 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES – observable
or it can be measured without
changing it. There are no new
substances formed (Ex. Color,
density, volume, mass, etc.).
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES – non-
observable (Ex. heat of combustion,
reactivity with water, PH, and
electromotive force).
 PURE SUBSTANCE – have definite
composition. Cannot be separated.
I. ELEMENTS – one kind of atom.
Represented by symbol.
II. COMPOUND – two or more kinds
of atoms. Represented by
chemical formula. Chemically
composed.
 MIXTURE – composed of two or more
components. It can be separated
physically.
I. HOMOGENEOUS – one phase,
cannot be “picked out”,
composition is uniform. (Ex. salt +
water)
Solution
1. SOLUTE – substance that is
dissolve, present in a
smaller amount (Ex. Salt).
2. SOLVENT – part of solution
present in largest amount
(Ex. Water).
II. HETEROGENEOUS – two phases,
sometimes can be separated,
not uniform (Ex. Sand + water).
1. COLLOID – can be seen by
the naked eye.
2. SUSPENSION – can be seen
by the help of microscope
light.
1. Chromatography – used to separate
mixture of colored compound. The
mobile phase flows through the
stationary phase (Ex. drugs from blood)
2. Centrifugation– used to separate
insoluble materials from a liquid where
normal filtration does not work well. It is
based on the size, shape, and density of
the particles etc. (Ex. washing machines
to squeeze water from wet clothes)
3. Distillation – used to separate a mixture
containing two liquids. Heated until it boils,
the solvent becomes vapor and it passes
through the condenser (Ex. acetone and
water)
4. Fractional distillation – used to
separate a liquid mixture formed by
liquids of different boiling points (Ex.
mixture of methanol and ethanol, water
and oil)
5. Decantation – used to separate
mixture by gravity. So, the solid
component which is insoluble in the
mixture settles down due to gravity (Ex.
Kerosene and water, Extraction of
sediment from wine)
6. Filtration – used to separate solids
from liquids or gases (Ex. brewing coffee
involves passing hot water through the
ground coffee and a filter)
7. Evaporation – mixture is heated, the
solvent will then evaporate leaving the
solute behind (Ex. Wet clothes dry in sun
due to evaporation - the water in wet
Alberto (STEM 11-4)
clothes takes heat energy from sun and
gets evaporated.)

ATOMS, MOLECULES AND IONS
 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
(Antoine Laurent Lavoisier) – matter is
neither created or destroyed during
chemical reactions or physical
changed.
(Remember: half Hydrogen, balance
Oxygen and the 2,3 rule.)
Ex.
 LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTION (Joseph
Proust) – a chemical compound
contains the same elements in exactly.
Ex. In a compound of Calcium
Carbonate (CaCO3), it is found that the
same contains 100gO. What is the mass
of the other elements present in the
sample?
 LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTION (John
Dalton) – When two elements combine
with each other to form two or more
compounds, the ratios of the masses of
one element that combines with the
fixed mass of the other are simple whole
numbers.
Ex. Two unknown compounds are
tested. Compound I contains 15gH and
120gO. Compound ll contains 2gH and
32gO. Are the compounds the same?
 DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
1. All matter is made of extremely small
particles called atoms (Atomos -
Indivisible) in constant motion.
2. Atoms of a given element are
identical in size, mass and other
properties; atoms of different elements
different in size mass and other
properties.
3. Atoms cannot be subdivided created
or destroyed.
4. Atoms of different elements combine
Alberto (STEM 11-4)
in simple whole-number ratio to form
chemical compounds.
5. In chemical reactions, atoms are
combined, separated or rearranged.
  THE THREE SUBATOMIC PARTICLES THAT
MAKE UP AN ATOM ARE:
1. Electron (negative)
– JJ Thomson
– electron mass =
9.10938356×10-31 kilograms
2. Protons (positive)
– Ernest Rutherford
– proton mass = 1.6726219×10-27
kilograms
3. Neutron (no charge)
– James Chadwick
(Protons and neutrons are located in the
nucleus, a dense central core in the middle of
the atom, while the electrons are located
outside the nucleus.)
 Atomic number = Protons = Electrons
(no charge)
Mass number = p+ + no (Total mass of an
atom)
Ex.
Name Sym Z A P N
– Ionic Compounds combinations of
cations + anions (Metal lose electron
Non-metal gain electron)
1. Metal + non-metal – change the
ending of the element and add
a suffix of “ide”
Ex. MgO – Magnesium oxide
(Mg is metal and O is non-metal)
K2S – Potassium Sulfide
2. Metal + polyatomic anion – “to
see is to read”
Ex. CaCO3 – Calcium carbonate
K2B4O4 – Potassium tetraborate
3. Variable valence + anions
 Classical – Latin root &
suffix of “ous” and “ic”
Ex. CuI2 – Cupric Iodide
Fe2O3 – Ferric oxide
 Stock – real name + roman
numeral
Ex. FeO – Iron (II) oxide
PbS2 – Lead (IV) Sulfide
e- Q Com.

. + o Sym.

Sodium Na 11 23 11 12 11 0 23 0
– Covalent Compounds
11 Na non-metal + non-metal
 ATOMIC MASS – average mass of all the Ex. SO4 – Sulfur dioxide
isotopes of a given elements. SF6 – Sulfur hexafluoride
N2O3 – Dinitrogen trioxide
(Atomic number - same p+
Mass number - different n0 )  SIGNIFICANT FIGURE
o All non-zero numbers are
Ex. significant
o Zeros between non-zero digits are
H1 (99%) H2(.8%) H3(.2%)
significant
(Proton) (Deuterium) (Tritium)
p+ 1 1 1 o Leading zero are not significant
no 0 1 2 o Trailing zero in a whole number
Alberto (STEM 11-4)

with decimal are significant

Atomic mass = (A x %) + (A x %) o Trailing zero in a whole number
with no decimal are not
(1 x .99) + (2 x .008) + (3 x .002) significant
0.99 + 0.016 + 0.006 = 1.012 o Trailing zero to the right of the
decimal are significant

 NAMING OF COMPOUNDS
 OPERATION INVOLVING SIGNIFICANT
FIGURES

1. Addition & subtraction – consider

the least decimal number.
Ex. 45.031 + 8.25 = 53.281
Final answer: 53.28 (8.25 is the
least decimal number)

2. Multiplication & division –

consider the least number of
significant figures.
Ex. 23.7 +
x 3.8 = 90.06
Final answer: 90 (3.8 has the least
number of Sig. figures)

 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION – to express very

large or very small number in a more
convenient way.

Ex. 1 million = 1.0x106

0.000712 = 7.12x10-4
12 thousandth = 12/1000 = 0.012
Final answer: 1.2x10-2

1. Addition & subtraction – make

sure that the exponents are the
same before proceeding with the
operation being use.
Ex. (3.67x102 ) - (1.60x101 )
(3.67x102 ) - (0.160x102 )
= 3.51x102

2. Multiplication & division – just

multiply and add the exponent,
just divide and subtract the
exponent.
Ex. (7.8x103 ) ÷ (1.20x104 )
= 6.5x10-1
Alberto (STEM 11-4)
 1. How many grams of tin are found in
STOICHIOMETR 3.50 moles of tin? (Sn=119g/n)
 MOLE – amount of substance that
contains as many elementary entities
(Atoms-elements, molecule-simple
compound, formula unit-ionic
compound) as there are atoms in 12g of
C-12.

 Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo

Avogadro. Avogadro’s number is equal
to 6.02x1023
2. How many moles are presented by
 MOLAR MASS – mass of a substance per 11.5g of C2H5OH?
unit mole (g/n). Numeric equivalence of
atomic mass to grams.

 MOLAR CONVERSION

1. Particles to mole & vice versa

(1 mole = 6.02x1023)
Ex. How many atoms are in 1.50
moles of Gold (Au)?
1.50𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑢 6.02×1023
×
1 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑢
=9.03x1023 atoms Au

2. Mole to mass & vice versa

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑚 = 𝑛ℳ 𝑛 =  % COMPOSITION BY MASS
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Ex. How many moles are in 29.58 ℳ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
of C? %𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = × 100%
ℳ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
29.58𝑔𝐶
𝑛= = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟔𝟓𝒏𝑪 Ex. What is the % mass of
12𝑔/𝑛𝐶
hydrogen and oxygen in water
(Always consider the number of
(H2O)?
the significant figures.)
H2 = (1)(2) = 2g/n
3. Particles to mass & vice versa
O = (16)(1) = 16g/n
Ex. Find the mass in grams of
18g/n
2.00x1023 molecules F2 ?
1𝑛𝐹2 38𝑔 2𝑔/𝑛𝐻
Alberto (STEM 11-4)

2.00 × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠𝐹2 × × %mass H = 18𝑔/𝑛𝐻 = 11.11% 𝐻

6.02 × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠𝐹2 1𝑛𝐹2 2𝑂
16𝑔/𝑛𝑂
%mass O = 18𝑔/𝑛𝐻 = 88.89% 𝑂
Final answer: 12.6g F2 2𝑂

Another Example: (always consider the Therefore, the % mass of

significant figure!) Hydrogen is 11.11% while the
Oxygen is 88.89%
  SOLVING FOR E.F. & M.F. USING % the nicotine’s empirical and molecular
COMPOSITION OF MASS formula.

Ex. Lithium Oxalate

Empirical F. = C6H12O6
Molecular F. = CH2O

What is the Empirical Formula of a

molecule containing 18.7% Li, 16.3%C &
65.0%O?

1𝑛𝐿𝑖 2.67
18.7𝑔 × = =2
7𝑔 1.36
1𝑛𝐶 1.36
16.3𝑔 × = =1
12𝑔 1.36
1𝑛𝑂 4.06  CHEMICAL REACTION – rearrangement
65.0 × = =3
16𝑔 1.36 of molecules in a substance. A process
F.: Li2CO3 of converting substance into another
substance.
*Multiply the each given g/n to their
molar mass. I. Combination/Synthesis reaction –
*Find the smallest total number and two or more reactants will form 1
divide it to the total number of each new substance
elements. 𝐴 + 𝐵 → 𝐴𝐵
*For instance, if the total number is 1.4 or 𝑯𝟐 + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
1.5 multiply it into two and the answer (Diatomic elements: H O Cl Br F I
must be a whole number. N)
II. Decomposition (analysis)
What is the molecular formula of the reaction – 1 substance will break
compound, If the molar mass is 74g/n? up into 2 or more simpler
substance
74𝑔/𝑛
Li = (7)(2) = 14 =1 𝐴𝐵 → 𝐴 + 𝐵
74𝑔/𝑛
𝑪𝒂𝑪𝑶𝟑 → 𝑪𝒂𝑶 + 𝑪𝑶𝟐
C = (12)(1) = 12
III. Combustion reaction –
O = (16)(3) = 48
hydrocarbon that will react with
74 g/n
oxygen gas to produce CO2 &
H2O
M.F.: (Li2CO3 )(1) = Li2CO3
𝑪𝑯𝟒 + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
IV. Single replacement (substitution)
What is the name of the compound?
reaction – 1 substance or
Li2CO3 = Lithium Carbonate
element will replace another
Alberto (STEM 11-4)

element in a compound
Another Example: (always check your final
𝐴 + 𝐵𝐶 → 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵
answer) 𝒁𝒏 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒 → 𝒁𝒏𝑺𝑶𝟒 + 𝑯𝟐
1. The molar mass of nicotine is 162g/n. It
(there are cases that there’s no reaction)
contains 74.00% carbon, 8.7% hydrogen,
and it also contains nitrogen. Determine
 Activity Series 4. Formation of gas
Lilsketch Lithium Instead Iron 5. Explosion
Please Potassium Try Tin 6. Production of light
Stop Sodium Learning Lead 7. Formation of precipitate
Calling Calcium How Hydrogen
 BALANCING EQUATION
Me Magnesium Copper Copper
Ex. KNO3 + H2CO3 → K2CO3 + HNO3
A Aluminum May Mercury ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Careless Carbon Save Silver A B C D
zebra zinc Gold Gold (using Algebra)
K: 1A=2C A=1 x2=2
V. Double replacement NO3: 1A=1D B=1/2 x 2 = 1
(metathesis) reaction – metal H: 2B=1D C=1/2 x 2 = 1
replace metal, non-metal CO3: 1B=1C D=1 x2=2
replace non-metal (This is balance)
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐶𝐷 → 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐶𝐵
𝑯𝑪𝑵 + 𝑪𝒖𝑺𝑶𝟒 → 𝑯𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒 + 𝑪𝒖𝑪𝑵 2KNO3 + 1H2CO3 → 1K2CO3 + 2HNO3
(always check if the equation is really
VI. Acid base reaction balance.)
(neutralization reaction)
𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 → 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑡 + 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑯𝑩𝒓 + 𝑲𝑶𝑯 → 𝑲𝑩𝒓 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶  CALCULATING MASS, MOLE & PARTICLES
OF ELEMENTS IN A COMPOUND
 CHEMICAL EQUATION – symbolic Ex. How many atoms of H are present in
representation of a chemical reaction. 72.5g of C3H8O?

(Symbols and meaning)

Reactant – starting substance
Production – the end substance
→ – separates reactants from product
+ – separates two (reactants) substances
in the reactants and product
– reversible
(s) solid
(l) liquid
(g) gas
(aq) aqueous

x + yz → xz + y
↓to produce↓
Reacts with and  MASS RELATIONSHIN IN CHEMISTRY
EQUATION
Evidences:
1. Change in color (STOICHIOMETRY – study of the
2. Change in odor quantities and amounts consumed
3. Change in temperature and produced in a decimal reaction. )
 Alberto (STEM 1
 LIMITING REAGENT (REACTANT) -
Ex. 3H2 + 1N2 → 2NH3 substance used up first in a chemical
(don’t forget to balance) reaction.
How many n of NH3 will be produced if  EXCESS REAGENT - left over substance in
10.4n H2 reacts completely with N2 ? chemical reaction.
 THEORETICAL YIELD (PRODUCT) - amount
of the substance produced based on
the limiting reagent.
 ACUAL YIELD - quantity of a product
that is actually produced (always
given).
 % YIELD - Actual Yield / Theoretical Yield
x 100%

Ex.

1. 1CuCl2 + 2NaNO3 → 1Cu(NO3)2 + 2NaCl

If 15g CuCl2 are made to react with 20.0 of

NaNO3, how many grams of NaCl are
produced & what is the L.R.?

Ex. 2CH3OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 4H2O

If 209g of methanol are used up on the
combustion, what mass of water is
produced?

If there are 11.3g NaCl produced in a

reaction what is the % yield?
Alberto (STEM 11-4)
Alberto (STEM 11-4)