THOROUGH KNOWLEDGE OF ROPES AND WIRES

Three kinds of ropes are used on ships, viz. :

1.Vegetable or Natural fibre ropes.
2.Steel wire ropes.
3.Synthetic fibre ropes

VEGETABLE FIBRE ROPES : are made from the following material:

Manila: This fibre is extracted from leaves of the Abaca plant and is golden in colour.
Manila ropes are strong and reliable. They are used for mooring hawsers, slings, derrick
guys, tow ropes, gantlines, aloft work and wherever else reliability is required and risk of
life is involved.
Sisal: Sisal ropes are not as strong and reliable as manila ropes but being comparatively
cheaper, they are used for general work such as lashings etc. but not where a parting of
the rope is liable to kill or maim somebody. Sisal fibre is pale yellow in colour, like straw,
and is obtained from the leaves of a cactus-like plant.

HEMP: This fibre is obtained from hemp plant called Agave Sisalana and is grey in colour.
It is the strongest amongst vegetable fibres and is used for signal halyards, boat lacings,
log line, lead line etc. “Tarred hemp” was once a favourite amongst sailors.
COIR: This fibre is obtained from coconut husk and is brown in colour. Coir ropes are
hairy, light, buoyant and comparatively cheap. Although it is the weakest of all ropes,
there is a lot of elasticity or spring in it and therefore on a ship it is sometimes used as a
part of a towing spring. It is also preferred for buoying an anchor.

COTTON : Cotton ropes are not strong and rot easily. Therefore, they are not in common
use on ships except for decorative purposes.
Construction of vegetable fibre ropes :
The fibres are first cleaned and combed to make them straight.
They are then, for a right- handed rope, twisted right handed to form YARNS.
Yarns are twisted left handed to form STRANDS.
The strands are then laid up right handed to make a rope.
The direction of the twists' is reversed for a left-handed rope.
On a ship, generally, right hand ropes are used, except for the hand-lead line, where a
left handed rope is used.
A ROPE IS KNOWN BY THE WAY ITS STRANDS ARE LAID :
A HAWSER LAID rope is a right-handed three strand rope. It is most popular on ships and
is the strongest of all stranded ropes.
A shroud laid rope is a right-handed rope with four strands laid around a central heart. It
is 10% weaker than a hawser laid rope of same size, but, it is sometimes preferred for its
smoother surface resulting in lesser surface wear and for its reduced elasticity.
A CABLE LAID rope is composed of three hawser laid ropes, laid left handed to make a 9-
strand rope.
Since the breaking strength decreases as the total number of strands in a rope increases
beyond three, a cable laid rope is 40% weaker than a hawser laid rope of similar size.
It absorbs less water and is very elastic.
It was, therefore, once widely used for towing springs and hand lead lines.
Nylon ropes are now more often used for such purposes.

BRAIDED OR PLAITED ROPES : The twist given to the yarns, though necessary to bind the
fibres together, decreases the strength of the rope and increases its elasticity.
In a braided rope a lesser twist of the yarns is sufficient for holding the fibres together.
The breaking strength, therefore, is higher by 20% and the elasticity is half that of a
hawser laid rope.
A braided rope is very flexible and does not kink. The ropes used for log line and signal
halyards these days are generally braided hemp or nylon.

LAY OF THE ROPE :

Hold a rope vertically in front of you. If the strands run up from left to right it is a right-
handed rope or ‘Z’ twist.
If the strands run up from right to left it is a left-handed rope or ‘S’ twist. Only stranded
ropes have a “lay”.

COILING ROPES :
Right handed ropes should be coiled in a clockwise direction.
If coiling a small rope in the left hand, start the coil with the end of the rope pointing
towards your body.
Left handed ropes are coiled anticlockwise. When coiling such a rope in left hand, start
the coil with the end of the rope pointing away from you.

STEEL WIRE ROPES

A number of thin wires are twisted left handed to form a strand.
Six such strands are then laid up right handed around a central heart.
The heart can be either of vegetable fibre or synthetic fibre or a wire rope.
Vegetable fibre heart absorbs oil when the rope js oiled and later when the rope is under
stress, some oil is squeezed out and lubricates the wires. But it also absorbs and retains
water, which damages the wire.
Therefore, some brands of wire ropes have a polypropylene heart.
Wire rope construction is indicated mainly by number of strands and number of wires in
each strand.
e.g. ‘6 by 24’ written as ‘6 X24’ it means the wire consists of 6 main strands and 24 main
wires in each strand.
Thus the figures 6x12, 6x24, 6x37 denote that the rope has 6 strands of 12, 24 or 37
wires in each wire rope

The material used for making these ropes is steel wire.

There are many grades of steel used for making wire ropes but plough steel is the most
widely used on ships .

PLOUGH STEEL: Steel of high quality containing 0.5 to 0.95 percent carbon and used
especially for wire made into rope.
“DYFORM”, though a very strong grade, but is not much used on ships. Its use is mostly
confined to offshore oil rigs.
Stainless steel wire ropes are used either on yachts or on tankers for “mucking winches”
where sparks are considered hazardous.
Stainless steel wire ropes are also used for lifeboat falls. Once in place the lifeboat falls
rarely require to be renewed again unless kinked or damaged.

FLEXIBILITY in a wire rope is obtained by increasing the number of wires in each strand
and reducing their size.
Extra special flexible steel wire rope has a large number (more than 20) of very thin
wires in each strand.
Flexible steel wire rope has a lesser number of medium sized wires, and Steel wire rope
has a small number (less than 12) of thick wires in each strand.

Lays of the wire rope :

Regular right hand lay
Regular left hand lay
Lang’s lay right hand
Lang’s lay left hand
REGULAR LAY construction is one in which the strand wires are laid in one direction, and
the completed strands laid into the rope in the opposite direction

LANG’S LAY construction is one in which the wires in the strand are laid in the same
direction as the strands are laid into the rope
The advantage of using Lang’s lay is that a rope so constructed allows better handling
and therefore can be expected to last for a longer period than a rope made with regular
lay.
Nearly all ropes are supplied right-hand lay. Left-hand lay ropes are occasionally
required.

SPECIAL TYPES WIRE ROPES:

Mixed wire-fibre rope:
In this type of rope, used principally as a berthing hawser, some vegetable fibres are also
spun along with the wires.
The vegetable fibres reduce the strength of the rope but make it more flexible and easier
to handle.
It is also called “Spring Lay” wire rope.
ML 636 wire rope : It has a wire rope heart, which gives it extra strength and very high
resistance to crushing. It is, therefore, ideally suited for use in powered winches. It is
galvanized and specially lubricated against corrosion.
Plastic covered wire rope:
An ordinary wire rope coated over with black p.v.c. which gives complete protection to
the rope against weather and ultra violet rays.
It requires no maintenance.
The disadvantages are that
the rope is not flexible,
if any moisture gets inside, it is unable to get out and in course of time rusts the wires
and
The plastic cover hides the damage thus caused.
These type of ropes are frequently used where cosmetic as well as safety is of prime
concern viz. Walkways or catwalks.
Wire rope selection:
Wire ropes are available in various types and constructions, each having specific uses. It
is therefore important to select the rope according to the intended application. The
properties cover breaking strength, flexibility, resistance to bending fatigue, antifriction,
resistance to deformation, nonrotation and anti-corrosion. In most cases, the key point
of selecting the rope for a particular application is consideration of the above properties.

SELECTION BY PROPERTIES :
Where breaking strength is important IWRC (Independent
Wire rope core) ropes are recommended.
Where flexibility is important Fibre Core ropes are
recommended.
Where resistance to bending fatigue is important, rope made
of' strands with as many wires as possible are recommended.
Where anti-friction is important, ropes consisting of outer
strands made of thick wires are recommended.
Where resistance to deformation is important parallel lay
ropes (not discussed in this book) are recommended.
Where anti-corrosion is important Galvanised or stainless
steel ropes are recommended.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE :

Do not open a new coil of wire without using a turntable or similar apparatus in order to
avoid kinking the wire.
Handle a wire rope carefully so that no kinks are formed. A kink reduces the strength
and permanently damages the rope.
Avoid sharp bends and bad nips. Never use a shackle or ring for changing the direction
of the rope. If the rope has to pass over a sheave, its diameter should be at least 10
times the diameter of the rope. The diameter of the bitts and warping drum should be at
least 13 times. The grooves (score) of the sheaves should conform to the shape of the
rope. The rope should not chafe against the sides of the sheave or block.

Store the wire rope over gratings to keep it off seawater.

If during use the rope has become wet by seawater, wash off the salt by fresh water and
apply oil before storing it away.
Wire brush the rope occasionally and coat it with the special wire grease provided on
the ship for this purpose. Boiled linseed oil, fish oil, grease, tallow or some other
lubricant was used before wire grease became available.
Always inspect the rope before use.
A flattening of the rope, rusting of the wires, broken wires breaking when folded, more
than 10% broken wires in a length of eight diameters; these symptoms indicate that the
rope is not to be relied upon.

SYNTHETIC FIBRE ROPES

Synthetic fibre ropes are made from the following materials :

Nylon : This fibre is made from phenol which is derived from coal. Nylon ropes are very
strong and very resistant to damage by acid or alkaline substances. They absorb some
moisture when wet and lose strength by 10% but regain their former strength when
dried out. No permanent damage is caused by moisture even if stored away wet, unlike
vegetable fibre ropes. The disadvantage of a nylon rope is that it is very elastic and sticks
to the warping drum like a rubber band, resulting in very high friction. These ropes are,
therefore, not suitable for operations involving “surging” on warping drums.
The heat caused by friction can melt and damage the rope.
Petroleum based fibres e.g. polypropylene, polyethylene and polyester filaments : These
fibres are produced as a result of cracking petroleum. Ropes made of these fibres are
also called TERYLENE ropes and are similar in qualities to nylon ropes, except that they
do not absorb water and their elasticity is lesser. These ropes also are most unsuitable
for work involving "surging” on warping drums.
“KEVLAR” aramid fibre : This is a very expensive fibre but it has the highest strength to
weight ratio of any fibre. ‘Kevlar’ ropes are as strong as steel wire ropes but have only
one fifth of its weight. They stretch very little and do not melt with heat. They are,
therefore, quite suitable for work involving “surging”. The only disadvantage with Kevlar
ropes is that they do not float
Constructions of Synthetic Fibre Ropes :

Hawser laid: A right handed three stranded rope. This traditional cbnstruction is used for
smaller sized ropes.
Braidline: It consists of a braided sheath over a braided core, each having similar stretch
characteristics, so that the load is equally distributed between the two components.
Braided ropes are stronger and less elastic than hawser laid ropes due to lesser twist
given to the fibres.
“Parafil": Untwisted bundle of multifilament fibres contained within an outer inflexible
cover. It has low elasticity and high strength. Suitable for standing rigging only. Avoids
the undesirable effects of twisting the fibres.
“Uniline ropes”: A cross between braidline and parafil ropes, i.e., a bundle of untwisted
fibres enclosed within a braided sheath.
Special Characteristics and Care of Synthetic Ropes :
Synthetic fibre ropes are very resistant to damage by acid and alkaline substances.
Moisture does not harm them even if stowed away wet.
Ultra violet rays of the sun damage the fibres, specially in smaller ropes where more
surface is exposed. This damage is to some extent minimised by introducing a light
inhibitor in the fibres.
Heat of direct sunlight or the heat caused by friction on winch drums when surging, has
a detrimental effect on the fibres. Cover the coil of hawser with a tarpaulin in daytime.
Take only three turns on the warping drum when surging.
Do not let the rope come in contact with sharp metal edges. Avoid bad leads and sharp
bends. The diameter of the sheaves, drums atid bitts should be not less than three times
the diameter of the rope.
Special Characteristics and Care of Synthetic Ropes
Knots and splices tend to slip in synthetic fibre ropes. Therefore, double up knots and
take 50% more tucks in a splice. A long splice does not hold well in a synthetic fibre rope.
Use only synthetic fibre cordage with synthetic fibre ropes e.g., stoppers, rackings and
whippings should always be of synthetic fibre.
Palm and needle whippings should be used for all types of synthetic fibre ropes. In non-
stranded ropes, this will bind the core to the sheath.
When a synthetic fibre rope parts there is a strong whip back, specially in nylon ropes.
Never stand in the direct line of possible whip back.
Always inspect the rope before use. Internal powdering would indicate deterioration of
the fibres.
Gauging (or measurement) of Wire ropes :
The diameter if wire rope is the diameter of circle which encloses its strands and not
areas between two adjacent strands. When measuring a wire rope by caliper care should
be taken to measure the correct diameter as per adjacent diagram.

SAFE WORKING LOADS:

S.W.L. means the maximum weight, which can be lifted safely and without any risk of
accidents.
Breaking Strength of a material is the minimum weight or stress required to break it.
Safe Working Load is between 1/5th and 1/6th of Breaking Strength, though for derrick
work, a safety factor of 1/12th is desirable.
FIBRE ROPES :
Breaking Strength of Fibre ropes of different types which have three strands and hawser
laid is as below :
Manila : 2D2/ 300 tonnes
Polypropylene : 3D2/ 300 tonnes
Nylon : 5D2/300 tonnes
Similarly, Flexible Steel Wire Ropes have the following Breaking Strengths.
6 x 12 (i.e. 12 wires per strand) 15 D2 / 500 tonnes
6 x 24 (i.e. 24 wires per strand) 20 D2 / 500 tonnes
6 x 37 (i.e. 37 wires per strand) 21 D2 / 500 tonnes

Chains are of two types viz. Stud link chains and Open Link chain.
The breaking Strength of different types of chains is shown below :
STUD LINK CHAIN :

• Grade 1 (12.5 mm to 120 mm) : 20 D2/600

• Grade2 (12.5 mm to 120 mm) : 30 D2/600
43 D2/600
• Grade3 (12.5 mm to 120 mm) :
Open Link Chain :

• Grade 1 diameter 12.5 mm to 50 mm : 20D2 /600

• Grade2 diameter 12.5 mm to 50 mm : 30D2/600

KNOTS BENDS and HITCHES

A knot involves the use of only one rope.

A Bend is used for joining the ends of two ropes together.
A Hitch is used for fastening one rope to another rope (not at
the ends), ring, bar, or hook.
These definitions are only a general guide. They are not
strictly adhered to.

Overhand Knot:
May be used for temporarily whipping a rope or preventing a rope unreeving from a
block or for providing footholds in a lifeline.
Figure of ‘8’ Knot:
May be used for providing foot-holds in the life-lines of a lifeboat davit, and in the keel
grab lines of a lifeboat. Also to prevent the end of a rope from un-reeving from a block.

Reef Knot:
It is used for tying the reef points in a sail. It can also be used for tying the two ends of a
rope when tying a bundle with a single rope. Remember that it is a knot and therefore
involves the use of only one rope. Joining two ropes by a reef knot is wrong, as it is liable
to slip. Always use a ‘bend’ for joining ropes.

Bowline:
Pronounced as “BOWLIN”. A very useful knot whenever it is desired to make a
temporary eye at the end of any rope. Notice its resemblance to a sheet bend.
Fig. 4.5 Put the working part of the rope (W) over the standing part (S).
Fig. 4.6 Make a half hitch
Fig. 4.7 Straighten out the working part (W) so that an eye is formed in the standing
part.
Fig. 4.8 Dip the end (W) behind the standing part(S)
Fig. 4.9 Push the end (W) down through the eye.
Tighten up the knot.

SHEEP SHANK :
Used for temporarily shortening a rope, or for strengthening the damaged portion of a
rope.
It is also used on a keel grab line of a lifeboat to provide hand grips. The bights should be
lashed with the standing parts.

BENDS:

Single Sheet Bend :

Used for joining two ropes.
Both ends should be on the same side. Also used for tying the sheets to
the clew of a sail.

Double Sheet Bend :

Used for joining a small rope to a bigger rope.
Both rope ends should come out on the same side. (Sheet bend same
side, Carrick bend opposite side).
Sheet bends are difficult to prise open if the ropes get wet and are
subjected to heavy strain.

A SINGLE CARRICK BEND :

It is used for joining two hawsers' when the joint has to be warped over a drum.
The ends must be lashed to the standing part, otherwise this bend will slip.
The ends must come out on opposite sides.
Sometimes a double loop is taken around the cross of the first rope, but still it is an
insecure bend unless the ends are seized to the standing part.

Double Carrick Bend :

A Double Carrick bend is one of the best ways of joining two ropes. Note that the ends
are diagonally opposite to each other. (Fig. 4.19).
If the ends are seized with the standing parts, it will maintain its flat shape and will then
easily go around the warping drum. Otherwise it is not necessary to seize the ends.
When the strain comes on the ropes, this bend will, if the ends are not seized, collapse
and convert itself into two inter-locking knots, which will then hold under any strain.
This bend is very easy to prise open with a fid, even if it has been under heavy strain and
soaking wet. It is, therefore; better than a sheet bend, when the ropes are to be joined
only temporarily.

HITCHES BUCKET HITCH:

Used for tying a rope to the handle of a Bucket
Fishermen in small boats use it for bending on their rope cable to
the rings of their small anchor and therefore it is also called a
Fishermen’s Bend.
A Half Hitch is used mainly as a part of other hitches. (See Fig.
4.21)
Rolling Hitch: A rolling hitch is used for securing a small rope tq a
larger rope under strain or to a spar, when the pull is to come
from sideways e.g. in a rope stopper. The riding turn is to be taken
on the side from which the pull is expected. (See Fig.
4.22 and 4.23).

Round turn and two half hitches :

One of the most

widely used hitches,
whenever it is desired
to secure a rope to a
ring or spar. Simple to make and never jams.
Also used in Breeches Buoy to tie hawsers to mast.

Clove Hitch :
It is the best way to secure a rope to a spar or post after tightening it, if no slack back is
desired.
First take a turn around the spar. Keep picking up the slack as the rope is tightened.
When the rope is taut enough, take a half hitch so as to complete the clove hitch.
Two loops are made on a bight of rope and slipped over the post.

Timber Hitch :
It is used for securing the end of a rope to a log or spar when towing or lifting it.
It can also be used for lifting a bag or bale by a rope.
The end of the rope should be dogged around itself with the lay.

Marline Spike Hitch :

It is a quick way of hitching a rope to a marline spike or similar object so as to get a
better grip on the rope for a stronger pull.

HALF HITCH AND TIMBER HITCH:

It is used when lifting or lowering a spar vertically up or down through a narrow opening
such as a manhole.
It is also used for towing a log astern.
The half hitch should be tied first, near the upper end of the spar and then the timber
hitch made near the middle length.
Single and Double Blackwall Hitches
They are used for hitching a rope quickly to a hook, but they are liable to slip and
therefore not reliable.

Midshipmans’Hitch:
It is used for the same purpose as blackwall hitch but is slightly more secure, specially if
the rope is greasy. Cat’s Paw
It is used for shortening a rope sling.
The two bights should be twisted in opposite directions.

ROPE SPLICES

Splicing’ means interlocking the strands so as to join two ropes or form an eye at the end
of a rope.
In the following text the open strands at the end of the rope are referred to as “ends”, to
distinguish them from the strands of the standing part.
An Eye Splice is used for making an eye at the end of a rope. (See Fig. 4.58).
Open out the rope upto a length of 15 times its diameter.
Bend the rope to form the eye and let the ends lie close to and across the standing part.
Take the middle end ‘B’ and tuck it, against the lay, under the strand directly under it.
Next, take end ‘C’ end tuck it against the lay, under the next strand . End ‘C’ should enter
the rope in the same groove where end ‘B’ comes out from, but to the left of it.
Now turn the splice upside down and tuck end ‘A’ against the lay, under the remaining
strand.
In this case also, end ‘A’ should enter the rope in the same groove where end ‘C’ comes
out from, but to the left of it, and should come out adjacent to where ‘B’ enters the rope.
This completes the first series of tucks. You will find that in each groove between the
strands, an end goes in and an end comes out.

The second series of tucks is made in the following manner:

Each end has just emerged from under a strand. Pick up any end and lead it over the
next strand and then again under the next strand. Do this with all the ends. This
completes second round of tucks.
The third round of tucks is similarly made. After the third tuck you may :
Simply cut off the ends close to the rope, or
divide the ends into two ‘halves’. A ‘half from one end is then twisted and lashed with
the ‘half’ of the adjacent end. This is called “DOGGING THE ENDS”, and is done to
strengthen the splice. Or
make the fourth series of tucks with only half the yarns the other half being cut off from
the ends; and the fifth series of tucks with only a quarter of the yarns. This will produce
a tapered looking splice.

• A Short Splice is used for joining two ropes but as the splice is thick it will not pass
through a block.
Make a quick and short west country whipping at a distance of 15 times the diameter
away from the ends of each rope. Un-lay the ends and interlock them as shown in figure
so that each end lies between two ends of the opposite rope. The whippings are not
shown in the figure.
Pull the ropes tight, close towards each other and lightly lash the ends b 1, b2 and b3 to
the rope A.
Now cut the whipping of rope B and tuck ends av a2 and a3 into rope B, over one and
under one, against the lay, as in the second and subsequent tucks of an eye splice. A
minimum of three tucks are made.
Next, cut the lashing and whipping of rope A and tuck ends, bv b2 and b3 into rope A, over
one and under one, against the lay, as in an eye splice. A minimum of three tucks are
required.
A Long Splice is used for joining two ropes when the splice has to pass through a block. If
properly made, a long splice should not increase the thickness of the rope, nor should it
reduce the strength of the rope.
Un-lay the ends of the ropes up to a distance of 40 times the diameter of the rope.
Crotch the ends as for a short splice.
Unlay one end from rope ‘A’ and into the cavity thus formed, lay the corresponding end
of rope ‘B’ until its length is reduced to 13 times the diameter of the rope. Cut off the
surplus from the unlaid end.
Similarly unlay one end from rope ‘B’ and lay an end of rope ‘A’ into the cavity formed.
Cut off the surplus from the unlaid end.
The splice will appear as in figure with three pairs of ends spaced equidistantly apart vi.
Make an overhand knot, with the lay, at each pair of ends.
All the six ends are now tucked into the ropes, either with the lay or against the lay over
one and under one.
Stretch the rope and then cut off the ends close to the rope.
VARIATIONS:
Variations in the long splices are found only in the tucking manner of the ends.
They may be tucked either with the lay or against the lay.
Sometimes the ends are ‘halved’ and each ‘half’ tucked separately.
At other times, after each tuck the end is made thinner by cutting off one third of the
yarns.
Back Splice is a clumsy way of stopping the ends of a rope from opening out.
First make a crown knot, then tuck the strands over one and under one against the lay.
A Cut Splice
is sometimes used for
joining two ropes.
The ends of each rope
are tucked into the
standing part of the
other rope, as in an eye splice.
Chain Splice :
is used for joining a rope to a chain e.g., in a chain stopper.
Since the rope will be too thick to pass through the end link of the chain, one end is
unlaid from the rope and the thinned rope, comprising of only two strands, is passed
through the end link and folded to form an eye.
These two ends also are now opened out and one of the ends is laid up in the vacant
score left by the first end, until the two ends meet, when they are knotted and tucked as
in a long splice.
The remaining end
at the neck of the eye
is disposed off by
tucking it into the
rope, over one and
under one against
the lay.

TACKLES
A tackle is a set of two single or multi-
sheaved blocks with a single continuous rope
rove through both of them.
Tackles are used to reduce the pull required
to lift or shift a load.
For example, if ten men are required to drag
a case of machinery across the deck, only
two may be sufficient if a tackle is used.
One of the blocks is fixed to a stationary
point. It is called the Standing Block.
The other block, called the Moving Block, is
hooked to the load to be lifted or shifted.
The Standing Part of the rope is fastened to a
Becket in one of the blocks.
The other end of the rope is called the
Hauling Part.
Parts of rope running between the two
blocks are called the Running Parts.
Mechanical Advantage or Power Gained :
The number of tonnes that can be lifted by a
tackle with a pull of one tonne on the
hauling part is called its Power or Mechanical
Advantage.
Theoretically, if there was no friction in the
system, the mechanical advantage of a tackle
will be equal to the number of parts of rope
at the moving block.
For example, if there are 5 parts of rope at
the moving block and the weight to be lifted is 10 tonnes, a pull of 2 tonnes will be
required on the hauling part.
But in actual practice, because of friction between the sheaves and pin, a little more
than two tonnes’ pull will be necessary.
Each sheave adds to the weight to be lifted by one tenth.
Therefore, if the load is ‘W’ tonnes and there are ‘n’ sheaves between the load and the
pull, the effective load will be W+n .
If ‘P’ is the theoretical power gained and ‘S’ tonnes is the force with which the hauling
part has W to be pulled to lift the load, then S x P = W+ n — .
The safe working load of the rope used in the tackle should not be less than ‘S’ tones.