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INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY
INTRODUCTION
More education Students who are expected to do philosophy of Education as a compulsory unit is new to
the world of philosophy. It is therefore, logically prudent to introduce you to philosophy, before
embarking on “philosophy of Education” or philosophy of X,Y Z. Consequently, this lesson introduces
you to the world of philosophy, begging with the obvious questions of what philosophy is.

CONTENT

What is Philosophy

 The Word: philosophy “is derived from the Greek word, Philein” and “Sophias”.
 “Philein” means to Love, to search for, and “Sophias”, means “Wisdom”.
 Philosophy is therefore a combination from the two Greek words cited above and literally
means,” Love of Wisdom”, Search for Wisdom”.
 Given the above, you will realize that philosophers are lovers of Wisdom, people who
 L.kloiu88qsearch for wisdom as they live in this world. Sometimes, wisdom is referred to as
knowledge, so philosophy has come to be associated with love of knowledge.
 Philosophers are people who are puzzled and wonder about any things in the world they live in.
As a result of this, they ask themselves many questions with a hope of getting rational answers
that will help them understand, and survive in the word, themselves being part of that world.
 Many philosophers have argued, in fact that philosophy begins in wonder and wonder is the
feeling of a philosopher. What however, is it to wonder?
 To wonder is to realize that there is something strange behind the things that we ordinarily take
for granted.
 For this reason. Philosophers take nothing for granted. They constantly try to look for answers
particularly to the MEANING and SUGNIFICANCE of life.
 In a way also, philosophers, through their questioning habit, admit that they are ignorant of some
issues. By questioning. They want answers; they want to know because they don’t know. It is this
knowledge that makes them love or search for further knowledge.
 Basically, therefore, philosophy is based on mans curiosity and wonder about the word we live in
and consists in finding possible rational answers to many fundamental problems with regards to
the relationship between man and the world he lives in.

NOTE

It is important to know that philosophy is an activity undertaken by man in this world and to discard a
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notion you may have probably heard that philosophers are detached and always absorbed in abstract deep
thought completely unaware of the world around them. In reality, the contrary is true.

 The above information notwithstanding, you need to realize that Philosophy consist of two
worlds. The World of General Philosophy which is wide and the small of Technical or
Professional philosophy. We need to explain each of these.

GENERAL PHILOSOPHY-THE WIDE WORLD

 As a general philosophy, this means that it is not the preserve of a few people. As Njoroge and
Bennars(1986) put it, general philosophy is and has always been the concern of all human beings
for the simple reasons that they are humans, questioning their humanity, the human condition, the
human experience.
 Any person, who seriously and genuinely tries to come to terms with life in the sense of
understanding, it does philosophy at the general level.
 Done by all, though in different contexts, it includes what we can call “philosophy of life”, where
different groups could be said to have a philosophy of life”, where different groups could be said
to have a philosophy of life -a set of thought out beliefs or ideas that guide one’s life. For
example,
 a student can have a philosophy of life,
 so is a farmer,
 A parent
 Even a political leader.
 Included in the wide world of philosophy are National Philosophies such as “Nyayo
philosophy”,” Ujamaa”, and Humanism”etc.
 From this we realize that general philosophy can be
 personal in nature
 collective in nature.

NOTE

The important point is that, all of them whether personal or collective, philosophy expresses man’s
response to life. In this context all human beings have a philosophy or are philosophers since they a set of
ideas or beliefs that guide their lives.

 Can we, however, say this of Technical or professional philosophy? We need to show this.

TECHNICAL PHILOSOPHY-THE SMALL WORLD

 Different from the wide world or general philosophy, Technical or professional philosophy is
associated with a small world of academic scholars who have undergone formal training
philosophy, in this sense has structure, a system of organized thought evidenced in a world of
books, and scholarly writings.
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 This philosophy has a specific form of thought, has emerged from “western philosophy i.e
European in origin and characterized by specialization, a matter of experts.
 The student of philosophy of education need not become a professional philosopher. As it has
been argued, he only needs a general introduction to help him/her understand and appreciate the
meaning and significance of Technical philosophy as an Educator. The next lesson on the content
of technical philosophy should help.

FACTORS OF TECHNICAL PHILOSOPHY page 9-11 stop where there is a blue mark

The development of Technical Philosophy out of general Philosophy is a historical fact. Over the times
the wide world of Philosophy came to be the small world of technical or formal/philosophy. Three factors
help explain how the wide world philosophy came to be. The factors have given technical philosophy its
own specific features, its own peculiar character. They include:

FORMALIZATION: This is a process whereby a definite form is given to a variety of human

activities. The term’ form’ refers to the presence of a structure, a pattern or a system. In this sense,’
formal’ education implies a well defined system of education. With the development of writing
technique in different parts of the world ideas came to be expressed in a more definite, systematic and
lasting form. This formalization of ideas through writing encouraged the development or
formula/technical philosophy. The beginnings of formal philosophy can be ignored back to the first
philosophical writings in a given area. Indian formal philosophy goes back to the Veda, whereas in
Europe these beginnings are to be found in the philosophical writings of the ancient Greek philosophers,
Heraclitus and Pythagoras. As time went by, philosophy became more and more formal in character, and
the exclusive domain of academic scholars. Today, the world of technical formalized world, there is
hardly any room left for the oral traditions of the past, not for the common philosophies of life, personal
or collective e.g in imperialism and colonialism

Westernization: This refers to the historical fact due to the dominant position of Western civilization,
resulting in imperialism and colonialism. Formal philosophy came to be dominated by western
philosophers. Consequently, philosophy in the formal or technical sense came to be regarded as a
predominantly western or European affair. This impression was created by western books on philosophy
with emphasized that formal philosophy started in ancient Greece and from the redevelopment throughout
Western Europe into what is now a small world inhabited by western philosophers. Anyone wishing to
join this world is expected to be familiar with western philosophy, covering various systems of though,
such as Realism, Idealism, Pragmatic and Existentialism. He must be acquainted with and writings of
famous western philosophers and the technical language used in western philosophy. The world of
technical philosophy is highly western in its orientation, expression and character. It may be concluded
that western philosophy, to all appearances, provides the standards of what technical Philosophy is
supposed to be. This is a widespread perception today due mainly to the specialization that has occurred
in formal philosophy through the efforts of western philosophers.

Specialization: This is a process whereby individuals acquire exceptional knowledge or skills in a

particular subject as results of constant and intensive, study of the subject. These individuals are said to be
expert or specialist in their field. As the number of specialist increase in a given field, they tend to create a
small world of their own, characterization occurred at different times in history and in different parts of
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world. But western specialists dominated the field of formal philosophy and subsequently imposed their
language, interest and methods upon others. With specialization and westernization going hand in hand,
formal philosophy became highly as technical and such a matter for experts, and western in context. With
time therefore, philosophy developed into an area of specialization, into an academic discipline, with its
own content, methods and terminology. Consequently, anyone wishing to be called a philosopher in this
technical, sense, i.e a specialist, must become fully acquainted with the content, method and terminology
of technical philosophy. For the above reasons, the origin of formal philosophy in the western world is
considered to be the beginning of technical philosophy.

However, it is imperative to note that such specialization is not necessary for education learners who do
not aspire to be professional philosophers. Required, rather, for learners of education, is a general
introduction into the world of technical philosophy for the appreciation and understanding of the meaning
and significance of educational philosophy.

Philosophy in the technical sense

Philosophy in its technical sense might best be thought of in three aspects: an activity(task); a set of
attitudes, and a body of content.

Philosophy as an Activity

The activity aspect of philosophy is the best seen by noting what philosophers do. Synthesizing,
speculating, prescribing and analyzing are the four activities that have traditionally been at the center of
philosophic endeavors as an activity.

The Synthesizing role-playing of the philosophers test on man’s desire and need to possess a
comprehensive view of life that provides a basic upon which he may unify his thoughts, base his
aspirations, and interpret his experiences. To most people rational existence demands a worldview that
adds significance of individual action by placing them in their wider context. In his role, as a synthesize,
the philosopher seeks to unite and integrated mankind’s specialized knowledge into a unified view of the
world.

The speculative dimension of philosophy is based upon the limitations of human knowledge. The most
important aspects of human and universal existence are not amenable to scientific known treatment. If
daily activity is not to be paralyzed, It is necessary to transcend what can be demonstrated empirically. It
is the speculative function of philosophy that allows a rational leap from the known to the unknown with
confidence. This activity gives rise to speculative Philosophy, a way of thinking systematically about
everything that exists. Philosophy is a speculative activity in which one tries by means of reasoning to
build up a coherent and consistence world view that ought to be. Philosophers are not contented with
studying particular aspects of reality because the human mind wishes to see things as a whole, to
understand how all different things that are, together form some sort of meaningful reality. Speculative
Philosophy therefore is a search for order and wholeness, applied not to particular items or experiences
but to all knowledge and all experiences. It is the attempt to find coherence in the whole realm of thought
and experience.

Prescription In Philosophy seeks to establish standards for evaluating values in conduct and at
prescriptions are usually expressed in terms of how people ought to act or react n given situation
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involving aesthetic judgments or moral alterative. Prescriptive philosophy seeks to establish standards for
assessing values, judging, conduct and appraising art. It examines what is meant by good or bad, right or
wrong, beautiful or ugly. It asks whether these qualities in here in things themselves or whether they are
projections of man’s own mind. The main aim of this philosophy is to discover and illuminate principles
for deciding what actions and qualities are most worthwhile and why they should.

Analyzing in philosophy focuses on examining human languages as an attempt to clarify the

understanding of problems and how they might be solved. In analysis, the philosopher scrutinizes the use
of logic in an argument and examines such words as liberal’ good intelligence and motivation in an
attempt to evaluate theory meanings on the assumption that basic misunderstanding in regard to meaning
might lie at the root of human problems.

Analytic philosophy focuses on words and meaning. It confines philosophy to defining concepts and
analyzing and criticizing prepositions. The analytic philosopher tends to be skeptical, cautions and
disciplined to build a system of thought. Since for them, meanings of words are contextual and
inconsistencies may arise when meanings appropriate in certain contexts are imported into others.

Finally, it is to be noted that all the above approaches contribute to health of philosophy. In all the
activities logical reasoning and healthy skepticism are common characteristics .speculation without
analysis soars to easily and becomes irrelevant to the world as a known it ; and analysis without
speculation becomes sterile .In any case ,few philosophers are solely speculate solely prescriptive or
analytic. All the four speculations, prescription, analysis and synthesis are present to varied degrees in the
works of all mature philosophers.

b) Philosophy as an attitude

Characteristics of a person who is philosophic include: self-awareness, comprehensiveness penetration,

and flexibility.

 Self-awareness entails a commitment to being as honest as possible with one s self in regard to
person biases, assumption and prejudices. One of the difficult and elusive activities of human
existence is to come to grips with personal predispositions. Self-awareness is imported in coming
to the understanding of reality. Once an individual becomes aware of the effects of his personal
predispositions, he needs to take this information into account in both interpretation and
communication.
 Comprehensiveness involves an inclination towards collecting as much relevant data on a
subject as possible from a wide spectrum, of sources rather than being satisfied with a narrow
sample. This attitude is related to the synthesizing function of philosophy as an activity in that it
is interested in seeing the seeing wholeness of phenomenon rather than the parts.
 Penetration is a desire that leads a person to go as deeply into a problem as skill, time and energy
would allow .It is a squelching of the inclination towards the superficial in favour of a search for
basic principles, issues and solution.
 Flexibility might be thought as the antithesis of ‘rigidity ‘ or psychological set ‘. The attitude of
flexibility is a form of sensitivity that enable to one to be able to perceive old problems in ways. It
includes a willingness to restructure ideas in the face of sufficient evidence and the ability to
envisage viable alternatives to a viewpoint. Flexibility, however, should not be confused with
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indecisiveness or the inability to make a decision. After careful study, one may decide that a
position is the most reasonable and then act in accord with that decision. The point of issue lies in
one’s willingness-even readiness to change that position given sufficient reason or in light of new
knowledge.

LESSON TWO

CONTENT OF TECHNICAL PHILOSOPHY

INTRODUCTION

Lesson one, was very instrumental in showing us the general definition of what philosophy is. In the
course of that discussion, we distinguished between general philosophy and Technical philosophy. Our
main concern, however, is with Technical philosophy, with particular reference to its content and
relationship to Education. As a step towards that, Lesson 2 that follows, delineates and discusses the
general content of technical philosophy.

CONTENT:

There are four distinct areas or branches in Technical Philosophy. These are:

1. LOGIC
2. EPISTEMOLOGY
3. AXIOLOGY
4. METAPHYSICS

LOGIC

 Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It studies how arguments are to be constructed and how
fallacies can be detected and avoided. Why is this necessary?
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 On many occasions where human beings discuss and argue, logical reasoning is abandoned and
people draw wrong conclusions that are unwarranted. Logic helps us avoid such problems and is,
therefore, a vital tool to show how correct arguments are made. But what are arguments?
 From a philosophical standpoint, an argument is a set of statement one of which is a conclusion
and the rest designated as premises. An example of an argument presented in a formal way is the
following:

Dr.Nyanje is 25 year old lady.

All ladies aged 25 years and above are married

Dr.Nyanje is a 25 year old married lady

NOTE:

From the example given above, the first two statements are the premises and the last statement is the
conclusion. Given/Assuming that the first two statements are true, it follows that the third
statement/conclusion must be true. That is an example of a valid Logical argument.

 In logic, we generally have two types of arguments or reasoning Detective reasoning and
inductive reasoning. 1.Deductive reasoning
 Is the type of reasoning where the conclusion deducted from the premises give true premises, the
conclusion necessary follows from the premises. 2.Inductive reasoning
 Truth is based on the strengths of the premisies.Strong premises gives a strong conclusion while
weak premises give rise to a weak conclusion. The conclusion is probabilistic in nature.
 So much for at this moment. We now must discuss another branch of Technical Philosophy-
Epistemosophy.

EPISTEMOLOGY

 As a branch of philosophy, Epistemology forms part of the content of Technical philosophy.

 Epistemology is referred to as the study of knowledge or philosophical, reflection on issues
related to knowledge.
 The Epistemologist is interested in the nature of knowledge asking questions such as what is
knowledge. What does, it mean to, say that I know?
 How do I know that I know?Etc
 These (questions) are seemingly simple, but very difficult to answer when one attempts tem. Two
schools of thought are usually associated with the “philosophical study of knowledge. These are:
1. RATIONALISM
2. EMPIRICSM
 The Empiricists Zeros in ones sense experience in matters of acquisition of knowledge.
For him/her, all knowledge is derived from sense experience and that any learning cannot
take place in the absence of our senses.
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 Educationists in this school plan their curriculum with this in mind, where learners
may/or are required to see, touch, hear, smell and possibly taste.
 The Rationalist on the other hand pays more attention to the part played by the intellect in
the acquisition of knowledge. The point stressed is that, it is possible to acquire
knowledge purely through the intellect since it is the source of all knowledge. And
because teachers deal with epistemological (knowledge) issues, it is important that they
be familiar with this branch. Next for discussion is axiology.

AXIOLOGY:

A broad definition of axiology is that it is the Philosophical studies of values are, however, grouped into
two categories:

1. Ethical values or moral values, hence ethics as a sub-set of axiology.

2. Aesthetic values or non-moral values-hence Aesthetics as another sub branch of axiology.

ETHICS:

 Also known as moral philosophy, ethics studies moral values. This has to do with what is
right r wrong in human relationships within a given society. The good or bad in human
conduct is within the purview of Ethics.
 Ethics also investigates the reasons why certain action are universally considered good or
bad, prescribed or forbidden.
 Ethics seeks to give an answer to the question whether there is something in the nature of
an act that determines its rightness or wrongness or whether it comes from without. A
common question asked at this level is, for example what makes a right action, or a
wrong act wrong?

AESTHETICS:

 Is the study of artistic values and these are not moral in nature. In this area, we have
issues such as the meaning of beauty, social cultural and political values.
 Aesthetics is precise, deals with norms according to which we judge the object of
perception to be beautiful or ugly.
 A car, for example, is beautiful/good aesthetically but not morally so.
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METAPHYSICS:

 Metaphysics deals with being as such. It is the study of what there is, of being. It enquires
into the ultimate meaning of being.
 Philosophers argue that both living and non living have “being “as a common elements
even though these; Being’ participate in ‘being’ differently.
 The examination of the leaning of being belongs to that part of metaphysics referred to as
ontology. However, from a general point of view, the study of ‘being’ as such is what is
referred to as metaphysics.

LESSON THREE

METHODS OF TECHNICAL PHILOSOPHY

INTRODUCTION:

Methods in philosophy are various depending sometimes on the philosophers’ perception. Prof.
Wainaina in Sifuna et al (2006) basically talks of two methods of philosophy he terms as.
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1. Conceptual analysis method

2. Phenomenological method

Njoroge and Bennars(1986) front for four methods based on four functions of philosophy. In this
Lessons, we shall adopt the later authors method viz:

1. Critical method/Socratic-from the critical function of philosophy

2. Logical/rational method-from the rational function of philosophy
3. Reflective method-from the phenomenological function of philosophy
4. Speculative method-from the speculative function of philosophy

CONTENT

THE CRITICAL/SOCRATIC METHOD

 The word’critical’is derived from the Greek work” krinein’, which translate to “to judge”.
 The word points to criticism, to evaluation. To evaluate implies questioning.
To evaluate something one needs to ask questions, critical questions.
 The critical approach, it must be noted, is not negative or destructive in nature, but rather
it is positive and constructive in nature aimed at liberating man from fanaticism,
dogmatism and intolerance.
 As a historical fact, this method is associated with the Greek philosopher-Socrates- hence
referred to as the “Socratic Method”.

THE LOGICAL/RATIONAL METHOD

 The rational functions of philosophy give birth to the rational or logical method of
philosophy. It stresses on logical reasoning that is very systematic.(Refer to the
discussion on logic in our discussion on the branches of philosophy in lesson two)
 As a method, it is based on clarity and is analytic in nature. To analyses is to break a
issue into simpler parts for purposes of easy understanding. Analysis eventually aims at
synthesis.
 The philosopher using this method seeks to analyses concept, statements and language in
order to clarify and justify their meaning. This is the method referred to as conceptual
analysis, one that enhances rationality of thought.
 The bottom line is that Education matters need to be approached very rationally and
logically if we have to fully benefit from it.
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THE REFLECTIVE/PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD

 Phenomenologist’s go for” Lived” ordinary: experiences. The argument is that through

analysis of or reflection of our ordinary experience, we are able to understand our own
reality and our surrounding as conscious individuals.
 The method point further that living and experiencing things personally makes us know
the world in a personal way.
 These experiences include those of joy, loving, pain, fear and those of frustration. These
experiences, reflected upon in a concrete, existential way, may give an individual
meaning and substance in human life
 The implication of the above is that philosophy starts from ordinary human experiences,
emphasizing the idea that philosophy or philosophers are not detached from this world in
their quest to find answers to life issues. This agrees with John Terry(1994) who argues
that the experiences of growing seeing, feeling, thinking and loving are common
experiences that all people in all places have, and on which they build the primary
philosophical notions. Philosophy, it is being suggested, derives in primary notion from
the common experiences of mankind which Santayana calls public experiences.

THE SPECULATIVE METHOD

 The speculative function of philosophy gives to the speculative method in philosophy.

 This is a method used to try to answers that do not seem to have simple answers. The
questions, for example, of death, suffering and happiness invite in human beings not only the
question of what happens but why it happens.
 Traditional answers have been offered mostly hinging on religion, but philosophers want to
go beyond religion to a traditional explanation to such phenomena. It is in this realm that
philosophers, faced with these questions, get very cautious and rationally speculate, hence
the name speculative method.

It is suggested that the four methods discussed have a place in education matters. An education
can therefore be successful philosophically, if she/he incorporates these methods in handling
educational issues.
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LESSON FOUR

INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION:

In unit one, we spent some time trying to understand and the discipline of philosophy. So far, we
have locked into its nature and more so, it’s content. We have also looked at its methods.
Certainly, we have now gained insight into the world of philosophy. It is at this point that we feel
that we now focus our attention to the particular area we are calling philosophy of education.

CONTENT

Philosophy of education as an Education Discipline

To refer to certain study as a discipline means a number of things. Such things may include, but
not limited to, the fact that it is an area of knowledge. And as an area of knowledge, it would
mean that it has a distinct content or set of concerns, distinct methods or approaches with which
it studies and explains their concerns and that it has a particular language or set of concepts
though which realties related to its nature or concerns can be easily rendered meaningful. Now
questions about what characterizes an area of knowledge are certainly wider than can be handled
under this section. For that reason, we shall put them on hold until such a time when we start
exploring the whole area of Knowledge and the Curriculum education.
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At the moment, we take note of the fact that, as a discipline (of education), philosophy of
education must then be having its own distinctive approach to the study of issues within the field
of education. As often happens. some disciplines of education, and especially those whose names
start with a name of an academic discipline such as Economics, psychology, Sociology and even
History have something in common. They follow a distinctive approach in studying issues within
or related to education which in the real sense is derived from the academic discipline whose
name is part of the name of that of the discipline of education in question. This is a say that
history of education follows the approach of History and so is Education with Economics and
sociology of education with sociology.

Development of Philosophy of Education

Not much of the development of philosophy of education is accounted for. However, there seems
to be concerns that John Dewey (1859-1952) was one of the first thinkers to develop a systematic
framework now called philosophy of education. He is also thought to be one of the first thinkers
to use the phrase, ‘philosophy of Education’ to refer to an education in its own right. This does
not mean, however, that John Dewey Ws the first philosopher to think about education.

In the various education studies, we read of philosophers who lived long before Dewey and their
ideas, which are nevertheless, philosophical and which are at the same time educational. Such
philosophers include Plato, Aristae, St. Augustine, Jean Jacques Rouseau, Erasmus, John Locke
and many others. Much of the details concerning these thinkers have been left to historians of
education and you may have encountered these thinkers in your history of education. It may
appear that philosophy of education, contrary to what we are saying here, existed long before
John Dewey. However, Prior to 1900, the study of education as a distinct discipline or
‘educational discipline for that matter did not exist the way we know it today. It was until 1900
that education became recognized as a distinct field of study with its own disciples. As such, the
earlier attempts to study education including the contributions by the mentioned philosophers to
what has now been referred to as “The history of educational Ideals’.

MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION PAGE 23 -26 WHERE THERE IS A BLUE

MARK

MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

The Common Sense notion

Philosophy of education can in this sense be simply described on in school as a personal view of
what is going on in school and other institutions of learning. It may as well taken to mean
personal attitude to the prevailing system of education. Usually these personal philosophies of
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education are put in the form of slogans and learning institutions often put them in their mottos
e.g Better your Best- which implies life of struggle from begging to the end or “Holiness’
Education’ meaning imparting and acquiring education for the enhancement of holiness.

The Professional/Technical Sense notion

Landford(1968) observes that philosophy of Education is just philosophy but with an eye of the
practices and problems of those concerned with education.

Nature of Philosophy of Education

In the earlier sections, we have often made reference to the discipline of philosophy of
educational we have so far presented it as an educational discipline. We have also gone ahead to
merely sketch its historical development given that details of this historical development are
neither here nor there. However, one clear observation one can quickly make is that we have not
made any attempt to address the question’ what is philosophy of education.This section therefore
seeks to explain the basic meaning of this phrase beside locating it within the study of education
and outlining its relevance to teacher training programmes.

The Place of Philosophy of Education within the Study of Education

Even before making an attempt to define philosophy of education, it is important we place it in

immediate context. We earlier on characterized philosophy of education as an educational
discipline among other discipline of education such as Economics of Education, Sociology of
Education, History of Education and even Educational Psychology. We should remember
however that the discipline mentioned here are the only ones that constitute the study of
education. There are many more. But many as they are, it would be important to find out if at all
fall into any categories of sorts and if they do, in which of these categories does philosophy of
education fall?

Turning our attention for a moment on the way educational studies are conducted, one discerns a
kind of categorization in which education is studied in at least two aspects. These are the
practical courses and the foundational courses.

(a) Practical Courses

The word courses, here has been used as synonymous to educational discipline Practical courses
in educational studies are concerned with the development of necessary for practicing education.
Put in another way, these are courses, or educational disciplines for that matter, that equip the
teacher trainees with the practical skills they require to be effective in their teaching
responsibilities. These include methodological courses such as lesson planning, the use of media
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and technology in teaching, tests and measurements, teaching, practice and even courses on
motivation in education. The practical skills these educational disciplines impact into the teacher
trainees are not only helpful in effecting teaching but also in learning procedures and even
evaluation techniques.

(b) Foundational Courses

Unlike the practical courses, foundational courses are I nature. To state that the foundational
courses are theoretical is not to denounce them but rather imply that they enable us to justify
educational practice. This is to say, these courses constitute of framework within which what
happens in the process of education can be explained and justified. The educational disciplines
that fall under this category include History of Education, Sociology of Education and many
more. The manner in which we have described philosophy and the little we have, so far, said
about philosophy of education is enough to make us locate it within the foundational courses. It
is therefore one of the educational disciplines that provide explanations or the underlying of the
things that we see happening as part of the process of education.

The expression philosophy of education comprises of two terms which we have certainly comes
across before in separate and rather contexts. However, we are now faced with the task of finding
out what they mean as one segment or phrase for that matter. But even, we cannot rule out the
possibility of approaching this phrase by first looking at each of the two words mean in isolation
and move ahead to draw implications of what they would mean when treated as a phrase. In the
meantime however, we may start thinking about this expression by examining the other ways in
which the phrase ‘philosophy of has been used in other contexts and what it mean in those
contexts.

The expresssion’philosophy of…’ is generally used to refer to certain areas of specialization.

According, we speak of philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of history, philosophy of
Language and in our present case, philosophy of education. All these philosophies point to some
particularized and differentiated forms of enquiry, appraisal and action. They point to
specializations involving a concentration of philosophical thinking that is oriented to one specific
area of life.

In the earlier sections, we tried to locate philosophy of education within the study of the entire
discipline of education. And we located it within the foundational courses; those which constitute
a framework within which educational are explained. Sometimes, in carrying out these
educational practices we encounter certain problems and challenges. Whenever this happens, we
tend to inquire and so we readily get answers these problems. Some of these answers, however,
originate from common sense. By common sense here we mean an individual expression of the
public opinion. This therefore sense outlook on educational matters tends to give immediate
solutions to problems.
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Now these solutions may not be very useful in formulating long-lasting educational policies.
This is because such long lasting policies require rigorous yet careful and critical reflection and
thinking before or in the process of formulation. Certainly implied here is the need to reaffirm
the distinctive place of human reason in the practice of education. Indeed reflection and thinking
are activities associated with philosophy and hence, there is need for philosophical outlook on
educational issues. In so doing, we shall in a way be directing philosophical approaches and
principles to educational issues and/or problems. When philosophical approaches and principles
are directed to any discipline, we talk of philosophy of education. It is in the same way that we
also talk of, philosophy of religion and many more.

In the light of the fact that the phrase ‘philosophy of education ‘consist of two words’
philosophy’ and education,’ Langford(968) observes that philosophy of education is just
philosophy but with an eye on the practices and problems of those concerned with education.
Perhaps R.S.Peters(1970) gives more insight to the expression philosophy of education when he
observes that philosophy of education draws from the branches and methods of philosophy and
brings together those segments that are relevant to the solutions of educational problems. This is
to say that although the issues addressed are philosophical in nature, they are addressed relatively
to the way they occurs in a specific context which we often identify with the main activities of
teaching and learning. For that reason, philosophy of education has been defined as the
application of philosophical principles and methods or approaches to issues in education. It is the
philosophical probing not educational problems. Its main purpose is to discover and ascertain the
rules and presuppositions that define the practice of education at a historical moment are
authentic versions. It is therefore an inquiry into the distinctive form human reason takes in the
practice of education, a task through which it seeks to bring about a better understanding of the
theory of practice of education.

Nature of Problems addressed by philosophy of Education

In the earlier sections we noted that the practice of education is conformed to its own kind of
problems. But the study of education comprises of a number of educational disciplines. It is
possible that each of these disciplines is effective at handling educational problems of a certain
nature. Whereas we may not at this point explore the details of the nature of problems addressed
by each of these disciplines, it is important at this point to highlight the kinds of problems that
the discipline of philosophy of education addresses. In other words, the question one may find
necessary to ask at this point is: what then are the peculiar problems that philosophy of education
is best suited to address.

It is perhaps important to be beginning by reminding what Langford said about philosophy of

education; that it is just philosophy but with an eye on the practices and problems of those
concerned with education. Accordingly, as an area of study, philosophy of education targets
certain specific problems.
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Relevance of philosophy of education

One inescapable Question that logically arises from the foregoing discussion of discipline of
philosophy of education is the one concerning its relevance. Simply put, how important is it for a
teacher to have knowledge of philosophy of education. In other words, or can philosophy of
education contribute towards giving direction to the practices of education? To this end,
Olela(1988) summarizes this importance in the following way:

 It attempts to clarify the nature of problems which arise from the practice of education,
the kinds of problems which education cannot by it resolve.
 Its contribution to education is seen in the various branches of philosophy thus theory of
knowledge, theory of reality, theory of values.
 Historically, education, and philosophy have shared the same sentiments, philosophers
have always had something to say about education. More education theorists were
philosophers.
 According to John Dewy “Philosophy thus sustains the closest of culture with the
succession of chance in civilization..(Philosophy and civilization.8). In any change in the
philosophy of education is in fact, a change in the philosophy do education.
 Philosophy is concerned with both the practice and theory of education. It provides the
needed assumptions that are behind attitudes and actions in education, philosophy is
indeed a guide to practice. Practice is manifested as an outlook of philosophy.

LESSON FIVE
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THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

In the last chapter, we have been examining the meaning and nature of the discipline of
philosophy of Education. We have also examined the nature of issues or problems that
philosophy of education concerns itself with in the field of education. in our attempt to explore
the whole area of the philosophy of education, emphasis was put on the whole expression
‘philosophy of education’ and not on its constituent terms’ philosophy’ and educat6ion
separately. But in the very first units a great deal of discussion focused on the attention on the
concept of education. We shall therefore begin by examining the basic meaning of the term
education.

CONTENT:

Thinking about Education

in the common ways in which we think about this concept ,we often relate it to activities of the
teachers and students as they occur in a classroom or school situations. We think of it in terms of
learning such subjects as English, Geography, History, Mathematics and many others.
Sometimes we think of in terms of the training that one undergoes to become a teacher.

These are some of the ways in which we think about the term education. We may however, go
into the details of the various ways of thinking about the education. Rather we shall concentrate
on the philosophical thinking about education. We have earlier on spent enough time talking
about philosophy and the philosophical manner of doing things. At this point in time, in thinking
about philosophical thinking about education, we have in mind the type of thinking that seeks to
examine the deeper meaning of a concept of education. Therefore, this implies asking ourselves
the question: what really is education.

This question necessarily requires us to adopt procedures that are philosophical and which try to
go beyond mere subjective aspects such as appearance, prejudices and feeling. And so ,
education being a concept, we shall proceed by way of conceptual analysis.

A conceptual Analysis of Education

In analyzing a concept, we aim at the underlying idea. So in this exercise, the main concern
would be on reach the underlying idea in the term education. However, conceptual analysis can
be quite involving. For that reason, we shall not concern ourselves here with the intricacies of
this analysis but rather, follow the work of analytic philosophers of education. One such
philosopher, who is also an educator, is Richard Stanly Peters. As explained earlier in the section
dealing with philosophical methods, conceptual analysis involves a careful logical and
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systematic search for criteria or conditions that be fulfilled if an activity is o be regarded as

education learning or even teaching.

The basic questions therefore would be: what then the criteria for defining the concept of
education? Our discussion on the criteria of education will therefore center on the analysis by
R.S as the outlined in his Ethics and Education (1966). In this book, R.S Peter proposes three
conditions which he considers necessary but not sufficient. Here again we encounter other terms:
necessary and sufficient. It would then be important to examine what these terms mean in
relation to the conditions or criteria of education. To R.S Peter, a necessary condition is one
whose absence causes lack of occurrence of a phenomenon while a sufficient condition is one
which if present, then an event may occur. To R.S Peters therefore, for a process to be regarded
as a process of education, the three conditions or requirement that must be fulfilled are that the
process must:

1. Transmit something worthwhile to the people

2. Transmit or involve some knowledge or understanding
3. Include some acceptable procedures or method of transmission of something worthwhile
and understanding.

Reflection on R.S Peters condition of Education

A quick reflection on these conditions would give certain insight. Looking at the first condition,
one realizes that it is normative in its demands, that is, it appear to be starting something
regarding the nature of what is to be transmitted to the people. In effect it appears to demand that
what is transmitted must be something of value, something good and something that is desired be
the people engaged in the process or at least those who designed the process. In other words, a
process of education must involve the transmission of aspect that are valued or cherished or held
as standards norm of the society in which this education is to be practiced.

The second condition is taken to be the cognitive condition or criterion. It pertains to knowledge
and understanding where the demands are that the process of education must result in some
change in the people’s cognitive orientation. The third appears to make reference to the methods
of transmitting the worthwhile aspects and also knowledge and understanding. It is thus the
demand for an appropriate methodology or procedure for that matter. It is thus also called
procedural condition. At this point, many questions can be raised. For instance, one may ask:
what appropriate methods are and what these appropriate methods are.

To this second question, these who have read and interpreted R.S Peters such as Olela(1988)
have argued that these are methods that exclude propaganda and similar practices. This is yet
another evasive way of going about this question since. Olela is not coming our clearly to declare
what methods, he thinks, are these that R.S Peters is calling appropriate. Reading through R.S
Peter’s explanation of these criteria, he at one point says that these are methods or procedures
that draw from the willingness and voluntariness on the part of the learner. Once more, R.S
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Peters has chosen not to state what these methods are. It is certainly not easy t why he has chosen
to do so. Whatever the case might be, this condition ends up frowning upon certain procedures
that may be confusingly perceived of as part of education but does not state what the acceptable
procedure or methodology, for that matter, ought to be.

As stated earlier, conceptual analysis aims at establishing conditions which must be fulfilled if
we were to talk of a certain concept, in this case education. Accordingly, the concept of
education, according to R.S Peters, can be defined in terms of the three conditions or criteria of
normative, cognitive and procedural. Thus we can say; education is the process of transmission
and assimilation of something worthwhile and also knowledge and understanding through some
acceptable methodology.

Despite these seemingly fruitful, certain issues are still not clear regarding these conditions,
leading to some difficulties regarding their definition of education as a clearly fitting and
comprehensive one. For instance, assuming we consider these conditions as tenable then we
must consider values as in the normative conditions as determinants since the notion of
worthwhile is culture-bound and thus invites the relativity of our conceptions of education. Here
we would have good reasons to want to know who set the criteria of what is worthwhile. In such
as case we may end up only talking in terms of a relative degree of being educated. The
cognitive criterion does not make things any better either. For one may ask; much knowledge
does one need to have. All these are important questions and which make a precise definition
very difficult to arrive at.

In the light of this difficulty of arriving at a precise definition other educational philosophers
have tended to extend their search for a more precise and comprehensive definition. They have
therefore continued reflecting on this concept of education as put forward by R.S Peters. One
such attempt is by G.A Bennars and R.J Njoroge in their book Philosophy and Education in
Africa (1986). Their reflection affects a new thinking that education should be understood as a
multidimensional. By multidimensional the two meant that which comprises of many dimensions
that these dimensions are characterized by unity plurality. Reading through then so called
dimensions, one clear observation is that they an additional aspects or criterion since beyond the
three conditions by R.S Peters, they add a fourth conditions, the creative dimension and so they
talk dimensions rather than conditions.

A s such, they talk of the normative dimension, the cognitive dimension, the procedural or
dialogical dimension a With regards to the creative dimension, the implied requirement is that a
process of education must go beyond mere transmission(of values, norms, knowledge and
understanding) to the liberation of the human person. In other words, education should raise the
people’s awareness to the level of enabling them overcome barriers they were not able to
overcome before. It should therefore enhance the learner’s potential and enable them emerge as
creators in the world.
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Who is an Educated Person?

Many of the philosophers of education such as, R.S Peters have associated the aims of education
with producing what he calls an educated person. Accordingly, Njoroge and Bennars’dimensions
would imply that an educated person is someone who has assimilated something worthwhile, has
acquired some knowledge and understanding and all these have led him or her to be free and
creative person in the society.

SELECTED SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY AND THEIR EDUCATIONAL

IMPLICATIONS

PAGE 26 ON IE CHAPTER FOUR YOTE

LESSON SIX

AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

In the foregoing\ section, we have taken more time examining the concepts of philosophy and
philosophy of education. We have also spent quite some time to explain the concept of education
.This we did by way of trying to understand the particular things (conditions) that have to be in
place for us to talk of education. We have thus attempted a definition of education and even that
of an educated person. We now wish to turn our attention to an aspect of education which we
refer to as Aims of education. We shall examine it together with the other concepts of goals and
objectives of education.

CONTENT

Aims of education
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More often than not, we talk of aims of certain things or simply, aiming at certain things. We
also sometimes ask our colleagues and friends what it is that they aim at in their various
undertakings. Whenever we do this, we use the word aim almost as synonymous to a family of
terms including purpose, intention, desired end and so forth. Whereas this may give an idea of
what an aim or aiming means, it is important to have a more focused examination of this term
aim. This is because even in the practice of education, it is such a basic term as seen even in its
usage as in aims of education.

When started as an action, aiming can be likened to a form of trying in which some difficulty is
involved in the task and also a very real possibly of failing short of or not the target. The concept
of ‘aims’ therefore implies some suggestion of an objective that is not too near at hand or too
easy to understand why aims are so typically associated with institution such as clubs, political
parties, education and many more in which member are to work towards achieving something of
common good, that is their actions and activities are to be seen as directed towards this overall
objective (aim)

The foundation of their aims therefore has an important social function of summoning them to
their efforts in a specific direction. Taking education as an example of an institution with aims,
clear understanding of aims of education would therefore enable teachers to examine what they
are doing, get their priorities straight and concentrate on them by discarding irrelevancies. In
other words, education is never an activity just but rather is an institution whose activities seek to
achieve some end in the long run.

General Features of the concept of ‘Aim’

One way of trying to understand the concept of aims is by examining the features that
characterize it. In this section therefore, we shall identify the main features associated with the
concept of aims.

 Refers to the actions or activities done by person who have some intentions.
 Refer to actions which are instrument in bringing about something else.
 Suggest the concentrates of effort towards an object that is too close at hand.

It is however, often odd to ask for the aim of an activity that we have ascertained that it is done
for its own sake. With the above features in mind, we can understand aims in the following ways

 The signposts or plans of what education is intended to achieve.

 The broad statement of intents or standard to be referred to in the process of education.
 The ends that societies set for their educational systems to operate on.
 Alternative word for goals, objects and ends of education. Here the specific aims are
called objectives and are usually specified in the curriculum, while the general aims are
called goals that are long term and are ony achieved as a matter of procedure.
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Goals and Objectives of Education

Having specified the meaning and our usage of the term and concept of aim, there is needed to
also interrogate the other related concepts. These are the concepts of goals and objectives as
often used in the study of education.

 Educational goals are seen often specified in curriculum in measurable system to operate
on.
 Educational objectives are often specified in curriculum in measurable terms.
 The goals are often defined for the school by the larger society as determined by the
ideologies and priorities the larger society.

There are two basic categories of educational goals. These are:

(i) Preparing the young for their adult roles(individual aim)

(ii) Allocating the young within the role structure of the adult society(social/utilitarian
aim)

Nature of Goals of Education

Goals of education can be understood in three broad ways:

(a) The instrumental goals:

To state that something is instrumental is to state that it is basically utilitarian. This means that it
can be used to achieve another end. In our present case, we would talk of goals that deal with
economic values.

(b) Expressive goals:

Generally geared towards the ideals of the society. These may include but are not limited to
unity, cohesiveness, equality, common identify and many more.

(c) Normative goals:

o These are goals dealing with the development of acceptable or moral/social standards,
social beliefs and patterns of behavior.
o It is however, important to note that these categories of goals are interrelated and are only
due to the emphasis given to:

o The intrinsic aims as opposed to the extrinsic/instrumental/aims.

o The good of the individual-hence child-centeredness.

o The good of the society- the economic and moral values- hence the social aims/ goals.
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Accordingly, the great goal of education should be to develop the fullness of the individual
possibilities in accordance with the general goal of a society.

LESSON SEVEN

VALUES AND EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION:

It has been observed today that education is not only a serious business but also an expensive
one. Government spends much time and money suggesting that it has a serious purpose in
education. In other words. Education is a valuable activity.

R.S Peters(1966) tells us that education is a activity aiming at developing desirable qualities in
people, valuable qualities. The aim of education, therefore, is to transmit what is of value in all
respects. But what are values and how are they connected to education? This lesson tries to
answer that question.

CONTENT

THE IDEA OF VALUES AND EDUCATION

 Values are usually expressed in terms of norms or standards. Norms generally refer to
regulations, the set limit the marked- out road, or the boundary imposed to reach a
determined goal.
 With reference to education, this explains why such norms or standards are found in the
aims and goals of Education in any country. It is clear that, going by history of education,
education is a process of developing and transmitting values and other social norms. So
they are important for society.
 Values can, therefore, be thought of in an ontological way as what worthy and also as that
which directs action and generates a principle of action. Such values are determined
culturally, socially and sometimes, even historically
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 However, the question of what values are to be transmitted through education is very
problematic. The answer to this has varied from place to place, the time frame involved,
as well as the interpretation of what desirable qualities mean.
 Historically viewed, and from among societies in Africa, values that took centre stage
were what Njoroge and Banners (1986) call survival values. They center around mans
basic needs in the form of food, drinks, health and sex. Education was then tailored
towards equipping the youth with skills to enable them manage with respect to those
values.
 Despite the importance of the above values, man in traditional society had other
important values which directly upon quality of life. Such values include RESPECT,
DIFNITY, MUTUAL HELP, RESPONSIBILITY as well as LAW AND ORDER. These
are referred to as trans-survival values.

NOTE:

In all, there is always an elaborate set of values both social and moral, which for us form the
basis of the normative dimension of education. It is important to realize that such values are
usually grouped into moral and non-moral values. Moral values, deal with judgments that we
make with regard to human conduct; whether right or wrong, good or bad. Non-moral values on
the other hand, don’t relate to human beings directly. They are judgments on material objects e.g
cars, building, objects of art etc
 Because of their importance, a substantial part of our curriculum ought to be devoted to
the development of moral values. These offer social rules and regulations, aspect that
makes social life a success.
 If we closely examine other traditions in education, for example, one sees an emphasis on
social and moral values or on a social ethic in general. Today, however, it is emerging
that this concern with matters moral years back, stands in sharp contrast to the lack of
concern with moral values in modern education.
 There is, today, an overemphasis on modernization, where production of labour forces
and skilled manpower takes stage. Promotion of economic interest has taken over. This
leads to an education system. Which is so to speak, amoral or neutral in character, leaving
the current learners in a moral crisis?
 Viewed from a very critical point, the crisis in morality is manifested in many negative
traits in our society today. The corruption that has engulfed the entire system of
governance may be attributed this moral crisis. The instigated tribal clashes and the loss
of relevance to life, as is currently being witnessed, has links to this moral crisis. What
conclusion then can we come up with regarding this crisis?
 For some of us, this crisis in morally emphasizes a point, that an education system will
ignore moral values at the peril of the entire society. An overemphasis on economic
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development at the expense of moral development creates a situation where the envisaged
economic development may not be realized because of corruption, for example. It is also
evident that economic development goes hand in hand with moral development.

SOURCES OF MORAL VALUES

 There are basically three sources of moral values/standards. These are the divine or
supernatural source. Second, we have the social sources and third we have the personal
sources.
 The first source i.e. Divine or supernatural source consist of the law of God. This is
expressed in the holy books. Examples include the 10 commandments of God within the
Christian traditions
 The social sources of values are located within the various social institutions e.g the
family, the community or the nation. These, again, vary from place to place and also from
time to time.
 The personal source of morality includes human reason, which implies personal
reflection. There is also the conscience.

NOTE:

Both the divine sources and social sources have one thing in common. The moral authority
lies outside the individual Moral values imposed and are external to the individual. We
therefore speak of HETERONOMOUS EHTICS. The personal source has moral values
originating from the person directly. Here we speak of autonomous ethics.

LESSON EIGHT
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ETHICS AND EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION:

The previous lesson, discussed the question of values and education. Apart from defining what
values are, their categories and their necessity, we also discussed the sources of moral values.
Apart from naming such sources there wasn’t very deep reflection on them. Ethics, being a
philosophical study of moral values needs now to be brought on board for a deep understanding
on their relationship values with education. The present lesson attempt to do that:

CONTENT

ETHICS AND EDUCATION

 The term ‘ethics’ is derived from Greek word ‘ethos’ meaning the established custom or
conventions. The Latin equivalent of ethos is more also referring to the customs of
peoples. From this, we derive terms like ‘morality ‘moral etc.
 In regular usage, ethics refers to asset of standards by which a group of people regulates
its behavior or conduct. Given these standards, behavior is said to be more or ethical/ or
immoral.
 There is also the academic use of the term ‘ethics’ where three meanings are
distinguished. These are descriptive ethics, normative ethics and meta-ethics.(For a
deeper analysis of these see Njoroge and Bannars(1986:172-175).
 The point we wish to examine here is whether education is a moral enterprise. To do that,
we need to look at the normative dimension of education.
 Given that education is a purposeful activity implying aims, goals and ideals, it must
involve moral question of what is good right etc. Education, therefore, is governed by
ethics referring to the philosophical study of moral values.
 The question that needs to be answered at this point is which moral standards’ should
govern education? Should one be guided by divine law, human law or by ones
conscience?
 Such questions are usually answered with reference to theories of moral obligation.
They(theories or moral obligation) try to identify and justify the criteria of what is
morally right, wrong, obligation etc.

THEORIES OF MORAL OBLIGATION

 Philosophers distinguish two sets of theories in relation t moral obligation.

There are:
1. Teleological theories and
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2. Deontological theories
 Teleological theories judge moral decisions depending on whether they will lead to
consequences which are desire or not desirable according to goals in mind. The general
determinant of what is good or bad, right or wrong is the results or the consequences of
the action you undertake. If the consequences are good, the action is right. If the
consequences are bad, the action is wrong. The best example of a teleological theory is
‘utilitarianism’ by J.S Mill For Mill, an action is right if the consequences of an act
promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.(See Frankena(1973)
For further reading on teleological theories.
 Deontological theories, on other hand, base their rightness not on consequences but on
the other issues. For example, they can base the rightness or wrongness of an action ‘on
the intention or motive. If the motive is good, then the action is right regardless of the
nature of the nature of the consequences. Sometimes also, the rightness or wrongness of
an action is based on principles. For example, the kind of deontology associated with
I.Kant is based on the principle of duty. Action is right as long it is done from the
perceptive of duty.
 Both teleological and deontological have sub-division. For example, in deteological
theories, we have act-teleological and in deontological theories we have act-deontological
theories.
 Both teleological and deontological theories have sub-division. for example, in
teleological theories, we have act-teleological and in deontological theories we have act-
deontological theories.
 The above theories are guide to judgment in matters of what is good or bad, right or
wrong can be useful guides in making educational choices. When you choose values for
example in society do you choose them teleological or deontological? What is desirable
or not for an educational enterprise is still problematic, but the message being sent out is
that to come up with such values that are either right or wrong, a philosophical approach
is necessary, an approach based on critical questioning, analysis and clarity of issues.
 How learners are approached in learning these values varies. Some are subjected to rules
and regulations both in schools and in homes as part of their society. Sometimes
justifications are given as to why certain actions are either right or wrong. In schools, for
example, certain subjects are used to teach certain values. All in all, the society has to be
involved if the effort is to succeed.
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LESSON NINE

THE CONCEPT OF KNOWLEDGE

INTRODUCTION

In lesson two of unit one, we explained the branches of philosophy, otherwise referred to as
content of philosophy. This was done by way of introducing the branches or concerns of
philosophy for later explication. In this chapter, we now focus our attention on the branch earlier
on referred to as epistemology and explained briefly as the philosophical study of knowledge.
The task of explicating this branch, epistemology, will be approached by subjecting the concept
of knowledge to a conceptual analysis with an aim of establishing the basic conditions that must
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be fulfilled if one was to think of himself as knowing. We shall also seek to establish the
relationship there is between the concepts of knowledge and education.

OBJECTIVES

This topic seeks to introduce the learners to analysis of the concept of knowledge as well as the
process of construction and validation of claims and statements to generate knowledge.

The following are the specific objectives considered relevant and so we hope that by the end of
lesson ;learners will be able to:
 Identify and explain the conditions necessary for defining the concept of human
knowledge.
 Understand and appreciate the meaning significant of this approach to the concept of the
knowledge.
 Develop a critical outlook with regard to the link between knowledge and education in
schools.
 Recognize the value of knowledge in the education context.

CONTENT

The concept of knowledge

Just like other things such as book, pen or ball, the word knowledge grammatically functions as a
name of something. Such words as look, pen and ball constitute a category of words that refer to
things in order to say something about them or simply to name them. However, more reflection
on the term knowledge reveals a reference in its nature as compared to the others, which refer to
concrete entities. Knowledge though a noun that refers to something, the reference here comes
out, not as a concrete entry as in the case of ball or pen, book, but an abstract one. Knowledge as
a thing therefore is not quite the same thing as say, a house or a table.

Words are, however, not only understood from the grammatical categories to which they belong
but also from the manner in which they are used. In this case, it would be attractive to also try
and examine, with an aim of understanding, the use or meaning we assign the word knowledge
as seen from the use to which we its verb form ‘know’

Consider the following sentences.

1. We know that light travels in a straight line

2. I know how to drive a lorry
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In sentence, we would possibly be referring to a group of knower’s who have assimilated a

certain property about light, this is, it(light) travels in a straight line. A relationship therefore
obtains between the We and a property of light, that is, it travels in straight line. Seen from the
structure of the sentence, there is a relationship between the we and the particular property
introduced by the word ‘know’ hence a relationship that involves the act of knowing. In this kind
of arrangement therefore, it would follow that the We is a group of knower’s.

In sentence 2, there is the ‘I’ who is making a certain claim about the act of driving. The nature
of the claim about the act of driving is introduced by the word know. Driving also being a
happening that involves a series of actions that constitute a certain procedure, the knower in this
case would appear to be saying that he/she grasped and assimilated this series of action that
constitute the procedure of driving leading to his/her ability to cause the mechanical object,
herby referred to as a lorry, move from a point A to point B. As such, he/she has a cognitive or
mental grasp of the series of the actions that constitute the procedure of affecting the act of
driving. It is however, also possible that the knower in question may only have assimilated these
procedures and has them as part of her/his mental content and not necessary being able to apply
them but knows them as facts. This appears to introduce a certain dichotomy of knowing that is,
propositional knowledge (knowledge that) and practical knowledge, (knowledge ow). This
dichotomy may however not be pursued right away in this section.

In both of these example, the subject, that is, we and I are the sort of subjects to whom it would
sense to attribute knowledge of the property of light as expressed in sentence I or the act of
driving in sentence 2. It is in this way that they are considered as knower’s, for they are thought
of as having the knowledge in question. It would however, at this stage, appear to be pretty early
to assume that whatever claims the knower’s readily make constitute, knowledge since some
claims could be mistaken or misguided or simply, never beliefs that lack sufficient grounds.

There is therefore a glaring indication the claims we, as knower’s, make are in fact expressions
of our beliefs. Along the same line, it appears that beliefs are not equivalent to knowledge but
rather constitute an essential part or stage in the process of knowing. Consider the following
claim.

In known the capital city of Kenya is Nairobi but I do not quite believe it.

In such a situation the person putting across this claim would be dismissed as one who does not
really have knowledge of Kenya’s capital city. Given such a situations knowing posits as a
process, which necessarily involves believing. However, it is appropriate to remember here that
it is not always that beliefs or all that is believed expressly form the content of knowledge, since
we have earlier stated that beliefs can be mistakes. For instance, at a certain historical moment, it
was strongly believed that the earth is round. Speaking from a modern scientific standpoint, such
a belief would be seen as a mistaken one and as such it would definitely not be considered a
constituent or component of knowledge.
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At certain times the concept of knowledge has commonly been used to refer to a wide range of
things, places, persons and subjects, competence in a variety of learned performance and even
possession of claims held to be truthful. For instance, if a student in a mathematics class exhibits
competence in applying a certain mathematical procedure or formula in solving a variety of
related sums, then we are likely to think of this student as one who knows mathematics. Seen in
this way, knowing would be said to be fundamentally associated with the notion of
understanding that leads to one being in control of situation. The student in the mathematics class
can therefore be said to have an understanding of the ways in which mathematical principles can
be interrelated and manipulated to arrive at the hidden truth responsible for a given mathematical
problem. To know therefore would necessarily involve some form of awareness or understanding
of something or a situation.

A long the same line of thought, to describe someone as knowing would also appear to be a way
of appraising or approving the person for having successful gone through certain process that
have led him/her to the kind of competence or awareness exhibited. Perhaps, we need, at this
point to pause for a while and address ourselves to the pertinent question, what the does knowing
entail? Put in another way; when can one confidently claim to know something? It is, perhaps,
after addressing such a question that one would comfortably point towards the sort’s things the
process of knowing shall have been found to entail as basically those, which constitute the
concept of knowledge. It is until then that we will be able to define the concept of knowledge in
terms of these sorts of things. These sorts of things in things in whose terms, we try to
understanding and defining the concept of knowledge constitute what has popularly been
referred to as conditions of knowledge.

Conditions of knowledge

While we have not even defined knowledge, as one reflect upon the forgoing discussion, he/she
is led to feel that there are certain requirement that should be met by a claim before it is taken to
be knowledge. So far we have argued that one has to begin by believing a certain claim before
we see him/her as having knowledge of that particular claim or simply knowing it. In this way,
belief posits as one requirement that a claim has to meet before it can qualify as worthy of being
assimilated by knower’s as knowledge. In any case, once one denies a proposition the attribute of
belief then other knower’s in quest for knowledge of that particular proposition the attribute of
belief then other knower sin quest for knower’s of that particular proposition or claims become
hesitation to assimilate it from him/her. This therefore implies that belief is a vital requirement or
condition for the generation and the subsequent existence of knowledge.

Belief Condition

Belief is a mental or psychologically convicted that something is the case. However, this
conviction, though held by the person, is subject to proof, in this regard, when one says X knows
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that spirit exist; it then appears that X has certain beliefs concerning the existence of spirit.
Beliefs therefore form a starting point towards knowledge.

More often, it becomes a contradiction to claim that you know and at the same time deny this
claims an element of belief. Rather, we believe first before we claim to know or see the claim as
worthy of knowing (knowledge).For instance, consider the claims I know that Kenyatta
University is in Kenya but I do not believe it. Such a claim lacks the belief element and as such,
it may not be assimilated as part of its producer’s cognitive content (knowledge). However, as
we have noted earlier, it is not always that all our beliefs are eventually assimilated to become
part of our knowledge since sometimes certain beliefs can be mistaken.

Arising from such an argument is the fact that beliefs can only be assimilated to become part of
our knowledge if they are regarded as true. This is because merely believing is never sufficient
for knowing something though a necessary condition. In this way, for one’s claim to become an
intrinsic element of knowledge the person needs to be aware of having entertained the claim as
truthful. In this way, truth comes out as another one of the conditions that have to be satisfied by
a claim contesting for the status of knowledge.

Truth Condition

Following from the above discussion of the condition, one thing that comes out clearly is that
beliefs which are not true are not element of knowledge. In other words if one is mistaken in
believing something, then we say that she/he does not know. Indeed, when beliefs do not survive
tests of truth, they are not taken as element of knowledge. However, it appears easier to assert
that beliefs can be truthful or mistaken than it would be for instance, to state what it means by a
claim or a belief being true or false. In other words, one may ask; when is something described
as true? Is it when where are adequate reasons for believing it to the way it has been stated or just
when we cannot find any other reasons to false it? Simply put, what does it entail to ascertain the
truth in a given claim?

Certainly it appears convincing that before we accept any claim, proposition or belief as worthy
of knowing we tend to assess it or make judgments either conscious or unconsciously. This
assessment is perhaps based on the need for a firm basic upon which these claims can be
comprehended. Before getting into the analysis of what it takes for claims or beliefs to be said to
be true, it is important to try and understand the notion of truth.

In its usage the term confers a kind of quality on a proposition. This quality is such that, that
which is claimed in the proposition or belief, that is, that which is to be known is in fact the case.
Within this understanding it would appear logically impossible for anyone to make a preposition
or claim that has been proven, false. In which case, knowledge claims are defensible, and at the
same time, dismissed as not genuine content of knowledge, particularly when it is found out that
the truth runs counter to such claims.
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There are, however, those who argue that truth, as a condition is too stringent. Such people often
remark that since every proposition is subject to correction, it therefore follows that knowing is
not tenable that is, we can know nothing. However, some propositions are certainly correct
perhaps one important aspect for this argument would be the implicit caution that there is need
for us knower’s to be cautious about what we claim to know. This therefore introduces another
condition, that which addresses the question of the evidence that forms the grounds of the ground
of the evidence that forms the ground of the truthfulness of a claim. We shall examine the
evidence condition in more details shortly after examining the theories of truth

Theories of Truth.

In the introduction of the truth condition we had started reflecting on what it takes to qualify a
claim or a belief to be true. Also, following the foregoing argument, it appears that knowing in
not compatible with being wrong or mistaken. Consider the following example.

I know you name is Peter, but I may be mistaken

In this situation, it would appear more meaningful to say I believe your name is Peter but I may
be mistaken. This is all because knowledge appears to presuppose the truth of a given belief or
claim. In so trying to go about the task of ascertain the truth in a claim, three theories have been
forwarded thus correspondent theory, coherence theory and pragmatic theory.

The correspondence theory

When two objects have a direct mapping onto another, we say they are corresponding. To
correspond would then be rightly described as being in a direct relationship with another thing.
For instance, when one makes the claims:

1. Kenya is located on the eastern part of Africa

2. It is raining in Kisumu today
3. There is a snake in that football pitch

One may be interested in pursuing these claims. Taking an example of the first claim, one would
proceed to check it up from a map. When this happens, the person would certainly be checking
to see whether the claim is in direct relationship with the presentation on the map. If he/she finds
it to be so, then we say that the claim corresponds to the reality or fact. In this way, we would
begin to acknowledge the claim as truthful. In any case, supposing the person, on checking on
the map, located Kenya within the western region of Africa then the person would certainly not
regard the claim as true. The other two can also be asserted using the same procedure of
checking their correspondence with the real states of affairs. In other words, the truth in them can
be ascertained through observation of the real states of affaires. According to the correspondence
theory, truth is a property or character of belief or claim to the effect that the belief or claim
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corresponds to reality or facts. In this way, a belief or proposition is true if and only when it
corresponds to reality or facts.

This theory appears to be based on the assumption that human beings are able to pay attention to
physical objects and confirm their independent existence. Under such circumstances therefore,
the test of truth would then appear to be based on whether or not a belief correspondents to the
real or the fact or simply the objective state of things as may be confirmed by our senses. Seen in
this way therefore, knowledge would be taken to be true belief where truth means representing
the objective as real Knowledge is therefore a function of the correspondence of objective states
of affairs to claims, propositions or beliefs.

Coherence theory

The verb cohere has the implications of getting into finger agreement or links with something or
someone. In physics for instance, we talk of cohesion as forces of attraction between molecules
of the same kind. In this way, the molecules say, of water, get into some finer links with each
other to the extent of filling up any observable separateness or boundaries between them. In a
way, throughout the agreement or linkage in question, there is some consistency running across.
According to the coherence theory of truth, beliefs or propositions are true to the effect that they
are consistent with other others already confirmed or known to be true. Consider the following
propositions.

4. Since 3+3=6 then 6-3=3

5. I am older than my father

In the first proposition, it appears to have been confirmed and known that three added to three
gives us six and it is within the same line of argument that three subtracted from six would give
us three. This second operation involving subtraction is not necessarily the same as that of
addition but rather is consistent with it. It is this logical strand that connects the two expressions
that propound the truth of the expression 6-3=3 in such a way that, one we accept the first
proposition of 3+3=6 and assimilate if as truthful then the proposition 6-3=3 logically follows
from the first one since they are consistent and thus truthful.

Presented in this manner therefore, truth according to this theory becomes a property of
proposition to the effect that the proposition is consistent with other already confer`11med and
known to be true. As such, the test for truth would certainly go beyond mere correspondence to
consistency. The coherence theory of truth however assumes that beliefs or propositions evolve
or are constructed in such a way that culminates in logical order. In other words, the theory
presents the view that beliefs or propositions are related to each other by links of logical
implications. Seen in this way, the test, of truth does not therefore on correspondence but
consistency.

Pragmatic theory
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To describe something say, an idea, as pragmatic is basically to imply that the idea is workable,
practical or as practical consequences. For that manner, the pragmatic theory of truth states that
beliefs or propositions are true to the effect that they have practical consequences or simply, they
are useful in predicting events or facilitating inquiry. Such propositions would include theories
which are not yet proven as laws. Such theoretical positions are taken for granted in inquiry and
often facilitate successful predictions of events. A good example of such a theory would be
Darwin’s theory of evolution whose truth is to be reckoned in terms of how offspring’s of
animals and event plants would posses certain traits as prescribed by the theory.

In general therefore, the truth of a proposition can be established by application of the theories
discussed above. However, it is unnecessary to apply all the three theories to one particular
situation but rather, the nature of the proposition would call for a certain theory. For instance, a
proposition regarding empirical or observable situations would necessarily call for the
correspondence theory while a theoretical claim may call for truth of a proposition in certain
circumstances unless evidence is supplied. This dependence of proposition on evidence or
justification, so as to be assimilated as intrinsic element of knowledge, brings us to the third and
perhaps, the last conditions of knowledge, thus the evidence or justification condition.

Evidence or Justification condition

It has already been mentioned that knower’s would require a substantive amount of evidence for
full conviction. In other words, it appears that the full conviction of a knower depends on the
extent to which the proposition is justified or backed by evidence. In this way, evidence or
justification comes out as another of the conditions that a proposition has to satisfy if it has to be
assimilated as knowledge.

True beliefs propositions must be supported by adequate evidence if they are to survive the test
of validity and subsequently qualify as contents of knowledge. Evidence refers to the grounds
reasons or the justification that the one offers to support his/her claim for knowledge. For that
matter, the evidence given must be adequate and relevant, that is, it must be substantive and
consistent with the subject matter in question. There is therefore a way in which beliefs or
propositions can be classified depending on the nature of evidence used to justify them.

Definition of Knowledge

In the foregoing discussion, we have been examining the concept of knowing, in terms of what it
entails to know. This has been done as a means towards the understanding of the concept of
knowledge. So far, three conditions have been identified and discussed, thus belief condition.
These are truth condition and the evidence or justification. As already mentioned at the onset of
the examination of these conditions, knowledge would therefore be defined in terms of these
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conditions. As this point therefore it is time enough to assert that we can define knowledge in
terms of beliefs, truth and evidence. We thus say:

X knows P if X believes that P is the case and X has adequate and relevant evidence (reasons or
grounds) to believe P as true.

For that manner, for a claim to be assimilated as knowledge, it must be true, it must be believed
to be true and the knower’s must have adequate and relevant grounds for believing it to be true.
For instance, taking an example of claim such it is raining in Nairobi today; for this claim to be
knowledge it must indeed be raining the knower must believe that it is raining and must have
adequate and relevant grounds for this belief. The ground certainly includes things like; I can see
the rain falling; I can fell the wetness etc. Taking knowledge to be an expression of what has
been described above; it would then be rightly defined as a justified true belief.

Knowledge and Education

Knowledge in educational context is generally seen as marking the whole content of our
intellectual heritage, which education is concerned to pass onto succeeding generations. In the
previous section, a philosophical understanding of the concept of knowledge was developed, the
process of which three conditions were examined. These are the conditions, which any claim
contesting for the status of knowledge has to satisfy.

Implicit in this approach to the concept of knowledge is the fact that when passing this
knowledge to the learners, recognition has to be ensured for all these conditions. However,
studies have shown that there has always been a tendency, in systems of education, to cater for
one condition, mainly the belief condition, at the expense of the other two. This has always been
attributed the three main factors of content, time and ability. Done in this way, a situation is
created where students appear to believe in the word of their teacher and that of the textbooks,
without any question.

While in cognitive terms education involves inducing beliefs in the learners, the induction
certainly needs to be done in such a way that it result in the individual’s change of consciousness
as a form of transformation. Education would thus be an active process that involves the
transformation of the learner’s cognition. However, done in such a passive manner as earlier on
mentioned, learning becomes process of conditioning thus through the cognitive dimensions not
adequately accounted for. In addition, such as approach would certainly lead learners to
acquiring the ideas being taught without internalizing them fully.
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LESSSON TEN

EMPICISM AND EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

In the previous lesson we have been examining the concept of knowledge. The concept of
knowledge, as earlier on explicated presents a model comprising of the knower and the object of
knowledge. In most cases, the object of knowledge is assumed to be situated extremely to the
knower. The knower therefore reaches out to the object in the quest for making it part of his/her
cognitive content. But how exactly does the knower reach out to this object to make it part of
his/her cognition? There are two philosophical traditions or theories that try to explain how
knowledge is acquired, or rather, the basic sources of knowledge. These are Empiricisms and
Rationalism.

Empiricism as a theory of Knowledge

 The term empiricism comes from the word Empirical which means observable.
 As a theory of knowledge it is the view that knowledge is acquired through sensory
experience/contact. It is an epistemological view that sensory experience is the
fundamental source of knowledge.
 Senses, in this case, are the empirical facilities through which the mind interacts with
environment. Accordingly, if senses are negated in an experiential encounter within our
environment, then knowledge, acquisition becomes almost impossible.
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 in justifying this theory, empiricism relies heavily on sciences to explain how knowledge
finds its way into human cognitive life as an experience.
 As a theory of knowledge, empiricism assumes that objects in the environment have the
capacity of causing impression in human beings which are processed to become contents
of human knowledge. This has been argued to be giving the impression that knowledge is
outside the knower and the mind only acts as storage.
 The theory also asserts that human knowledge is verified through observation or
experiment. The word observation as used here is expanded in its meaning not just to
refer to visual experiences but also experiences by other senses such as hearing tasting,
feeling and smelling.
 It is this sense that empiricists argue that in the absence of senses, knowledge cannot be
acquired. This view therefore, generally argues that, the environment is the foundation of
human knowledge; and without objects in our environment, our knowledge would be
limited.
 In the same way, this would imply that if the environment is rich with objects, then
knowledge is also enriched.

Empiricist Assumption and their Influence on the Practice of Education

Empiricist ideas have been taken up by educational practioners and as such, they influence
the way in which the activities that make up the process of education are carried out. Here are
some of the ways in which the practice of education can be said to have been influence
empiricits’views:

 Children are born with an empty mind(tabula rasa) and as they grow feeling the word
around making observation, sensory experience feeds them with concepts and they
begin to conduct acquire and validate knowledge.
 Empiricism appears to locate knowledge outside or external to the knower. There, if
knowledge is to be understood within such a model then the overriding attribute of
the school curriculum would be that comprising o,,f facts, principles and theories to
be transferred into the learners.
 Still within the same model, teaching and learning would then be a process of
assimilating these facts and principals and as such, emphasize methodologies of
teaching and learning that favors memorization conditioning and programmed
learning.
 Empiricism justifies the presence of science subjects, especially physical sciences as
the core curriculum.
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LESSON ELEVEN

RATIONALISM AND EDUCATION:

INTRODUCTION

To develop knowledge and understanding as already seen implies assimilating new beliefs into
one’s cognitive system. In the foregoing lesson, we have examined the empiricist way of
explaining knowledge acquisition. However, empiricism is not , the only theory that has
attempted to explain the knowledge acquisition process. In this lesson, we examine the other
theory of knowledge, the rationalist, theory.

CONTENT

As earlier noted in order to be accepted as knowledge, beliefs often ought to be justifiable. This
is in line with the earlier definition of knowledge as a justified true belief. It should however be
noted that there are at least three ways in which truth can be ascertained i.e by correspondence
(agreement between existing situation/fact and our idea/claim, by coherence (agreement between
two ideas) and by pragmatism (agreement between idea or claim and its practicability). In
ascertaining truth by coherence, one does not only rely on sensory experience to ascertain the
truth of a claim but mainly relies on ability to establish the logical connectedness between the
ideas in question. It is hence a rational exercise. For that reason, there appears to be some kind of
knowledge that is not necessarily based on sensory data, i.e rational knowledge. Accordingly,
reason takes a central role in the way human beings acquire Knowledge. Those who propound
this view are referred to as rationalist.

Rationalism as a theory of Knowledge

The term Rationalism comes from the Greek ratio meaning reason or thinking, Rationalism is
therefore the view or theory that reason is the primary source of human knowledge. In other
words, rationalists maintain that the source of the human knowledge is the human mind and not
the experience out there brought to us by the senses. Accordingly, knowledge is also verified
through rational deduction.
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The strength of this view draws from an obvious observation that if reason is nullified in ones
experience, then it may be difficult to make sense of that experience. For example:

 Reason is often used to correct mistakes made in sensory perception, that is reason
prepares a context within which reality is perceived by the senses in a way that the effect
of illusions are eventually correct.(eg. Mirage reflection, perceptive, horizon e.t.c)
 Reason is central in the interpretation process in which sensory data is rented meaningful
and intelligible, for instance, consider the expression.
5x7=x12

Here, the plus symbol (+) is a symbol (an idea) which is mental construction. The
meaning attached to the symbol originates from the mind that is the mind interprets it to
mean”add or put together” and that is why the answer is 12. In the same way, concepts
such as God may not exist in the physical world but in our mind. Interpretation is a
mental is a rational process and as such, the mind is always active in the process of
knowledge construction.
 Arguably, reason creates a meaningful order even in sensory experience. It achieves this
by constructing structures within which data receive from senses is interpreted,
recognized, explained and formalized.
 Believe in this case become valid data of experience only after appropriate interpretation
has taken place.
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LESSON TWELVE

FORMS OF KNOWLEDGE AND THE CURRICULUM

INTRODUCTION

Knowledge as we have seen comes through both rational and empirical facilities. In other words,
reason and sensory experience are arguably the primary sources and foundations of knowledge,
that is, they are the basic conditions which make knowledge acquisition and understanding
possible. It is important, however, to note that knowledge and understanding is in the long run,
structured and organized in different ways.

The notion of a form of knowledge

The form that knowledge takes depends partly on the nature of realities one is paying attention to
at any point in time, for instance, numerical reality call for a mathematical understanding,
physical realities call for scientific understanding while religious realities re to be understood in
religious terms. At the same time, a given reality may have different faces to it. For instance,
HIV/AIDS reality has a statistical dimension which can be understood when organized in
numerical/mathematical terms, an epidemiological dimension that can be understand from a
scientific point of view and s developmental trend that can be well understood within a historical
framework of time and event.

This is to say that science, History and Mathematics are different ways in which reality can be
understood and explained. They are therefore examples of forms of knowledge. There are
different forms of knowledge and understanding each of which constitutes a frame of mind.

In other words, there are various ways of explaining and understanding realities or phenomena.
Consider for instance, the phenomenon of rubber production. If a rubber tree does not yield latex,
the biologist would blame sapling, the geologist blame the soil, the contractor blames he
unskilled labour while the superstitious owner says it is fighting back at being controlled.

In such a situation, biology, Geology technology(science) and even superstitious may be seen as
the various ways in which he reality of rubber production can be understood sand explained they
are conceptual frames of mind.

Examples of Forms of knowledge

In this book,) Human Knowledge and the curriculum (1974Paul Hurst gives seven forms:

1. Logic and Mathematics

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2. Physical Science(physical, chemistry)

3. Human sciences(History, Geography, Literature)
4. Aesthetics(fine and visual arts)
5. Ethics/Mortality
6. Religion
7. Philosophy

Nature of forms of Knowledge

A form of knowledge can be distinguished from the others be a number of aspects that include
concepts validation/truth test, method and logical structure.

(a) Concept
Each form of knowledge has terms peculiar to it. For instance, the term gravity is peculiar
to physics, trinomology to mathematic and photosynthesis while phrase is peculiar to
distiguistics. Whenever used, these terms are readily rendered meaningful but when used
elsewhere their meaning is inferred from its usage in the form in which it first appeared.
(b) Validation/Trust test

Each form of knowledge has statements and experiences whose truth is testable by particular
criteria. For instance, the correctness of a sentence is tested against certain grammatical rules and
not against any scientific experiment or mathematical formula.

(c) Method

Any given form of knowledge has ways and techniques of exploring experience, investing
realities within its scope and thereby developing that form of knowledge. Science for instance,
has its own method that involves experimentation, observation, deduction and conclusion.

(d) Logical Structure

A form of knowledge displays some kind of internal consistency idea. This is the
interrelationship of ideas within a form of knowledge between topics, sub-topics and concepts
such that they are not distinct entities but interrelated in such a way those certain topics are built
on certain concepts in the form of knowledge.

Why teach various disciplines or subjects

As already mentioned a form of knowledge and understanding refers to the distinct way in which
human experience has been organized, structured and validated in a meaningful and intelligible
way. Following from this view of knowledge, to acquire knowledge is therefore not merely to
acquire facts but also to learn to see things and experience the worked in a meaningful and
intelligent way. For that reason a curriculum would therefore be justified to have the justified to
have the different disciples/subjects since experience or reality is understood, organized and
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structured differently. Such a multifaceted conception or view of the curriculum enables reality
to be studied and understand from variety perspectives. This ensures a comprehensive view of
reality.

LESSON THIRTEEN

UNIQUENESS OF UMAN BEINGS AND EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

Having discussed several issues of education, including axiological and epistemological, this
section or reason falls within the metaphysical realm. For us to understand the uniqueness of
human being, I propose that we examine its opposite first in the sense of what’ I call” un
uniqueness” of human beings.

While uniqueness denotes aspects that put man apart from the rest of beings,’un through an
analysis of the concept of ‘Nature’. First, however, we examine the etymology of the concept’
and’ human.

CONTENT
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UNIQUENESS:

 The English term “unique” is traced to the Latin word’unicus; whose root in us means
ONE as opposed to MANY. Humanness, therefore suggest a state of being ONE of a
kind.
 This-ONE OF A KIND-stand out among other beings.
 The term ‘HUMAN’ on the other hand, is a derivative of the Greek word”HOMO” which
means “child of the earth”. Consequently, human are particular beings who are born of
our earth
 For us therefore, to understand man as a unique being, a discussion of the concept of
nature- one that shows man as similar t other beings may be very helpful.

THE CONCEPT OF NATURE

 Nature as a word is derived from Latin verb’ nascere’ meaning to be born’. It is

suggested by njoroge and Bennars(1986)that the original meaning of natural world
means the word in which one is born, finds himself in and probably leaves it behind
death.
 This being the case, man has no alternative but to accept it and become part of it,
since he finds himself in it (world). A birth, man is confronted by the “Thy
ERENESS” of both himself and the world; the world of nature.
 According to nature man is an insignificant material object in the midst of other
including plants, the outcome of which is as a result of a long process of evolutionary
process?
 With classification, man is a living being who biology classifies as belonging to a
species known as mammals.
 Among mammals, man does not display features that are different from other
mammals. For example, like any mammals men group together in particular
environment for survival purposes; environment that determines and conditions their
life, growth and development depending on their natural needs.
 In such a world, therefore, similar to other objects, man is predictable and must
accept the world as it is. Man is, therefore, “un unique” or not unique, he is like any
other mammal or object.
 Opposed to the above view is the concept of culture, one that sets man apart from the
rest and one that we must discuss after the following activity.

THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE

 Culture’ as a concept is derived from Latin verb COLERE and its perfect tense
CULTUS- which means “to farm” or “ to cultivate”.
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 To farm implies acting upon the land, transforming it for cultivation CULTURE,
therefore, implies action, one that calls for an actor who creates a new world. This point
to a dynamism signifying that human action involves creative subject conscious engaged
in the world.
 Man is, therefore unique in this sense; he is a producer, an actor, a creator who is
conscious of his creative capabilities. Man is a being who transcends or goes beyond the
physical or natural world, not a machine or just a mammal. Man, it is true, finds himself
in the natural world, but through his creative capabilities he is able to transform the world
he finds himself in, and this makes him unique from other beings in the world.
 Other areas where man appears unique from the rest of beings include the conception of
time and space. Man looks at the past, present and conceives of the future. Man can also
look at the present and map for the future, plan ahead. This apparently is something not
discerned in other beings.

NOTE:

When philosophers argue that man is unique, it is not because he does not exhibit some
characteristics similar to other beings. It is because apart from such similarly, man manifest
othhet characteristics that other beings don’t show

HOW DOES MANS UNIQUENESS IMPACT ON EDUCATION?

 Given the uniqueness of Man, education subsequently, must be tailed to suit this. This
may have to take into cognizance the environment in terms of space or where the
education is being given.
 Is the education being given in tandem with for example, the Kenyan environment?
 Does education being given recognize that man is an actor, conscious creator and not just
a mere object? This should therefore, be reflected in the curriculum.
 The question of environment and uniqueness can also be brought down to the class level
and the facilities needed for proper education.
 Given that man is unique, what methods of teaching should learning institution adopt?
The school may need to balance between collective teaching and one that is personalized.
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LESOON FOURTEEN

HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS AND EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

In discussing the uniqueness of man in the previous lesson, it was suggested that human beings
are subjects who are of their capabilities. They are conscious beings in this world. We need, in
this lesson, to delve into the aspect of consciousness and how it may be related to Education.

CONTENT

HUMAN CONCSIOUSNESS

Consciousness is derived from a Latin verb,Con-scire which means to know. It therefore has to
do with knowing.

 Being conscious, philosophers argue, is not a general state, but one that directs an
individual to be conscious of something.
 The consequence of being conscious of something is the redirection of ones attention or
intellect to that something. In other words, attention is directed outside the self to the
object of attention.

NOTE:

Consciousness, it must be noted, denotes a relationship, a relationship between the person, who
in this case is the subject, and the “something” which is the object a relationship ought to lead to
reflection and action.
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 That notwithstanding, human consciousness can conveniently be required in related four

levels as discussed below.

LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

 The 1st level is what is referred to as the empirical level.

 Associated with this level is the aspect whereby man experience things particularly
through the senses.
 This level is shared with animals i.e it is a level that is found in both animals and human
beings.
 The 2nd level is referred to as the intellectual level; a level where the formation of concept
is core and helps man to begin naming the word.
 The 3rd level is known as the rational level.
 This level is associated with making of judgments aided by the process of reasoning.
There is a rational explanation of their place in this world.
 It is here that human beings give meaning to the world and this helps them to make
choices and decisions as they live in the world with a purpose of trying to overcome
limitations.
 The 4th and final is the responsible level. Having come to particular judgment, man then
responds to them in the way of actions.
 Man now becomes a conscious actor having prepared his actions through reflection.

CONSCIOUSNESS AND LIMITATONS

 Give that man is a conscious being; we must realize that he is a “conscious being in the
world”.
 This means that his consciousness is limited to the world is through his body.
Consequently, his consciousness is what philosophers refer to as “embodied
consciousness”, a consciousness that is not pure but limited to nature.
 This being the case, man is a limited subject; limited by both physical as well as social
factors. In other words man is an incomplete being.
 It is however, a credit to and a very positive aspect of man that as an incomplete being,
man is aware or conscious of his incompleteness.
 Man knows that he is not complete, which to him is a limitation. One of his basic task,
therefore, is to overcome his limitations. And how does he accomplish this?
 Man tries to overcome his limitations by becoming aware of his possibilities and
opportunities; a process that makes him more human. As Njoroge and Bennars say. MAN
AS A CONSCIOUS BEING IN THE WORLD IS ALWAYS IN THE PROCESS OF
BECOMING-because we have not yet become.
 Perhaps, the Kiswahili saying, KABLA HUJAFA, HUJAUMBIKA!Literaly meaning
“BEFORE YOU ARE DEAD YOU’RE NOT YET FORMED illustrates this better.
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CONSCIOUSNESS AND EDUCATON

 The last point above-the fact that we are in the process of becoming- links moden
philosophy and education.
 Because we are not yet complete and we are aware of this incompleteness, we strive to
get there; we are becoming”.
 We realize, however, that in the process of becoming we need education.
 Educations’ overall aim, it s now evident, is help us become more human. If, as it is,
education implies a process of learning to be human, how does this take place?
 To let us ‘get there’ become more human, education should let us become more
conscious of human limitations as well as show us the possibilities of getting there.
 Education is, therefore, a process of consciousness implies reflection and action.
 As a process, education is not merely a natural process of growth, but a cultural process
leading to human action. Remembering out discussion on the concept of natural world
earlier.
 Now, since human action involves an actor, a producer, etc, we realize that education that
leads to human action involves creativity, an invaluable characteristics of man.

The question of education and creativity will be dealt with in the next lesson. However, we need
to say something more about consciousness at this point to reinforce what we have already said
about it.

PAULO FREIRE AND CONSCIOUSNESS

 Paulo Freire- in this Cultural Action for Freedom. describes education as a inhibitions in
order for one to become and act humanity.
 According to Freire, there is therefore, a link between education and consciousness, one
that he categorizes into Magic, Native, and critical. A word about each of these. and
detached from reality.
 Magic consciousness is associated with man apprehending facts and problems but being
unable to explain them rationally. Instead, such facts and problems are attributed to a
super power or magical forces. Man in this category operates at the first two level of
consciousness discussed earlier viz, the empirical and intellectual levels. Man produces a
magic response characterized by fatalism and resignation to the situation.
 Naïve consciousness, on the other hand, operates at the levels of intellectual and rational.
Here the assumption is that man controls facts and problems understanding in this
category have a tendency of becoming academic, abstract and detached from reality. In a
word, naïve consciousness produces a naïve response, based on idealistic solutions,
thereby not helping him.
 Critical consciousness tries to judge situations realistically- by analyzing facts and
problems in light of fundamental human values.
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 Being rational and critical, this leads to concrete responses that involve both reflection for
critical action (Praxis). For Paulo Freire, liberating education is education for critical
consciousness that operates at the rational and responsible level. Consequently, creativity,
which helps bring about human liberation, both physical and mental, must be emphasized
in our curriculum.

LESSON FIFTEEN

EDUCATION AND HUMAN CREATIVITY

INTRODUCTION:
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This lesson examines the relationship that entails between education and human creativity.
Creativity has to do with bringing forth something that was not present or even modifying the
one that already exist by injecting new ideas into the old ones. For us to be able to understand the
relationship between education and human creativity, we have to revisit the concept of culture,
its etymology and assumptions.

CONTENT

CULTURE: MEANING AND ASSUMPTIONS

 Culture as word is derived from Latin verb’cohere’ which means to farm, to cultivate’.
Farming, as you will realize, has to do with transforming some land unfit for cultivation
to one that fit for cultivation.
 It follows from this that culture implies some action, and an actor who must be the
subject.
 The process of action guided by a conscious actor brings new things into being; new
things are creative.
 The creator, who in this case is man, in a way creates a new human world, a culture word.
 Man, therefore, is a producers, an actor, this giving us a basic of human creativity that
must vis-à-vis education.

EDUCATION AND CREATIVITY

 Going by what said above, we must by now realize that education which we agreed
makes man more human, must involve creative. Through education, man must act
upon the world to create new things or modify them. Consequently, education must,
therefore, be oriented towards human action that is reflective.
 Education, being action-oriented, must logically be productive and effective. This, it
is argued, cannot take place if it only stresses verbalism.
 Following this, education must be able to let the learner know his task as an actor, a
producer and creator who must be effective and productive in terms of human needs
and requirements. The question is how this is to be inculcated into the learners. It
would seem that we will have to concentrate or choose our learning methods and
content very carefully and deliberately.

NOTE:

Creativity in education entertains new thoughts as Dr. Fatuma Chege, in Sifuna et al,(2006)
asserts.
It is responsive to new knowledge reflection as well as responding to old knowledge. This
encourages search for new knowledge and is open to scrutiny and challenge.
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 The thinking behind all this is that, in a way, students must be encouraged to become
very critical in order to create a new order and revisions where this necessary.
 Creativity then becomes the work of progressive education, an agent of change, an
education where students are encouraged to seek solution to the current problems and
alternatives of doing things.
 That being so, creativity in education becomes a way of transforming the world, to make
it more human.
 If this is accepted, we shall necessary have to re-examine what Paulo Freire calls the
“banking” concept of education where students are made to”bank” knowledge as given
by elders or teachers in an authoritarian manner, the assumption being that
they(learners)know nothing. This will be discussed further when dealing with education
and dialog.

LESSON SIXTEEN

EDUCATION LEISURE AND WORK

INTRODUCTION:

The previous lesson emphasized the idea of creativity in education as being essential in helping
man become more human. Creativity beings in an actor who acts in order to produce something
new. The production by this conscious actor, we realize, involves “work”. To be creative, man
must, therefore, work. This is an aspect that we emphasize and education must inculcate in the
minds of the learners.

Despite acknowledging work as one that makes man more human; one that defines human
creativity, it has been regarded negatively and taken as unpleasant or a necessary evil. Njoroge
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and Bennars(1986) believe that this is a result of defining work in terms of hard physical labour.
There is need therefore, to correct this conception and posit work in a more positive light.

CONTENT

WORK AND SELF-FULFILLMENT

 Philosophers concur that work leads to self-realization or humanization. While many

people yearn for-actualization, they must also appreciate that will never take place in the
absence of work. It is through work that one can get self-actualization in whatever sense.
 Work, therefore, makes man human. We realize that through work, man creates a new
world, a cultural world which includes the world of science and Technology. The very
technological breakthroughs we see today in the telecommunication industry, medicine,
transport etc. are as a result of work.
 It is a truism that the products of work make our lives better in certain areas. Assuming
that this is so, and then it underscores the idea of work as being positive idea rather than
being considered negatively. In a way, therefore, work, which leads to creation, confirms
the uniqueness of human beings in the world. This gives hope and confidence as opposed
to resignation in the face of nature; work overcomes the natural world.
 Apart from the benefits that works brings about, philosophers argue that there is
something intrinsic in work; that it is a good in self, leading to the aspect of work for its
own sake”
 Ordinary examples abound, for instance, that manifest the value of work. Man him, for
example, has working parts, the malfunctioning of which, and would create a lot of
problems for him. The human heart as an organ for example, works day in day out to
sustain man’s life. The digestive system in a man must work if a man has to be man.
There are many other familiar parts.
 As a living man. he is sustained by parts that that must work. Man, we can say is a
working man. Without work, it’s like he is dead. I t seems a contradiction, therefore, that
man should consider work negatively when in fact, it is work that keeps him alive. Man
ought to delive fulfillment and satisfaction from work.
 Njoroge and Bannars(1986) posit that work creates and recreates society in the sense that
when one works, he also works for others, a form of mutual help. In this sense, through
work, bonds are created among people leading to a more human world.

WORK LEISURE AND EDUCATION

 We need to stress some issues here. The fact that work makes man human, creates a new
world, points to the suggestion that education must be work oriented. Education must
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cultivate a liking for work among the learners so that they create new things in a human
way.
 In other words, taking work seriously will mean that our education system must not be
merely academic. Creativity through work is seriously within reach of all learners. Work
needs to be fostered in education to enable learners to effectively operate both
theoretically and in practice.
 The consciousness of work is that creativity will be enhanced. With creativity new and
better creations in several respects will be the result. Thus work ought to bring the best in
us as we discover our world. This can only take place and bring satisfaction if we
consider work in the same way as playing. It’s an activity for its own sake; people enjoy
it not because of the benefits, which will be therefore anyway, but simply because work
is enjoyable and part of being human. The argument is that when work is combined with
play, the need for leisure can be fulfilled. Work and leisure then become two sides of the
same coin.

LESSON SEVENTEEN

EDUCATION AND DIALOGUE

INTRODUCTION:

Man, it has been argued, is not an Island. Whatever, he does, and particularly in dialogue, other
people come into the picture. Man is, therefore, a social being and is best fulfilled in the
company of others. From a very extreme position, where man is either a thief or a rapist, other
people must nevertheless come on board. A thief will not steal from oneself; he will need other
people with property to steal from. A rapist on the other hand needs a lady to rape. Man, we can
say, is social either positively, or negatively.

Education sometimes has a tendency to emphasize on the individual targeting competition and
good performance. Taken to be extreme this positively creates a highly developed, critical,
creative and autonomous being but negatively creating one who may be impossible to live with
socially. Something will have gone wrong; the ability to cultivate the culture of dialogue among
learners. This lesson, therefore, discusses education with particular reference to dialogue.

CONTENT

DIALOGUE AND EDUCATION

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 A point with dialogue is that education is a form of public experience. It therefore needs
to be a positive social or public affair, a social institution.
 Given this social dimension, we may be wrong to speak of education in individualistic
terms. As a man exist in this world, he exists with others, an aspect philosopher’s term
co-existence.
 If man co-exists with others, there is need for mutual understanding and respect that
ought to be realized through positive encounter, communication and dialogue. What,
then, is dialogue?
 Etymologically, dialogue is derived from the Greek work”dia-logos” which implies
communication between two people, at least. It denotes “people speaking words (Logos)
to each other. You will realize that dialogue is a radical departure from monologue where
just one person speaks. What implication, then, does this have in education?
 As dialogue, education presupposes that teachers and learners will speak or
communication on equal terms. This, therefore, is against authoritarianism, where
learners are forced into acceptance devoid of any questions. This would be and extreme
teacher centered approach and a denial of dialogue.
 On the other hand, an extreme learner centered approach would also negate dialogue.
Both teachers and learners. it must be appreciated, are different modes of being that are
necessary in the teaching-learning experience. A balance has to be struck for effective
learning.
 For us to appreciate this concern, we have to examine what ‘teaching’ is thus showing the
dialogical relation between the teacher and the learner.

NOTE:

What is being stressed so far is that an effective education, dialogue between the teacher and the
learner must be fostered. Concentrating on the learners at the expense of teachers or vice-versa
dialogue and this affects the quality of education.

TEACHING AND LEARNING: THE DIALOGICAL RELATIONS

 To teach is associated with the old English word’taecan’. This means a sign or guide to
show the way or to indicate the direction.
 To indicate or show direction, or must be noted, is not to force one into that direction.
The one being shown the way must be ready and willing to follow the direction. He or
she has a role to play in getting to the directed point.
 A teacher, therefore, is one who is a sign, a guide and his/her purpose is to provide
guidance and direction.
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NOTE:

It must be appreciated that traditionally this was seriously taken. Every adult was viewed as a
teacher and hence expected to give guidance to the youth on their way to adulthood.
Unfortunately, this was sometimes done in an authoritarian manner. We also recognize situations
where learners were allowed to discover for themselves under the guidance of the community.

 Today, teaching must be understood as a, mode of being-with and must show positive
care, concern and more so, availability of the guide among the guided, since in his
absence the learners get lost on the way.
 The tyhy8eacher’s availability is crucial because the learners depend on them for their
self-realization, to become conscious beings, conscious of their possibilities and
limitations.
 This must directly and actively involve the learners. Consequently; this discourages
docility and passivity in the parties involved. Accordingly, the teacher can’t act as a
master or a dominating character because this would kill the expression of the learners,
contradicting the very concept of dialogue. What are we getting to?
 That teaching that induces slave mentally or a sense of impotence is not education. It is
an attack on the minds of the learners and to the same. The opposite of the requires
dialogue between people who respect and understand each other as a conscious subjects
engaged in humanizing the world through critical and reflective actions.
 Looked at from that angle, dialogue then does not undermine either the teacher or the
learners.

A question of grave importance the immediately comes up. A guide, one who shows direction to
the learners, what direction is the teacher required to give? In what areas does this direction point
to?

 There are suggestions that teachers should not only direct cognitively but also in morals
and ethics. Teachers the adult community, and lead by example.
 As immoral teacher, for example, cannot be guided and must not be allowed to mislead
learners. This may be the case of blind guide not being useful as a guide.
 A teacher, as said must lead by example. He must not be authoritarian because without
dialogue, there is no communication, and where communication lacks, there is no
education. Dialogue enhances proper guidance and helped learners become subjects,
actors and creators in the world through mutual agreement, cooperation and respect that
tolerates other people’s expressions. One undertakes dialogue when he/she is open
minded, ready to receive the other person’s ideas where they are well grounded. A closed
mind is anti-dialogical. Teachers, because ideas are ideas irrespective of the source.
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LESSON EIGHTEEN

EDUCATION AND HUMAN RIGHTS

INTRODUCTION

It is very common these days for people to talk of their rights. Often we hear of children rights,
human rights, the rights f a citizen and so on. In this section, we are talking about human rights.
It is, perhaps important to understand the whole idea of rights and more importantly, how
education as a phenomenon harmonizes with the whole issue of human rights.

The Constitution of Kenya chapter V sections outlines the following rights:

70: Rights of an individual for instance, to life personal liberty from forced labour and
slavery from inhuman treatment ect.

71: Right of life

72: Right to personal liberty

73: From forced labour and slavery

74: From inhuman treatment etc.

NOTE

While talking about rights here, we shall focus more on education as a right and discuss
its relationship with education.
The right to Education is spelt in Article 13 of the Covenant on the economic social cultural
rights. This section outlines these rights in various sections. For instance.

Section 1 states that States are required to recognize the right of everyone to Education.

That”……education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and sense
of dignity and shall strengthen the respect of/for human rights and fundamental freedoms”.

That”……education shall enable all persons to participate on effectively in free society, promote
understanding. Tolerance and friendship among all nations and all racial, ethnic or religious
groups.

In order to achieve their goal, in section 2 states that all states are called upon that:
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2c Higher Education shall be made equally accessible to all on the basis of capacity, by
every appropriate means….”

2d “Fundamental education shall be encouraged or intensified as far as possible for those

persona who have not received or completed the whole period of their primary education.

In general, Section 3 talks about the distribution the rights to participate in Education, that is,
parents, the state, children, e.t.c. The covenant therefore provides for:

(i) An official statement on the recognition of education (word wide) as a fundamental!

Human Right. It is not a privilege. It is not to be donated or offered to children as an
aim or a gift. It belongs to them by right.
(ii) A guiding framework for policy initiatives that are geared towards provision of
Education as a Human right.

But still, all these clarification does not really tell us what us a right is. For that reason, we may
need to take some time to understand this concept.

What is Human Right?

A human right is a condition, situation, a thing or an opportunity to which a person (as human) is
entitled in a very basic/fundamental way. This entitled is such that if a person is denied access to
it, his/her basic humanity is either degraded, compromised, humiliated even destroyed. In other
words, if a basic human right is not guaranteed, the word of the human person is devalued;
his/her dignity is lowered.

Education as a basic human right (in this context) elevates the worth of human person both in
attitudes and knowledge. The non-provision of education is at the same, the devaluation of
human dignity and personality. Education, in this way becomes a human phenomenon, not in the
sense of proportioning human potentiality but in the sense of promoting and sustaining human
value/worth and personhood. The provision of education as a matter of human rights is, for that
reason, a moral undertaking. Through this, the dignity of the human person is reaffirmed; faith in
the potential equality f persons is enhanced. Respect for fundamental freedoms of a person and
the realization of human being’s full potential as a moral being is encouraged.

Education as a Basic Human Right

Education affords opportunity for the full development of cognitive abilities- its content and
procedures provide an occasion for the development of knowledge and understanding. Access to
society’s knowledge and schemes of rational/intellectual behavior is declared in this case as a
matter of right.

If a person is not afforded the opportunity/access to knowledge, his/her basic humanity is

degraded. It is because of this, that is, access to knowledge, that education is a basic human right.
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Access to society’s value is another basic right. Man is naturally a moral being and a full
conception of a human being is not complete without an explicit recognition of this fact.
Education provides access to society’s values; it provides opportunities for the full development
of human moral well-being. Access to values through education is therefore, a matter of right. It
is not a privilege.

Full development of the human person cannot be achieved without appropriate and sufficient
assimilation of social and development skills. Access to social and psychomotor skills is in this
sense a matter of right. The contest and practice of education provides opportunities for access to
these skills. In this way, by embodying skills for full development of the human personality
education becomes a basic human right.

LESSON NENENTEEN

EDUCATION AND DECOCRACY

INTRODUCTION

Democracy is a concept that is common in political discourse. However, its meaning is a valid as
the context within which it is used. We therefore seek to understand this concept and more
importantly, in so far as it relates to the practice of education.

CONTENT
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The Concept of Democracy

Etymologically, the term democracy comes from two Greek words ‘Demos’ meaning the people
and Kratein meaning to rule. Then two words are joined together to form the word democracy,
which literally means rule by the people. However, the term rule is also not very obvious in its
meaning. We may therefore understand rule to mean the exercise of power, authority and
influence’. Despite this, there still is a task to interpret and understand the term the people. In
Feudal Europe, for instance, democratic movements were denounced, as they were perceived to
be ‘subversive’ of the rule by God’s Vicars and representatives who ruled by divine power in
aristocratic and absolutist monarchies.

NOTE:

In this lesson, we are more concerned with the concept of democracy insofar as it finds
application in the practice of education.

Today, the need to include the governed in their governance is often received negatively by
administrators and rules. Perhaps, this is a potential or possible source development of the
concept of democracy, there is an apparent difficulty in ascertaining whether it should refer to a
few individuals taking decisions indiscriminately on behalf of others or to those who are elected
and therefore empowered to lead as representatives of the society in question. However, when
used to refer to a government, it implies one that popularly elected, enjoys the mandate of the
majority population or one established on the witness of the majority.

Used to refer to a voting exercise, it implies allowing everyone (without any discrimination) to
participate n expressing their will and then respecting such an expression and using it as a guide
to making decisions regarding losers and winners. A popular vote, majority vote, decides the
winner as a sign of popular wish or view of person.

A democratic rule is therefore one that has an explicit respect for diversity of views, faith in
majority wish and enjoys popular support. It encourages extensive consultation in decision-
making and fair distribution of power and participation.

Democracy in Education

The application of Democracy in Education practice was first attempted by the American
Education Philosopher, and Educator, John Dewey(1952-1959). Traditional Education, against
which Dewey reacted, was too authoritarian, too conservative and lacked the influence of
science/modernism. Since, democratization was a movement that was targeted at political
totaltarism; Dewey argued that the same could be done from Education. There was need to
liberate educational relations by giving freedom to the child and offering more opportunities for
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self-expression and self-determination. The needs and interest of the child were to take priority
as those of society and the teacher.

Democracy in Education draws its origin from the promotion of equity, fairness and civil
liberties in the political arena. A such, it was used to describe expectations, standards or norms of
political behavior and in this context it is an ethical/axiological concept.

Here it is related to liberty freedom, equality, fairness and justice. That is to be democratic
implies to allow more freedom of expression. Association and movement. It means to distribute
opportunity/participation equitably and to distribute power fairly and justly. This is intrinsically
applicable to education because it draws primary participants from many social groups
(Children, teachers, parents, administrators etc).

These groups have competing/conflicting interests which often require democratic solution.ent.
In other

Democracy is also an epistemology concept in that it is related to open- mindedness tolerance

independence of mind. That is democracy has faith in individual expression and self-directed
behavior where a person makes decisions, choices and judgments for him/her self. It involves
accepting oneself and asserting oneself and a self- directed agent. In other words, Democracy has
to do with cognitive attitudes, beliefs and dispositions that promote objectivity, open-mildness
and independence of thought.

Democracy is an organizational concept. It has to do with organizing society/people/institutions

in a way that ensures equitable participation of members. It is rooted in the belief in the tapping
of diversity/variety of talents, abilities and suggestions.

Used property, democracy had the capacity of motivating human action and enhancing a sense
of belonging and ownership. In this way, democracy is opposed to autocracy and totalitarians. It
is a process of distributing power in an organization in a way that ensures fair participation and
appropriate commitments. It promotes collective entitlements to do things.
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