Hydrocarbon-generation AUTHORS

potential of upper Eocene Enping Junwen Peng ~ State Key Laboratory for
Petroleum Resources and Prospecting, China
University of Petroleum (Beijing), 18 Fuxue
Formation mudstones in the Road, Chanping District, Beijing 102249,
China; Basin and Reservoir Research Center,
Huilu area, northern Pearl River China University of Petroleum (Beijing),
Beijing 102249, China; present address:
Mouth Basin, South China Sea Bureau of Economic Geology, Jackson School
of Geosciences, The University of Texas at
Austin, 10100 Burnet Road Bldg 130, Austin,
Junwen Peng, Xiongqi Pang, Hesheng Shi, Huijie Peng, Texas 78712; junwen@utexas.edu
and Shuang Xiao
Junwen Peng received his B.S. degree in
resource exploration engineering (petroleum
geology) from China University of Geosciences
(Wuhan) in 2013. In 2016, he graduated from
ABSTRACT
China University of Petroleum (Beijing) with an
Upper Eocene Enping Formation mudstones in the Pearl River M.S. degree. He is now a doctoral candidate at
Mouth Basin, South China Sea, which formed during a lake- The University of Texas at Austin. His current
flooding event, are one of the most important sets of cap rocks research interests include unconventional
in the basin. However, the generation potential (GP) of Enping resources, cyclicity in deep-water fine-grained
Formation mudstones remains poorly understood and contro- sediments, and organic matter accumulation
mechanisms.
versial. Despite a lack of documentation, these mudstones are
presumed to have the potential to generate hydrocarbons. In this Xiongqi Pang ~ State Key Laboratory for
study, new organic geochemical data for these mudstones are Petroleum Resources and Prospecting, China
provided based on several new wells drilled into Eocene strata in University of Petroleum (Beijing), 18 Fuxue
the Huilu area, northern Pearl River Mouth Basin, which illustrate Road, Chanping District, Beijing 102249,
China; Basin and Reservoir Research Center,
their hydrocarbon GP. Total organic carbon content ranges from
China University of Petroleum (Beijing), 18
0.55 to 3.3 wt. % (mean, 1.31 wt. %) with kerogens dominated by
Fuxue Road, Chanping District, Beijing
type III organic matter (OM) derived from terrigenous plant 102249, China; pangxq@cup.edu.cn
material. The Zhuqiong II movement, a rifting episode that oc-
Xiongqi Pang received his Ph.D. in petroleum
curred during the late Eocene (ca. 38 Ma), was associated with the
geology from the China University of
introduction of a large quantity of terrigeneous higher plants by Geosciences (Beijing) in 1991. He is now
rivers that led to type III OM accumulation and preservation of a professor of geology and vice president at the
Enping Formation mudstones. Rapid transverse facies changes led China University of Petroleum (Beijing). His
to the geochemical heterogeneity of the source rocks. The OM in current research interests include basin
these rocks reached an early–midmature stage in uplifted areas analysis, hydrocarbon resource assessment,
(vitrinite reflectance [Ro] = 0.5%–1.0%) and a late–mature stage in and hydrocarbon accumulation mechanisms.
sags (Ro = 1.0%–1.3%), stages wherein hydrocarbons can be He is the corresponding and co-first author.
generated. Therefore, the Enping Formation mudstones may have Hesheng Shi ~ Shenzhen Company of
had the potential to generate hydrocarbons, especially gas, and China National Offshore Oil Corporation
hence deserve attention in future exploration. (CNOOC) Limited, 168 Jiangnan Middle AVE,
Haizhu District, Guangzhou 510240, China;
shihsh@cnooc.com.cn
Copyright ©2018. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved. Hesheng Shi is the geological chairman of the
Manuscript received February 20, 2016; provisional manuscript acceptance July 13, 2016; revised manuscript research institute at Shenzhen Company of
received September 10, 2016; revised manuscript provisional acceptance December 20, 2016; 2nd revised CNOOC Limited. His research interests include
manuscript received January 4, 2017; 2nd revised manuscript provisional acceptance April 28, 2017; 3rd sedimentary facies analysis and petroleum
revised manuscript received May 6, 2017; 3rd revised manuscript provisional acceptance June 26, 2017; 4th
revised manuscript received July 3, 2017; final acceptance September 26, 2017.
geology.
DOI:10.1306/0926171602417005

AAPG Bulletin, v. 102, no. 7 (July 2018), pp. 1323–1342 1323

 Huijie Peng ~ Shenzhen Company of
CNOOC Limited, 168 Jiangnan Middle AVE,
Haizhu District, Guangzhou 510240, China;
penghj2@cnooc.com.cn
Huijie Peng is a researcher at the regional
department, research institute of Shenzhen
Company of CNOOC Limited. In 2010, he
graduated from Yangtze University with a B.S.
degree. He received his M.S. degree in
geological engineering from China University of
Petroleum (Beijing) in 2013. His current
research interests include basin analysis and
hydrocarbon accumulation mechanisms.
Shuang Xiao ~ State Key Laboratory for
Petroleum Resources and Prospecting, China
University of Petroleum (Beijing), 18 Fuxue
Road, Chanping District, Beijing 102249,
China; Basin and Reservoir Research Center,
China University of Petroleum (Beijing), 18
Fuxue Road, Chanping District, Beijing
102249, China; present address: School of
Petroleum Engineering, University of New
South Wales, Tyree Energy Technologies
Building, Anzac Parade, Kensington, NSW
2033, Australia; shuang.xiao@student.unsw.
edu.au
Shuang Xiao graduated from Hebei GEO
University with a B.S. degree in 2013. She
received her M.S. degree in geological
engineering from China University of Petroleum
(Beijing) in 2016. She is now a doctoral
candidate at University of New South Wales.
Her current research interests include basin
analysis and hydrocarbon accumulation
mechanisms.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was supported by National Science
and Technology Major Projects of China
(Grant No. 2011ZX05023-006-003). We thank
Shenzhen Company of CNOOC Limited for
providing background geologic data and
permission to publish the results. We also
thank editors Barry J. Katz and Melanie
Everett and reviewers Jessica E. Little and
Zhibin Wei, whose comments and
suggestions improved the manuscript.
1324 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin
1324
INTRODUCTION
A wide variety of Eocene lacustrine source rocks have been
identified in representative rift basins in eastern China (Yan et al.,
2008), including those of the Shahejie Formation of the Bohai Bay
Basin (Li, 1980; Zhai and He, 2002; Yan et al., 2008; Hao et al.,
2011), the Sanduo Formation of the Subei Basin (Yan et al., 2008),
the Liushagang Formation of the Beibuwan Basin (Zhang et al.,
2013), and the Pinghu Formation of the Xihu depression, East
China Sea (Feng and Cai, 2006). These Eocene source rocks are
mainly lacustrine black mudstones and are believed to have been
deposited during an episodic lake-flooding event (Rao et al., 2005;
Yan et al., 2008).
The Pearl River Mouth Basin is a Cenozoic rift basin formed on
the Mesozoic folded basement that contains Eocene rocks (the
Wenchang and Enping Formations), thought to be formed during
an episodic lake-flooding event during the development of the basin
(Chen et al., 1991). The lower Eocene Wenchang Formation is
characterized as a semideep–deep lacustrine black mudstone. The
upper Eocene Enping Formation is characterized as shallow la-
custrine to deltaic swamp–plain dark-gray mudstone (Chen, 2000).
Hydrocarbon accumulations have been discovered in Eocene and
Miocene reservoirs in the Pearl River Mouth Basin with proven oil
and gas reserves amounting to 900 million m3 (5.7 · 109 bbl) and
110 billion m3 (3.9 · 109 mcf), respectively, making this basin one
of the most petroliferous basins in eastern China (Shi et al., 2014).
Since the 1990s, an increasing number of wells have been drilled in
Eocene rocks, and the Eocene Wenchang Formation has been
identified as containing source-prone intervals based on petroleum
system analysis (Chen et al., 1991; Chen, 2000; Cui et al., 2009),
pyrolysis data analysis (Shi et al., 2009; Li et al., 2013; Shi, 2013),
and oil–source correlation (Zhang et al., 2004b; Li et al., 2009; Shi
et al., 2011; Peng et al., 2017). The Wenchang Formation source
intervals are generally thought to source the majority of hydro-
carbon accumulations in the Pearl River Mouth Basin (Fu et al.,
1993; Chen, 2000; Chen et al., 2003; Shi et al., 2009; Shi, 2013).
The hydrocarbon-generation potential (GP) of Eocene Enping
Formation remains controversial, mainly because no hydrocarbon
accumulation sourced by Enping Formation mudstones has been
confirmed. Theoretically, the widely distributed dark-gray mud-
stones (1.5 · 104 km2 [5.8 · 103 mi2]) distribution area, maximum
1000 m (3280 ft) net thickness, and 1.41 wt. % mean total organic
carbon (TOC) content; Chen et al., 2003; Yuan et al., 2014; Peng
et al., 2016) in the Enping Formation can generate hydrocarbons
under favorable thermal evolutionary conditions.
A lake-flooding event in a lacustrine basin can initiate the
deposition of high-quality source rocks, leading to an increase in
black mudstone deposition, which may act as potential source
rocks (Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991; Wignall, 1991). This pattern
PENG ET AL. 1324
1324
 suggests that the Enping Formation in the Pearl River
Mouth Basin, deposited during an episodic lake-
flooding event caused by Zhuqiong II movement
(ca. 38 Ma; Chen, 2000), may also have hydrocarbon
GP. However, little information and data are available
for Enping Formation rocks because a limited number
of wells have encountered Eocene rocks, and previous
research in the study area has focused on the
Wenchang Formation. Geochemical signatures of
1325 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin
1325
Enping and Wenchange Formations have been
compared and contrasted in several previous studies
(Huang et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2003, 2004a).
From 2011 to 2015, several new wells were drilled
into Eocene strata in the Huilu area of the northern
Pearl River Mouth Basin (Figures 1, 2). Cuttings and
core samples are now available and provide an op-
portunity to study the hydrocarbon GP of Enping
Formation rocks. In this study, we investigate the GP
PENG ET AL. 1325
1325
 Figure 1. Location of the Zhu I depression and the Huilu area, Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea. The Huilu area includes four
tectonic units: Huixi uplift, Huizhou (HZ) sag, Huilu uplift, and Lufeng (LF) sag. Pseudo-well marked in blue is the location of one-dimensional
thermal-burial modeling in this study.

1326 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin PENG ET AL. 1326
1326 1326
 .., ...
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1327 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin PENG ET AL. 1327
1327 1327
 Wenchang (.)
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platform of lacustrine-marine

Figure 2. Stratigraphic column of the Huilu area, Pearl River Mouth Basin (modified from Shi et al., 2014). L = Lower; U = Upper.

1328 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin PENG ET AL. 1328
1328 1328
 of Enping Formation source rocks by integrating or- tectonic movements, the structures beneath the Enping
ganic matter (OM) abundance, type, and thermal Formation and above its upper surface are asymmetric
maturity information based on geological character-
istics and geochemical data. Rock-Eval pyrolysis and
geochemical data provide constraints on the hydro-
carbon GP of these rocks, which, when combined with
the known geology of the basin, not only provide
a reference for regional petroleum exploration, but
also represent a new case study on the deposition of
lacustrine mudstones during a flooding event.

GEOLOGICAL SETTINGS

Tectonic Setting

The Pearl River Mouth Basin is the largest de-

positional basin along the northern continental margin
of the South China Sea (Figure 1). The basin has
a northeastward trend and covers an area of ap-
proximately 1.7 · 105 km2 (6.6 · 104 mi2). The Pearl
River Mouth Basin is divided into five tectonic units:
the northern uplift, the northern depression (con-
taining the Zhu I and Zhu III depressions), the central
uplift, the southern depression, and the southern
uplift (Figure 1) (Chen, 2000). The Huilu area, which
contains two sags and two uplifted belts, has an ex-
ploration area of 1.9 · 104 km2 (7.3 · 103 mi2), and is
located in the Zhu I depression (Figure 1).
The study area experienced three stages of struc-
tural evolution during the Cenozoic (Figure 2). During
the extensional rifting stage (early Eocene–middle
Oligocene), the Zhuqiong I and Zhuqiong II move-
ments formed the structural configuration of the Pearl
River Mouth Basin (Robison et al., 1998; Chen, 2000;
Cui et al., 2009; Shi et al., 2014). During the sub-
sidence stage (late Oligocene–middle Miocene), the
Nanhai movement ended the rifting stage and a steady
subsidence stage began. Sea water widely intruded the
study area from southeast to northwest with little
tectonic activity (Chen, 2000; Cui et al., 2009). Finally,
the Dongsha movement initiated the middle Miocene
block-faulting stage, where old faults were reactivated
and many new west–northwest-trending faults de-
veloped (Chen, 2000; Cui et al., 2009). The geological
structures of the area have remained stable since the
middle Miocene (Chen et al., 2003). As a result of these

1329 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin PENG ET AL. 1329
1329 1329
 (Chen et al., 2003). The structures above the surface are
primarily characterized as postrift thermal subsidence,
whereas the lower structures are primarily synrift
wedges (Chen et al., 2003).

Sedimentology

Sedimentation in the Huilu area transitioned from

continental to marine during the Cenozoic (Shi et al.,
2014) (Figure 2). The Zhuqiong I and Zhuqiong II
movements were responsible for the Eocene sedi-
mentation. The lower Eocene Wenchang Formation,
which contains semideep–deep lacustrine mudstones,
was identified as predominantly containing source
rocks with significant hydrocarbon GP (Chen et al.,
1991; Chen, 2000; Huang et al., 2003; Zhang et al.,
2003). Much research on aspects, such as the for-
mation mechanisms of the unit, burial and thermal
history, and organic geochemistry, has been conducted
on the Wenchang Formation source rock to better
understand the hydrocarbon GP of the strata and to
guide hydrocarbon exploration in this area (Chen
et al., 1991; Chen, 2000; Zhang et al., 2004a; Cui et al.,
2009; Li et al., 2009; Shi et al., 2009, 2011; Shi, 2013).
In the upper Eocene, initiated by the Zhuqiong II
movement and corresponding lake-flooding event (ca.
38 Ma; Figure 2), a suite of limnic-river-delta plain
strata were developed, forming the Enping Formation
(Chen et al., 1991; Chen, 2000; Shi et al., 2009, 2011;
Shi, 2013). The thickness of the Enping Formation in
the center of the sag was almost 2000 m (6560 ft) (Xu
et al., 2012). The marine Zhuhai (E3zh), Zhujiang
(N1zh), and Hanjiang (N1h) Formations were de-
posited during the subsidence stage. Sandstone beds
with high porosities and permeabilities in combina-
tion with marine shales in these three formations
formed excellent reservoir–seal assemblages (Chen,
2000). The upper Miocene Yuehai (N1y) Formation,
Pliocene Wanshan Formation (E3zh), and Quaternary
sediments are offshore shelf deposits that formed
during the block-faulting stage (Peng et al., 2016).

METHODS AND WORKFLOWS

During this study, 22 samples were collected from

8 wells and submitted for geochemical analysis
(Table 1). All of the sampled wells are relatively evenly

1330 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin PENG ET AL. 1330
1330 1330
Table 1. Representative Geochemical Characteristics of Enping Formation Mudstone Samples in Huilu Area, Pearl River Mouth Basin
Chloroform
TOC, S1 , S2, GP, HI, bitumen A,
Well Depth, m (ft) Lithology wt. % mgHC/grock mgHC/grock mgHC/grock mgHC/grock ppm Tmax, °C (°F) PI Ro, %

HZ 8 4373 (14,347) Dark-gray 1.54 0.26 3.57 3.83 232 1009 446 (835) 0.07 1.09
mudstone
HZ 21 3765 (12,352) Dark-gray 1.06 0.05 0.96 1.01 91 438 440 (824) 0.05 0.81
mudstone
HZ 21 3846 (12,618) Dark-gray 1.17 0.22 0.80 1.02 68 907 445 (833) 0.22 0.82
mudstone
HZ 21 3873 (12,707) Dark-gray 1.13 0.63 3.53 4.16 135 1300 445 (833) 0.15 0.82
mudstone
HZ 21 3936 (12,913) Dark-gray 1.03 0.96 5.06 6.02 161 1837 447 (837) 0.16 0.89
mudstone
HZ 22 3984 (13,071) Dark-gray 1.02 0.25 1.35 1.60 132 678 449 (840) 0.16 0.99
mudstone
HZ 22 4104 (13,465) Dark-gray 1.04 0.35 1.41 1.76 136 800 450 (842) 0.20 1.01
mudstone
HZ 22 4140 (13,583) Gray 1.20 0.31 1.47 1.78 123 1035 451 (844) 0.17 1.10
mudstone
HZ 22 4179 (13,711) Dark-gray 0.92 0.25 1.28 1.53 139 1050 448 (839) 0.16 1.09
mudstone
HZ 22 4206 (13,799) Dark-gray 1.81 0.42 1.72 2.14 95 1583 452 (846) 0.20 1.10
mudstone
HZ 23 3975 (13,041) Dark-gray 2.43 0.65 3.53 4.18 145 1511 457 (855) 0.16 1.03
mudstone
HZ 25A 3462 (11,358) Dark-gray 0.80 0.27 1.28 1.55 160 979 443 (829) 0.17 0.77
mudstone
HZ 25B 3975 (13,041) Dark-gray 0.55 0.13 0.96 1.09 175 459 446 (835) 0.12 1.17
mudstone
HZ 25B 4194 (13,760) Dark-gray 1.96 1.04 3.80 4.84 194 2112 446 (835) 0.21 1.21
mudstone
LF 8 3100 (10,171) Gray 2.96 0.20 3.71 3.91 125 795 429 (788) 0.05 0.57
mudstone
LF 8 3250 (10,663) Dark-gray 3.30 0.25 6.09 6.34 185 1050 430 (806) 0.04 0.58
mudstone
LF 8 3450 (11,319) Dark-gray 1.08 0.11 1.40 1.51 130 759 437 (819) 0.07 0.73
mudstone
LF 13 3171 (10,404) Dark-gray 1.41 1.30 3.32 4.62 235 2101 437 (819) 0.28 0.55
mudstone
LF 13 3192 (10,472) Dark-gray 1.22 1.04 2.76 3.8 226 1920 439 (822) 0.27 0.55
mudstone
LF 13 3291 (10,797) Dark-gray 0.73 0.59 1.71 2.3 234 1103 442 (828) 0.26 0.60
mudstone
LF 13 3309 (10,856) Dark-gray 0.67 0.61 1.68 2.29 251 1012 446 (835) 0.27 0.66
mudstone
LF 13 3369 (11,053) Dark-gray 0.56 0.52 1.28 1.80 229 1079 442 (828) 0.28 0.68
mudstone

1331 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin PENG ET AL. 1331
1331 1331
Abbreviations: GP = generation potential, S1 + S2; HC = hydrocarbon; HI = hydrogen index, (S2/TOC) · 100; HZ = Huizhou; LF = Lufeng; PI = potential index, S1/(S1+S2); ppm =
parts per million; Ro = vitrinite reflectance; S1 = the amount of free hydrocarbons volatilized from the rock sample; S2 = the hydrocarbons produced by cracking of organic
matter in the rock; Tmax = the temperature at which the maximum S2 yield is reached; TOC, total organic carbon content; wt. = weight.

1332 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin PENG ET AL. 1332
1332 1332
 4°C/min (7°F/min) and then being held at 290°C
distributed throughout the structural units of the study
(554°F) for 30 min. Nitrogen was used as the carrier
area, including the Huixi uplift, Huizhou sag, Huilu
uplift, and Lufeng sag (Figure 1). Geochemical ana-
lyses included determination of TOC content, Rock-
Eval pyrolysis, bitumen extraction, bulk bitumen
composition, vitrinite reflectance (Ro), and rock-
extract biomarker analysis. These data were then
combined with geological data to determine the
GP of the Enping Formation mudstones.
Samples were crushed to a powder for TOC
analyses. Sample powder (200 mg) was treated with
10% (by volume) hydrogen chloride at 60°C (140°F)
to remove carbonate minerals. The samples were
washed with distilled water to remove residual hy-
drogen chloride. The samples were then dried over-
night at 50°C (122°F), before analysis with a LECO
CS-400 analyzer. Rock-Eval pyrolysis was performed
using a Rock-Eval II instrument according to the
standard method established by Espitalié et al. (1977).
These samples were heated to 600°C (1112°F) in
a helium atmosphere, generating four main parame-
ters: S1 (the amount of free hydrocarbon that can
be volatilized from the rock [mgHC/grock]), S2 (the
amount of hydrocarbon produced by cracking of OM
in the rock [mgHC/grock]), S3 (the amount of CO2
produced during the pyrolysis [mgCO2/grock]), and
Tmax (the temperature at which the maximum S2 yield
is reached) (Espitalié et al., 1977). Measurements of
mean random Ro were obtained using an oil-immersion
lens and a Leica MPV Compact II reflected-light
microscope fitted with a microphotometer. The re-
flectance for each sample was calculated by averaging
the histogram of 100 data points.
Mudstone samples were extracted using conven-
tional Soxhlet extraction methods (72 hr) to de-
termine bitumen content. Chloroform/methanol (87:
13 by volume) were used as solvents. The bulk
composition was determined using liquid column
chromatography. Saturated hydrocarbons were ana-
lyzed by gas chromatography (GC) and GC–mass
spectrometry (GC–MS). The GC analyses were per-
formed using a HP6890 chromatograph (Agilent
Technologies) fitted with a 30 m · 0.32 mm (98 ft ·
0.01 in.) inner diameter HP-5 column with a film
thickness of 0.25 mm. The heating program was set to
a constant temperature of 80°C (176°F) for 5 min,
before being heated to 290°C (554°F) at a rate of

1333 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin PENG ET AL. 1333
1333 1333
 gas at a constant flow rate of 1 ml/min. Biological oil window, in which hydrocarbons can be generated.
markers were identified by GC–MS, using an Agilent These Ro values also correlate well with depth (Figure 3).
7890–5975C Model GC–MS (Agilent Technologies).
Extracted hydrocarbons were analyzed using a J&W
VF-5MS quartz capillary column (60 m · 0.25 mm ·
0.25 mm [197 ft · 0.01 in. · 0.01 in.]). The heating
program was set to a constant temperature of 50°C
(122°F) for 1 min, before being heated to 100°C
(212°F) at a rate of 20°C/min (68°F/min) and then from
100°C (212°F) to 315°C (599°F) at a rate of 3°C/min
(5.4°F/min). The temperature was maintained at 315°C
(599°F) for 20 min. Helium was used as the carrier
gas at a constant flow rate of 1 ml/min.
Thermal-burial evolution modeling of the Huizhou
sag (pseudo-well in Figure 1) was conducted using the
one-dimensional (1-D) inverse model section of Basin-
Mod (Platte River Associates). The progression of Ro
with depth and geological time was calculated
using the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
program. The stratigraphic sequence and lithological
composition in each stratum of the sag are from Chen
(2000) and Chen et al. (2003), respectively. The
tectonic–geothermal evolution data are from Zhao
et al. (2014). Heat flow and thermal gradient data are
from Chen et al. (2003).
Samples containing migrated oil or oil-based mud
are readily distinguished from source rocks by anom-
alous Rock-Eval data. Rock-Eval data were screened
and contaminated or questionable data were removed
based on criteria defined by Peters and Cassa (1994).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The Rock-Eval pyrolysis results and biomarker

characteristics of the 22 Enping Formation mudstone
samples analyzed during this study are included in
Tables 1 and 2, respectively.

Thermal Maturity of Organic Matter

Vitrinite reflectance is important for the evaluation of

source-rock thermal maturity (Dow, 1977). The Ro
values of the Enping Formation samples are between
0.55% and 1.21%, with most samples yielding values
between 0.7% and 1.0% (Table 1), indicating that the
Enping Formation mudstones have entered the main

1331 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin PENG ET AL. 1331
1331 1331
Table 2. Representative Biomarker Geochemical Characteristics of Enping Formation Mudstone Samples in Huilu Area, Pearl River Mouth
Basin

4-Methyl
Pr/ G/ C19/ T/ Sterane/SC29 C29 aa20S/ C29 bb/(aa+ C2720R, C2820R, C2920R,
Well Depth, m (ft) Ph CPI* C30H C23TT C30H Sterane† (S+R)‡ bb)§ %¶ %# %**

HZ 8 4373 (14,347) 2.46 1.00 0.10 1.11 0.25 0.15 0.35 0.30 24.79 17.19 58.02
HZ 21 3765 (12,352) 5.49 1.17 0.08 1.03 0.82 0.17 0.45 0.48 32.70 17.90 49.40
HZ 21 3846 (12,618) 2.9 1.06 0.09 0.97 1.78 0.07 0.34 0.55 30.10 15.50 54.40
HZ 21 3873 (12,707) 4.00 1.03 0.08 0.88 2.58 0.07 0.37 0.53 27.70 16.90 55.40
HZ 21 3936 (12,913) 2.05 0.99 0.05 1.47 1.56 0.15 0.49 0.51 28.10 15.70 56.20
HZ 22 3984 (13,071) 4.78 1.02 0.03 0.93 0.66 0.13 0.47 0.48 24.90 16.80 58.30
HZ 22 4104 (13,465) 3.81 1.01 0.03 2.31 0.34 0.12 0.50 0.48 26.90 16.30 56.80
HZ 22 4140 (13,583) 2.58 1.00 0.02 1.71 0.57 0.27 0.49 0.46 27.70 18.10 54.20
HZ 22 4179 (13,711) 1.09 0.98 0.04 1.91 0.82 0.13 0.42 0.45 26.30 18.50 55.20
HZ 22 4206 (13,799) 3.01 0.97 0.07 2.43 0.87 0.07 0.45 0.47 21.20 25.40 53.40
HZ 23 3975 (13,041) 5.50 1.12 0.04 1.83 0.51 0.11 0.44 0.51 16.46 42.03 41.51
HZ 25A 3462 (11,358) 2.00 1.17 0.05 1.17 1.31 0.11 0.41 0.46 32.60 21.40 46.00
HZ 25B 3975 (13,041) 2.07 1.16 0.11 0.51 0.47 0.23 0.47 0.40 30.88 27.14 41.98
HZ 25B 4194 (13,760) 3.12 1.03 0.12 0.59 0.57 0.14 0.49 0.39 35.13 24.80 40.07
LF 8 3100 (10,171) 4.33 1.17 0.12 0.61 0.59 0.13 0.34 0.41 29.30 22.20 48.50
LF 8 3250 (10,663) 2.71 1.03 0.11 0.54 0.82 0.23 0.38 0.44 24.50 20.10 55.40
LF 8 3450 (11,319) 2.47 1.21 0.17 0.77 1.23 0.09 0.42 0.44 28.10 19.80 52.10
LF 13 3171 (10,404) 3.31 1.12 0.02 0.56 0.54 0.27 0.35 0.44 30.30 19.90 49.80
LF 13 3192 (10,472) 4.21 1.05 0.03 0.27 0.59 0.17 0.34 0.42 33.20 20.10 46.70
LF 13 3291 (10,797) 2.04 1.08 0.04 0.61 0.50 0.13 0.38 0.41 30.70 22.30 47.00
LF 13 3309 (10,856) 1.09 1.09 0.05 0.37 0.10 0.45 0.41 0.46 35.10 24.10 40.80
LF 13 3369 (11,053) 3.24 1.00 0.07 1.11 0.25 0.15 0.35 0.30 24.79 17.19 58.02

Abbreviations: C19/C23TT = C19/C23 tricyclic terpanes; CPI = the relative weight percentage of an n-alkane containing Pi carbon atoms per molecule, which has the maximum
concentration in n-alkanes; G/C30H = gammacerane/C30 hopane; HZ = Huizhou; LF = Lufeng; Pr/Ph = pristane/phytane; T/C30H = trans-trans-trans-bicadinane/C30
hopane.
*Calculated after Scalan and Smith (1970), defined as CPI = {(C25 + C27 + C29 + C31+ C33) · [1/(C24 + C26 + C28 + C30 + C32) + 1/(C26 + C28 + C30 + C32 + C34)]}/2.
†
C30 4-methyl sterane/SC29 sterane.
‡
C29 aa20S/(S+R) sterane.
§
C29 bb/(bb+aa) sterane.
¶
Sterane C27 aa20R/aa(C2720R + C2820R + C2920R) · 100%.
#
Sterane C28 aa20R/aa(C2720R + C2820R + C2920R) · 100%.
**Sterane C29 aa20R/aa(C2720R + C2820R + C2920R) · 100%.

Bordenave et al. (1993) suggested equivalent
Tmax hydrocarbon-generation thresholds for the top
of the oil window at a Tmax of 435°C (815°F) for type
III kerogens. The distribution of Tmax values (Table 1)
suggests that most Enping Formation source rocks are
sufficiently mature to have generated hydrocarbons.
Several biomarker parameters obtained by GC–MS
were additionally used to evaluate sample thermal
maturity, including the C29 aa20S/(S+R) sterane
ratio and the C29 bb/(bb+aa) sterane ratio (Seifert
and Moldowan, 1986). The C29 aa20S/(S+R) ster-
ane ratios are between 0.34 and 0.5, and the C29
bb/(bb+aa) sterane ratios are between 0.3 and 0.55
(Figure 4; Table 2). These results indicate that the
samples are within the mature stage. The maturity of
the Enping Formation mudstones in the Huilu area
gradually increases from northeast (wells LF 8 and LF
13) to southwest (from the early to midmature stage)
reflecting the effect of burial depth on OM maturity.
Eocene samples were not available from the
deeper structural sags. Thus, the samples used in this
study do not reflect the full range of source-rock
thermal maturities, particularly for deeper subsurface
locations. To understand the thermal evolution of OM

1330 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin PENG ET AL. 1330
1330 1330

Figure 3. Variations in vitrinite reflectance (Ro) values with
depth for Enping Formation mudstone samples in the Huilu area,
northern Pearl River Mouth Basin. Data from Table 2. HZ =
Huizhou; LF = Lufeng.
in Huizhou sag (the major hydrocarbon-generation
sag in the basin), thermal–burial modeling has been
conducted using a 1-D inverse model in the central of
Huizhou sag (pseudo-well in Figure 1). The results
(Figure 5) indicate that Enping Formation mudstone in
the depression is within the late maturity window (Ro =
1.0%–1.3%) and would have entered the hydrocarbon
window 23 m.y.a. Enping Formation mudstones are
dominated by type III kerogen, which means that the
1331 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin
1331
oil GP is limited. During maturation, the product
would primarily be gas (Espitalié et al., 1977).
The thermal maturity of samples in this study has
no obvious correlation with the TOC content (R2 =
0.01; Figure 6A) and hydrogen index (HI) values
(R2 = 0.12; Figure 6B), suggesting limited impact of
thermal maturity on both parameters.
Organic Matter Abundance and
Characterization
Sedimentary rocks must contain a sufficient amount
of OM to generate hydrocarbons. The amount of
generative OM in sedimentary rocks can be evaluated
using a variety of parameters including TOC and
pyrolysis-derived GP (GP = S1 + S2) analysis.
The TOC content ranges from 0.55 to 3.30 wt. %
in Enping Formation mudstone samples, with a mean
value of 1.35 wt. % (Table 1). Generation potential
ranges from 1.01 to 6.61 mgHC/grock, with a mean
value of 2.87 mgHC/grock. Enping Formation mud-
stones in the study area have generally modest TOC
and GP values that increase around wells Huizhou
(HZ) 8 and Lufeng (LF) 8, with mean TOC values of
1.54 and 2.45 wt. %, respectively, and mean GP values
of 3.83 and 3.92 mg/g, respectively (Table 1). In
addition, well LF 13 shows a relatively low TOC
content (mean, 0.92 wt. %) but high GP value (mean,
2.96 mgHC/grock), suggesting that the Enping Forma-
tion mudstone around well LF 13 contains OM with
slightly more hydrogen than the same rock elsewhere
Figure 4. Crossplot of
aaa20S/(20S+R)C29 sterane
versus abb/(abb+aaa)C29
sterane for Enping Formation
mudstones in the Huilu area,
northern Pearl River Mouth Ba-
sin. The equilibrium values of C29
aa20S/(S+R) and C29 bb/(bb+
aa) fall in the ranges 0.52–0.55
and 0.67–0.71, respectively
(Seifert and Moldowan, 1986).
HZ = Huizhou; LF = Lufeng.
PENG ET AL. 1331
1331

Figure 5. Thermal–burial evolution of strata in the Huizhou sag,
northern Pearl River Mouth Basin. EP = Eocene Enping Formation;
Fm = formation; HJ = Miocene Hanjiang Formation; Q = Qua-
ternary; Ro = vitrinite reflectance; W = water depth; WC = Eocene
Wenchang Formation; WS = Pliocene Wanshan Formation; YH =
Miocene Yuehai Formation; ZH = Oligocene Zhuhai Formation;
ZJ = Miocene Zhujiang Formation.
in the Huilu area. This lateral variation in TOC and
GP values indicates that the Enping Formation
mudstones are relatively heterogeneous, which is a
common characteristic of lacustrine source rocks with
rapid facies transitions (Follows and Tyson, 1998;
Justwan et al., 2006; Hao et al., 2011).
Based on source-rock evaluation standards (Peters,
1986; Huang et al., 1995; Figure 7), the mudstones
of the Enping Formation all have relatively moder-
ate OM abundances and GP values and are consid-
erate “fair” source rocks (Figure 7). These data,
combined with the total area and net thickness of the
Enping Formation mudstones in the study area (ca.
1332 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin
1332
1.5 · 104 km2 [5.8 · 103 mi2]) and 130–1000 m
(430–3280 ft), respectively; Chen et al., 2003; Yuan
et al., 2014; Peng et al., 2016) suggest that these
mudstones may represent a set of source-rock units
responsible for commercial hydrocarbon accumula-
tion in the basin.
Organic Matter Type
In this study, Rock-Eval pyrolysis data, the relation-
ship between the HI and Tmax, and the geochemistry
of the extractable OM were used to determine the
OM type.
Rock-Eval Pyrolysis Data
The HI value is generally regarded as an effective
indicator of the OM type present in rock (Espitalié
et al., 1977). However, HI values should be used with
caution when TOC is less than 2 wt. % in rocks
because HI can be affected by both the mineral matrix
and the presence of locally elevated concentrations of
organic material (Katz, 1983). The HI values of most
Enping Formation mudstones range from 68 to
251 mgHC/gTOC (Table 1). These values suggest that
the rocks predominantly contain type III kerogen and
are likely to produce gas during maturation (Espitalié
et al., 1977; Katz, 1983). The Tmax values for Enping
Formation mudstones range from 420°C to 460°C
(788°F to 860°F) (Figure 8; Table 1).
Previous research focusing on the organic pe-
trology of the Enping Formation mudstones indicates
that vitrinite is the predominant maceral component
(Zhu et al., 2007; Figure 9). These results are in good
PENG ET AL. 1332
1332
Figure 6. Impact of thermal maturity on the organic matter abundance and character. (A) Cross-plot of vitrinite reflectance (Ro) versus
total organic carbon content (TOC). (B) Crossplot of Ro versus hydrogen index (HI). HC = hydrocarbon.

1333 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin PENG ET AL. 1333
1333 1333
 Tricyclic terpanes (TT) are abundant in Enping
Formation mudstones (Figure 11A, D, G, J). Tricyclic
terpanes have complex biological precursors and their

Figure 7. Crossplot of total organic carbon content (TOC)

versus generation potential (GP) of Enping Formation mudstone
in Huilu area, northern Pearl River Mouth Basin. HC = hydro-
carbon; HZ = Huizhou; LF = Lufeng.

agreement with the kerogen types determined from

our Rock-Eval pyrolysis and biomarkers data, and
support that the OM in the Enping Formation black
mudstones in the Huilu area is predominantly type III
(gas-prone) OM.

Biomarker Characterization
The Enping Formation extracts from the Huilu area of
the northern Pearl River Mouth Basin contain abun-
dant alkanes, steranes, and terpanes (Figure 10;
Table 2). These biomarkers are significantly dif-
ferent from extracts from the lower Eocene Wenchang
Formations (Zhang et al., 2004b). The abundance of
C30 4-methyl steranes in Enping Formation extracts is
relatively low (C30 4-methyl steranes/SC29 sterane <
0.5) (Table 2), whereas C30 4-methyl steranes in
Wenchang Formation extracts are generally much
higher (ratios > 1) (Zhang et al., 2004b; Li et al., 2009).
The Enping Formation extracts generally contain high
abundances of trans-trans-trans-bicadinane (T) relative
to C30 hopane (T/C30 hopane ratios range from 0.1 to
2.58; Table 2), whereas a low abundance of T (T/C30
hopane ratios generally lower than 0.5) is observed in
the Wenchang Formation extracts from the study area
(Zhang et al., 2004b; Fu and Zhu, 2007; Li et al., 2009;
Hu et al., 2015). These observations indicate that the
biomarkers in the Enping Formation extracts analyzed
in this study are, instead of representing fluids, derived
from Wenchang Formation source rocks.

1334 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin PENG ET AL. 1334
1334 1334
 origin remains controversial (Aquino Neto et al., 1983;
Volkman et al., 1989). Some C19–C20 TT are derived
from higher plants, suggesting possibly a swamp de-
positional environment (Noble, 1986; Peters et al.,
2005). The Enping Formation mudstone extracts
show relatively high C19/C23 values (most ratios >0.5;
Table 2), which is a characteristic of a deltaic swamp to
shallow lacustrine facies depositional environment
with input from higher plants materials, such as plant
waxes and cuticles (Moldowan et al., 1985; Volkman,
1986). Further evidence of this is provided by the
coal seams discovered in the upper Eocene strata of
the southern Pearl River Mouth Basin (Li et al.,
2012). In addition, the samples from well LF 13
contain a higher abundance of C21 and C23 TT and
lesser amounts of C19 TT than in the other samples
(Figure 11J; Table 2). This suggests less terrigenous
input to the mudstones at the LF 13 location, which
caused the hydrogen-enriched characteristic of the
rocks. These data are consistent with the GP and HI
data discussed previously.
Trans-trans-trans-bicadinane (T) is widely ob-
served in the crude oil and sediments of Southeast
Asia, resulting from a characteristic resin input from
higher plants (Van Aarssen et al, 1990). The trans-
trans-trans-bicadinane/C30 hopane ratio (T/C30H) is
proportional to the input from terrigenous higher

Figure 8. Crossplot of Tmax versus hydrogen index of Enping

Formation mudstone in Huilu area, northern Pearl River Mouth
Basin. Template modified from Espitalié (1985). HC = hydrocarbon;
HZ = Huizhou; I = type I kerogen; II = type II kerogen; III = type III
kerogen; LF = Lufeng; Ro = vitrinite reflectance; Tmax = the tem-
perature at which the maximum S2 yield is reached; TOC = total
organic carbon.

1335 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin PENG ET AL. 1335
1335 1335

Figure 9. Organic maceral characteristics of Enping Formation
mudstones in the northern Pearl River Mouth Basin (data from Zhu
et al., 2007). Note that wells Huizhou (HZ) 8, HZ 23, and Xijiang (XJ)
24 are located in Huilu area (Figure 1), whereas wells XJ 33 and
Panyu (PY) 33 are located in Xijiang sag, to the east of Huizhou sag,
which experienced similar evolution and deposition history.
1336 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin
1336
plants. Generally, the T/C 30H ratios of semideep
to deep lacustrine facies of Wenchang Formation
mudstone extracts are less than 0.1 (Zhang et al.,
2004b). Enping Formation mudstones display
T/C 30 H values ranging from 0.1 to 2.58; most of
them are greater than 0.5 (Figure 12). Samples with
high pristane/phytane (Pr/Ph) ratios (>3) also contain
terrigenous OM input from an oxic depositional
environment. Combined with the interpretation of
the HI values and tricyclic terpane distributions, Pr/Ph
(Figure 12; Table 2) indicates terrigenous OM input
in a suboxic-to-oxic depositional environment, most
likely shallow lacustrine to deltaic swamp facies.
Abundant gammacerane is indicative of de-
position in a stratification water column (Damsté
et al., 1995). High abundances of C30 4-methyl
steranes are typically observed in semideep to deep
lacustrine environments (Brassell et al., 1986; Summons
et al., 1992) and are believed to be derived from di-
noflagellates such as Bohaidina and Parabohaidina. Such
phytoplankton have been identified in large quantities
in Eocene rocks (mostly semideep to deep lacustrine
PENG ET AL. 1336
1336
Figure 10. Representative gas chromatography and mass chromatograms (mass-to-charge ratio [m/z] 191) of the saturated fractions for
Enping Formation mudstones in the Huilu area. (A) Huizhou (HZ) 22 well (4206 m [13,799 ft]); (B) HZ 22 well (4179 m [13,711 ft]). C30H =
C30 hopane; G = gammacerane; HZ = Huizhou; OL = oleanane; TIC = total ions chromatograph; Tm = 22, 29, 30, 17a–trisnorhopane; Ts =
22, 29, 30, 18a–trisnorneohopane.

1337 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin PENG ET AL. 1337
1337 1337
 Figure 11. Gas and mass chromatograms of Enping Formation (E2e) mudstones from the Huilu area: (A), (D), (G), and (J) show
distribution characteristics of tricyclic terpanes (mass-to-charge ratio [m/z] 191); (B), (E), (H), and (K) show distribution characteristics of
steranes (m/z 217); (C), (F), (I), and (L) show the enrichment of trans-trans-trans-bicadinane (T) (m/z 412). C19 TT–C23 TT = C19–C23
tricyclic terpanes; C30H = C30 hopane; HZ = Huizhou; LF = Lufeng.
facies) of Chinese offshore basins (Chen et al., 1996, deposition environment and phytoplankton input
1998; Hao et al., 2011; Hu et al., 2015). The variation in (Zhang et al., 2004b).
gammacerane index (gammacerane/C30 hopane) with The distribution pattern of the C27, C28, and
C30 4-methyl sterane index (C30 4-methyl sterane/SC29 C29 aaa20R steranes has a close relationship with
sterane) for 22 samples from the study area is shown in the input of parent material into the source rock.
Figure 13. With the exception of one sample from well Plankton and terrigenous higher plants are com-
LF 13 (field B in Figure 13), the Enping Formation monly characterized by a high abundance of C27 and
mudstones have C30 4-methyl sterane indices lower C29 steranes, respectively (Huang and Meinschein,
than 0.3 and a gammacerane index between 0.02 and 1979; Moldowan et al., 1985). The Enping Formation
0.17 (field A in Figure 13), suggesting a relatively small mudstones in the Huilu area are dominated by C29
contribution of OM from phytoplankton and pre- regular steranes (range from 40.1% to 58.3%;
dominantly freshwater conditions during the deposition mean, 50.9%), indicating that the OM in these
of Enping Formation. In contrast, Wenchang Forma- rocks is dominated by material derived from
tion source rocks contain abundant C30 4-methyl higher plants (Figures 11B, E, H, K; 14; Table
steranes, suggesting a semideep to deep lacustrine 2). Samples from well LF 13 contain more C 27

1338 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin PENG ET AL. 1338
1338 1338
 indicative of suboxic (slightly oxic) to oxic conditions
(Figure 11; Table 2). Several Pr/Ph values are greater

Figure 12. Crossplot of trans-trans-trans-bicadinane (T)/C30

hopane versus pristane/phytane (Pr/Ph) of Enping Formation
mudstone in Huilu area, northern Pearl River Mouth Basin.
HZ = Huizhou; LF = Lufeng.

steranes and less C29 steranes than do the rocks from

other wells (Figure 11K; Table 2), indicating
that the rocks in the LF13 well contain more algal-
derived material.

Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential

A variety of factors, such as the volume of source

rocks, and organic richness, type, and maturity, co-
determine the hydrocarbon GP of source rocks (Huang
and Li, 1982; Katz, 2005).

General Geological Conditions for Source Rock

Development
The Enping Formation was deposited during the
Zhuqiong II rifting movement (ca. 38 Ma), which
caused the widespread deposition of lacustrine
mudstones that cover nearly the entire basin. Laterally,
Enping Formation mudstone is thicker to the east and
thinner to the west. The maximum net thicknesses of
source rocks in the Huizhou and Lufeng sags are 1000
and 800 m (3280 and 2600 ft), respectively (Peng
et al., 2016; Figure 15).
This rifting episode and flooding event initiated
by Zhuqiong II movement in the lacustrine basin
produced a geochemical response. The low-energy
areas in shallow lacustrine and deltaic swamp–plain
facies, such as areas below the wave base and in-
terchannel, were favorable for OM accumulation and
preservation. The majority of the Enping Formation
samples have Pr/Ph values of 0.8 to 3.0, which is

1339 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin PENG ET AL. 1339
1339 1339
than 3.0, which indicate a suboxic swamp setting
(Volkman and Maxwell, 1986). The Enping Forma-
tion contains thick black or dark-gray mudstones
(Peng et al., 2016). This suggests that the depositional
environment during the late Eocene was suboxic. Good
preservation conditions for OM and the lake-flooding
event described earlier may have initiated the devel-
opment of source rocks in the study area.
High proportions of terrigenous OM input during
the late Eocene may have also promoted the devel-
opment of Enping Formation source rocks. The late
Eocene paleoclimate in South China was generally
humid and warm (Zachos et al., 2001), conditions that
are favorable for the growth and preservation of OM
(Grunau, 1983; Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991; Katz,
2005). The northern uplift zone was the main prov-
enance for the Huilu area during the late Eocene, and
terrigenous OM flow into the basin from the northwest
and east of the Huilu area by river systems (Chen et al.,
2003; Li et al., 2007). The Enping Formation mud-
stones in the Pearl River Mouth Basin presumably have
hydrocarbon GP. A conceptual formation model
for these hydrocarbon source rocks was established
(Figure 16).

Geochemical Characteristics Indicating Hydrocarbon-

Generation Potential
The geochemical data in Table 1 suggest that there
are lateral variations in TOC, HI, and GP values, and

Figure 13. Crossplot of 4-methyl steranes/SC29 sterane versus

gammacerane/C30 hopane of Enping Formation mudstone in Huilu
area, northern Pearl River Mouth Basin. A = freshwater settings
with higher terrestrial organic matter (OM) input; B = freshwater
settings with phytoplankton input; C = stratification water columns
with higher terrestrial OM input; D = stratification water columns
with phytoplankton input; HZ = Huizhou; LF = Lufeng.

1340 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin PENG ET AL. 1340
1340 1340

Figure 14. Relative abundances of C27, C28, and C29 aaa20R
steranes of Enping Formation mudstone in Huilu area, northern
Pearl River Mouth Basin. HZ = Huizhou; LF = Lufeng.
Figure 15. Thickness distribution of Enping Formation source rocks in the Huilu area, Pearl River Mouth Basin (contour values in meters;
1341 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin
1341
that Enping Formation mudstones are relatively
heterogeneous. Specifically, the HI values in the
LF13 well and the nearby LF8 well have shown great
difference (Table 1). These variations may be caused
by rapid facies transition, which are a characteristic of
lacustrine source rocks (Follows and Tyson, 1998;
Justwan et al., 2006; Hao et al., 2011). Affected by
the deltaic depositional system and the terrigenous
OM input, the source rocks in the west of the study
area (Huizhou sag) are dominated by type III kerogen,
whereas the Lufeng sag is dominated by shallow la-
custrine mudstone with relatively low terrigenous
OM input and greater algal input, as discussed earlier.
The highest HI values were identified in the LF 13
well in the Huilu area, which may suggest more
hydrogen in OM in the area near the LF 13 well.
However, such interpretations should be viewed with
caution because the lower maturity in the LF 13 well
can also explain the elevated HI values. But the HI
values in well LF13 are still higher than the sample
with similar thermal maturity from well HZ 25A.
PENG ET AL. 1341
1341
 modified from Peng et al., 2016). HZ = Huizhou; LF = Lufeng; XJ = Xijiang.

1342 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin PENG ET AL. 1342
1342 1342
Figure 16. Schematic and
conceptual formation model of
Enping Formation source rocks
in the Huilu area, Pearl River
Mouth Basin.
Further evidence about the OM origin and deposition
environment was obtained from GC and GC–MS
data. The variations in the biomarkers in Table 2, such
as the T/C30H ratio, TT distribution, and C27, C28,
and C29 aaa20R sterane distribution, are consistent
with the geological model (Figure 17). Specifically,
relatively less T, C19 TT, and C29 sterane, indicators of
input from higher plants, was detected in the Lufeng
sag (wells LF 8 and LF 13). Previous research indicates
that the extracts of Enping source rocks in the Lufeng
sag have relatively higher abundance of C30 4-methyl
steranes and a lower abundance of T and C19 TT
compared with extracts of Enping source rocks in
Huizhou sag (Guo et al., 2015). Despite these vari-
ations, the OM of Enping Formation source rocks in
the Lufeng sag still contains type III kerogen and is
mainly gas-prone (Figure 8).
The geochemical data suggest that the Enping
Formation mudstones contain marginal hydrocarbon
GP. Any hydrocarbons generated by these rocks
would be predominantly gas. Theoretically, the hy-
drocarbon potential in sags should be higher than on
uplifts, and the types of OM in sags may be more oil-
prone (Kelts, 1988; Katz, 2005). Therefore, the oil
GP of sags should not be entirely dismissed.
Oil–Source Correlation
The Huilu area is dominated by oil accumulations,
whereas gas accumulations are uncommon (Shi,
2013). Considering that most Enping Formation
source rocks are sufficiently mature to have generated
hydrocarbons as discussed earlier, and three regional
1343 Hydrocarbon-Generation Potential of Eocene Mudrocks, Pearl River Mouth Basin
1343
cap rocks were developed in upper Eocene to Mio-
cene rocks in the study area, the paucity of gas ac-
cumulation can be interpreted in three ways. (1) The
Enping Formation mudstones are not good sources for
hydrocarbons, as evidenced by the geochemical data
in this study. (2) The Enping Formation mudstones
are not sufficiently mature for gas generation in large
quantity. (3) Enping Formation rocks in sags may
have gas GP but the gas accumulates in the deep-
buried Enping Formation; in this case, such accu-
mulations should be considered a high priority for
future exploration.
Oil–source rocks are more likely to be present in
sags, as these areas have a higher quality OM type
relative to that in uplifted areas (Kelts, 1988; Katz,
2005). This distribution pattern of source rocks has
been reported in previous research on Huizhou sag,
for example, oil accumulation in the Oligocene
Zhuhai Formation in well HZ 9, characterized by
a high abundance of T and a low abundance of C30
4-methyl sterane, and has been considered based on
Enping mudstones in the central of Huizhou sag (Li
et al., 2009).
To further discuss the oil GP of the Enping
Formation mudstones in the Huilu area, we ex-
amined the geochemical characteristics of the oil
samples in the Huilu area, as reported previously by
Zhang et al. (2004b) and Li et al. (2009). Among
the oil samples from the Huilu area, the C30 4-
methyl sterane index increases from the deep to
shallow basin (Figure 17A), whereas the trans-trans-
trans-bicadinane/C 30 hopane values decrease from
the deep to shallow basin (Figure 17B). As discussed
PENG ET AL. 1343
1343
 Figure 17. Biomarker varia-
tions of petroleum from the deep
to shallow basin. (A) Cross-plot of
trans–trans–trans–bicadinane/
C30 hopane (T/C30H) versus
depth. (B) Cross-plot of C30
4-methyl steranes/SC29 sterane
versus depth. Data collected from
Zhang et al. (2004b) and Li et al.
(2009). Such a biomarker distri-
bution pattern indicates that oils
in the shallow basin (<3000 m
[9850 ft]) most likely derived
from phytoplankton organic
matter (OM) (Wenchang For-
mation mudstones), whereas oil
accumulations in the deep basin (>3000 m [9850 ft]) may partially derived from terrestrial OM (Enping Formation mudstones). HZ = Huizhou;
XJ = Xijiang.
earlier, the Enping Formation extracts were charac- deposition of lacustrine mudstones during a flood-
terized as having low C30 4-methyl sterane contents ing event.
and high abundances of T. The oil biomarker distri-
bution pattern (Figure 17) suggests that Enping For- 1. Enping Formation source rocks in the Huilu area of
mation mudstones may have partly contributed to oil the northern Pearl River Mouth Basin have TOC
accumulations in the deeper part (maybe deeper contents ranging from 0.55 to 3.3 wt. % (mean,
than 3000 m [9850 ft]) of the basin. However, no oil- 1.35 wt. %) and are dominated by type III kerogen
prone Enping Formation mudstones have been en- derived from terrigenous plant material. The OM
countered by wells in the deep sags, so such speculation in these rocks reached the early-to-midmature
requires confirmation. stage in uplifted areas (Ro = 0.5%–1.0%) and the
In general, the oil GP of the Enping Formation late–mature stage in sags (Ro = 1.0%–1.3%). At
mudstones is still uncertain, mainly because of the these thermal maturity levels, hydrocarbons can be
absence of mudstone samples from deeper sags. generated.
Existing oil–source correlations may need to be 2. During maturation, the Enping Formation source
reexamined because Enping Formation mudstones rocks would primarily generate gas.
may contribute some of the oil in the study area. If 3. The episodic rifting movement and flooding event
the current understanding of oil–source correlation in the lacustrine basin, which was associated with
is correct, and the oils in uplifted areas are not the introduction of a large quantity of terrestrial
derived the Enping Formation mudstones; then, higher plants by rivers, led to OM accumulation
the oil GP of the Enping Formation mudstones may and preservation that formed type III kerogen in
be low. For Enping Formation mudstone samples Enping Formation source rocks. The rapid trans-
from deep sags, it is necessary to identify whether verse facies changes led to the geochemical het-
these contain oil-prone OM. erogeneity of the source rocks.

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the mudstone samples from newly drilled
wells, the geochemical characteristics and qualities
of these rocks were analyzed. The results provide
a reference for regional hydrocarbon-exploration
potential and present a new case study on the
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