage produced by only one of the charges at the same point
Zero
Correct
Because voltage is a scalar quantity, there are no vector components with opposite directions canceling out, as for electric fields. The voltage is
simply the sum of the voltages due to each of the individual charges. Since both charges are positive, the voltage due to each charge (at all
locations) is positive.
Part G
Now, make an electric dipole by replacing one of the positive charges with a negative charge, so the final configuration looks like the figure shown below.
What is the voltage at the midpoint of the dipole?

The total voltage is equal to the sum of the voltages due to each of the charges. The voltage due to each charge simply depends on the distance
from the charge and the charge’s value. Voltage is a scalar quantity, so it does not add like a vector.
ANSWER:
negative.
The voltage at the midpoint of the dipole is positive.
zero.
Correct
Because the voltage due to the negative charge has the opposite sign of the voltage due to the positive charge at the midpoint, the net voltage is
zero. The electric field, however, is not zero here!
Part H
Make several equipotential lines similar to the figure below.
Try to have the equipotential lines equally spaced in voltage. Then, use an E-Field Sensor to measure the electric field at a few points while looking at the
relationship between the electric field and the equipotential lines.
Which of the following statements is true?

ANSWER:
The electric field strength is greatest where the voltage is the smallest.
The electric field strength is greatest where the voltage is the greatest.
The electric field strength is greatest where the equipotential lines are very close to each other.
Correct
Locations where the voltage is changing steeply are locations with a strong electric field. The magnitude of the electric field is equal to the rate the
voltage is changing with distance. Mathematically, this idea is conveyed by |Es | = dV /ds, where Es is the component of the electric field in the
direction of a small displacement ds. (As you learned earlier, the electric field is directed in the direction where the voltage decreases.)
PhET Interactive Simulations

University of Colorado
http://phet.colorado.edu
Score Summary:
Your score on this assignment is 91.4%.
You received 55.73 out of a possible total of 61 points.

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Understanding Work Done by a Constant Force

Wnet = F net d cos θ .

Hint 1. Find the angle

Hint 1. Finding theta

Hint 1. Finding theta

Hint 1. Finding the angle

These generalizations allow physicists to rewrite the equation for work as

Hint 1. Finding Theta.

Hint 1. Newton's law of universal gravitation

Hint 2. Circumference of a circle

Hint 3. Finding the angle

Hint 1. Hooke's Law

where x is the spring's displacement from equilibrium position xeq .

± All Work and No Play

There is not enough information to answer the question.

What can be said about the work done by force F 2⃗ ?

The work done by force F 3⃗ is

The work done by force F 4⃗ is

The work done by force F 5⃗ is

The work done by force F 6⃗ is

The work done by force F 7⃗ is

± The Work Done in Pulling a Supertanker

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

Hint 2. Find the work done by one tugboat

Express your answer in joules, to three significant figures.

Hint 1. The definition of work

Understanding Work and Kinetic Energy

Hint 1. Which force is bigger?

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

Hint 2. Find the acceleration

Hint 1. Some useful kinematics

Hint 1. Work, force, and displacement

In general, the work done by a constant force F ⃗ can be found as

Here is a simple application of the Work-Energy Theorem.

Hint 1. How to approach the problem

± PSS 6.1 Work and Kinetic Energy

Problem-Solving Strategy: Work and kinetic energy

IDENTIFY the relevant concepts:

SET UP the problem using the following steps:

EXECUTE the solution as follows:

EVALUATE your answer:

IDENTIFY the relevant concepts

SET UP the problem using the following steps

EXECUTE the solution as follows

Hint 1. How to use the work–energy theorem

Hint 2. Find the total work done on the cat

Hint 1. Trigonometric relations

a = c cos ϕ and b = c sin ϕ

Hint 3. Find the cat's initial kinetic energy

Express your answer in joules to three significant figures.

Hint 1. Kinetic energy

Hint 4. Find the cat's final kinetic energy

EVALUATE your answer

Hint 1. Find the net force

All attempts used; correct answer displayed

When Push Comes to Shove

Hint 1. Formula for the work done by a force

The work W done by a force F ⃗ in producing a displacement s ⃗ is given by

Hint 1. Is the work positive or negative?

Express your answer numerically, in joules.

Hint 1. Conservation of energy

Delivering Rescue Supplies

Hint 1. How to approach the problem