Tradition of Excellence

By: Ns. Akhmad Zainur Ridla, MAdvN

Medical-Surgical and Critical Care Department
Faculty of Nursing
University of Jember
 Tradition of Excellence
Sample definition

Purpose of sampling

Outline Stages in the selection of sample

Types of sampling

Sample size
Recall… Tradition of Excellence
Statistics

Data Information

•Statistics is a tool for converting data into information:

But where then does data come from? How is it gathered?
How do we ensure its accurate? Is the data reliable? Is it
representative of the population from which it was drawn?
This chapter explores some of these issues.

5.3
Methods of Collecting Data… Tradition of Excellence

1. Direct Observation
2. Experiments, and
3. Surveys.

5.4
Surveys Tradition of Excellence

•A survey solicits information from people; e.g. Gallup polls; pre-election

polls; marketing surveys.

•The Response Rate (i.e. the proportion of all people selected who complete
the survey) is a key survey parameter.

•Surveys may be administered in a variety of ways, e.g.

•Personal Interview,
•Telephone Interview,
•Self Administered Questionnaire, and
•Internet

5.5
 Tradition of Excellence

Population
vs
Sample
Sampling Tradition of Excellence

•Statistical inference permits us to draw conclusions about a population

based on a sample.

•Sampling (i.e. selecting a sub-set of a whole population) is often done

for reasons of cost (it’s less expensive to sample 1,000 television
viewers than 100 million TV viewers) and practicality (e.g. performing a
crash test on every automobile produced is impractical).

•In any case, the sampled population and the target population should
be similar to one another.

5.7
 Black/Blue/Green/Red
Thin/Bold

Who are they Smiling/Normal/Sad

Tradition of Excellence
L JK K J
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Non-Probability Sampling Tradition of Excellence

• Haphazard sampling
• Quota sampling
• Purposive sampling
• Snowball sampling
• Deviant case sampling
• Sequential sampling
• Theoretical sampling
Haphazard / Accidental / Convenience sample Tradition of Excellence
L JK K J K
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L K K K K K L LL J K L J J
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L L KK L K
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Quota sample Tradition of Excellence
L JK K J J J J J
K L L J
L K K K K K L LL J K L J J K K K K
J K K K K L L L L J L L L L
L L KK L K
K K
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K L L K K K K KK LL K
L J K LK
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J JJ L K K K K K
K L KKKL KL K KL K K J L K L
J L L L L
K K K KK K KL K L L KL L L K L J J
K KK K K L L K K K L K J J J J J
K L L K K K K
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Purposive sample Tradition of Excellence
L JK K J
K L L J
L K K K K K L LL J K L J J
J K K K K L L L L J
L L KK L K
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K L L K K K K KK LL K
L J K LK
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K LL K K K L LL K
J JJ L K J J
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L L K L K K K K J L KK K
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Snowball sample Tradition of Excellence
L JK K J
K L L J
L K K K K K L LL J K L J J
J K K K K L L L L J
L L KK L K
K K
K K J
K L L K K K K KK LL K
L J K LK
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Deviant case sampling Tradition of Excellence
L JK K J
K L L J
K K K K J K L J
L K
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L LL
L L J
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K L L K K K K KK LL K
L K LK
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Theoretical sampling Tradition of Excellence

• Based on (grounded) theory

• Theory develops from initial research
• Cases are selected that are expected to further deepen the theory
• Eg. Theory developed from data collected during day time à next collect data at night
Probability Sampling Tradition of Excellence
Population L K J L
JK
(delinquents) K K K K K LL LL J J K
L JL J
N KK L K J K K K K L L L J
L L KL K K J K LK
K L K J J K
L L K L L J L K
Target population K K KK K LL K JJ J
(thieves) K KL L K K J L K L
K KK K K L L KL L L K L J
K KK K K K L K K K K L L L KJ J
K K KL K K L K L J LL L J
Sampling frame K K K K L K KK K K K K K
L K K L K
(known as L K K K L K L L JK
K JK K K L
K K L J KK L
“thieves” by K K L K L L K J JL
K K KKK K LK L
K K L L L K
police) KK K K L K
KL KK K K K KK K K J LL K
K LL K K K K
K K K KK K KK L K L K
Sample K K K J K KK K K JK K K K K
n K L K K L K K K K KK L K K L
L K K L K K K K K K K K
L K K K K J L K
Sampling ratio K K L KK J KK
K K K K K K K KK
n K
K KL K L K
N K K K K K K
Probability Sampling Tradition of Excellence

• Population is often (usually) unknown,

therefor a population is described with theoretical
values (parameters) eg: N(µ,s)
• Random sample
• Equal chance for all elements to figure in the sample
• Sampling error (deviation from representativeness)
• Sampling distribution
• Central limit theorem

Other demos : 1, 2
Probability sampling techniques Tradition of Excellence

• Simple Random Sample (SRS)

• Random numbers
• Systematic sampling
(danger: cycles or patterns in sampling frame)
• Random start
• Sampling interval
• Stratified sampling
• Subpopulating (stratification)
• SRS from all strata
• Cluster sampling
• Identify clusters and draw SRS from those
• Then draw SRS of elements from the selected clusters
• Within-Household sample: whom should researcher ask? (always first to pick up the phone or open the
door...?)
• Probability Proportionate to Size (equal probabilities)
• Random Digit Dialling

A link
Simple random sample
Tradition of Excellence
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31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130
131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140
141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150
151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160
161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170
171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180
181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190
191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200
Systematic sample
Tradition of Excellence
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130
131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140
141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150
151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160
161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170
171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180
181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190
191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200
Stratified sampling Tradition of Excellence
Cluster sampling Tradition of Excellence
How large should a sample be?
Tradition of Excellence

• ... It depends on... Population Sample

Sampling
ratio
• population size , characteristics
(homogeneousàless / 200 171 85.5%
heterogeneousàmore) 500 352 70.4%
• spread of the data (sd)
1000 543 54.3%
• Purposes (descriptive? testing? (power))
2000 745 37.2%

5000 960 19.2%

10000 1061 10.6%

20000 1121 5.6%

50000 1160 2.3%

100000 1173 1.2%
Sample Size… Tradition of Excellence

•Numerical techniques for determining sample sizes will be described

later, but suffice it to say that the larger the sample size is, the more
accurate we can expect the sample estimates to be.

5.24
Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors… Tradition of Excellence

•Two major types of error can arise when a sample of observations is taken from a
population:
•sampling error and nonsampling error.

•Sampling error refers to differences between the sample and the population that
exist only because of the observations that happened to be selected for the
sample. Random and we have no control over.

•Nonsampling errors are more serious and are due to mistakes made in the
acquisition of data or due to the sample observations being selected improperly.
Most likely caused be poor planning, sloppy work, act of the Goddess of Statistics,
etc.

5.25
Sampling Error… Tradition of Excellence

•Sampling error refers to differences between the sample and the

population that exist only because of the observations that happened
to be selected for the sample.

•Increasing the sample size will reduce this type of error.

5.26
Nonsampling Error… Tradition of Excellence

•Nonsampling errors are more serious and are due to mistakes made in
the acquisition of data or due to the sample observations being
selected improperly. Three types of nonsampling errors:

•Errors in data acquisition,

•Nonresponse errors, and
•Selection bias.

•Note: increasing the sample size will not reduce this type of error.
5.27
Errors in data acquisition… Tradition of Excellence

•…arises from the recording of incorrect responses, due to:

•— incorrect measurements being taken because of faulty equipment,

•— mistakes made during transcription from primary sources,
•— inaccurate recording of data due to misinterpretation of terms, or
•— inaccurate responses to questions concerning sensitive issues.

5.28
Nonresponse Error… Tradition of Excellence

•…refers to error (or bias) introduced when responses are not obtained
from some members of the sample, i.e. the sample observations that
are collected may not be representative of the target population.

•As mentioned earlier, the Response Rate (i.e. the proportion of all
people selected who complete the survey) is a key survey parameter
and helps in the understanding in the validity of the survey and sources
of nonresponse error.

5.29
Selection Bias… Tradition of Excellence

•…occurs when the sampling plan is such that some members of the
target population cannot possibly be selected for inclusion in the
sample.

5.30
Group work Tradition of Excellence

Please find a proper formula to determine sample size, if:

1. The exact population number is not known
2. The population number is known
study 1: 263 cases, 1241 controls

Rejection region. Any Tradition of Excellence

Null value >= 6.5
Distribution: (0+3.3*1.96)
difference=0.
For 5% significance level,
one-tail area=2.5%
(Za/2 = 1.96)

Power= chance of being in the

Clinically relevant
rejection region if the alternative is
alternative: true=area to the right of this line
difference=10%.
(in yellow)à
study 1: 263 cases, 1241 controls

Rejection region. Any Tradition of Excellence

value >= 6.5
(0+3.3*1.96)

Power= chance of being in the

rejection region if the alternative is
true=area to the right of this line
Power here: (in yellow)

6.5 10
P( Z > )=
3. 3
P( Z > 1.06 ) = 85%
study 1: 50 cases, 50 controls
Critical value=
0+10*1.96=20
Tradition of Excellence

Za/2=1.96
2.5% area

Power closer to
15% now.
Study 2: 18 treated, 72 controls, STD DEV = 2

Critical value= Tradition of Excellence

0+0.52*1.96 = 1

Clinically relevant
alternative: Power is nearly
difference=4 points 100%!
Study 2: 18 treated, 72 controls, STD DEV=10

Critical value= Tradition of Excellence

0+2.58*1.96 = 5

Power is about 40%

Study 2: 18 treated, 72 controls, effect size=1.0

Tradition of Excellence
Critical value=
0+0.52*1.96 = 1

Power is about 50%

Clinically relevant
alternative:
difference=1 point
Sample size calculations Tradition of Excellence

• Based on these elements, you can write a formal mathematical

equation that relates power, sample size, effect size, standard
deviation, and significance level…

• **WE WILL DERIVE THESE FORMULAS FORMALLY SHORTLY**

Simple formula for difference in means Tradition of Excellence

Represents the
desired power
Sample size in each (typically .84 for 80%
group (assumes equal power).
sized groups)

2s ( Z b + Za/2 )
2 2

n= 2
difference Represents the desired
Standard deviation of level of statistical
the outcome variable Effect Size (the
difference in significance (typically
means) 1.96).
Simple formula for difference in proportions
Tradition of Excellence
Represents the
desired power
Sample size in each (typically .84 for 80%
group (assumes equal power).
sized groups)

2( p )(1 - p )(Z b + Za/2 ) 2

n=
(p1 - p2 ) 2

Represents the
A measure of Effect Size (the desired level of
variability (similar to difference in statistical
standard deviation) proportions) significance
(typically 1.96).
SAMPLE SIZE AND POWER FORMULAS

Critical value= Tradition of Excellence

0+standard error (difference)*Za/2

Power= area to right of Zb=

critical value - alternative difference (here = 1)
Zb =
standard error (diff)

-0
e.g. here :Z b = ; power = 50%
standard error (diff)
Sample size formula for difference in means
Tradition of Excellence

(r + 1) s ( Z power + Za/2 )
2 2
n1 = 2
r difference
where :
n 1 = size of smaller group
r = ratio of larger group to smaller group
s = standard deviation of the characteristic
diffference = clinically meaningful difference in means of the outcome
Z power = corresponds to power (.84 = 80% power)
Za / 2 = corresponds to two - tailed significance level (1.96 for a = .05)
Derivation of a sample size formula: Tradition of Excellence

The standard error of the difference of two proportions is:

p(1 - p) p(1 - p)
+
n1 n2
Derivation of a sample size formula: Tradition of Excellence

Here, if we assume equal sample size and

that, under the null hypothesis proportions of
coffee drinkers is .5 in both cases and
controls, then
s.e.(diff)= .5(1 - .5) .5(1 - .5)
+ = .5 / n
n n
General sample size formula Tradition of Excellence

2
r +1 p (1 - p )( Z power + Z a /2 )
n=
r ( p1 - p 2 ) 2
General sample size needs when outcome is
binary: Tradition of Excellence

2
r + 1 p(1 - p)( Z b + Za / 2 )
n=
r ( p1 - p2 ) 2

where :
n = size of smaller group
r = ratio of larger group to smaller group
p1 - p2 = clinically meaningful difference in proportions of the outcome
Z b = corresponds to power (.84 = 80% power)
Za / 2 = corresponds to two - tailed significance level (1.96 for a = .05)
 Compare with when outcome is
continuous: Tradition of Excellence

(r + 1) s ( Z b + Za/2 )
2 2
n1 = 2
r difference
where :
n1 = size of smaller group
r = ratio of larger group to smaller group
s = standard deviation of the characteristic
diffference = clinically meaningful difference in means of the outcome
Z b = corresponds to power (.84 = 80% power)
Za / 2 = corresponds to two - tailed significance level (1.96 for a = .05)
 Sample size for paired data:
Tradition of Excellence

2
s d ( Z b + Za/2 ) 2
n= 2
difference
where :
n = sample size
s = standard deviation of the within - pair difference
diffference = clinically meaningful difference
Z b = corresponds to power (.84 = 80% power)
Za / 2 = corresponds to two - tailed significance level (1.96 for a = .05)
Paired data difference in proportion: sample
size: Tradition of Excellence

2
p(1 - p)( Z b + Za / 2 )
n=
( p1 - p2 ) 2

where :
n = sample size for 1 group
p1 - p2 = clinically meaningful difference in dependent proportions
Z b = corresponds to power (.84 = 80% power)
Za / 2 = corresponds to two - tailed significance level (1.96 for a = .05)