REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
REPRODUCTION – organisms produces its own kind to ensure that its
breed lives on
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS – when the gametes (male and
female sex cells), unite to form a single cell called zygote
ANGIOSPERMS – plants that bear flowers, reproduce sexually.
PETALS - flower’s brightly colored parts
RECEPTACLE – part of the plant which flower is attached
SEPALS – leaflike parts that enclose and protect the flower bud before it
blooms
STAMEN – male reproductive part/made up of anther and filament
FILAMENT – stalk that suports the anther
ANTHER – where pollen is produced
POLLEN – tiny grains containing the sperm that is necessary for sexual
repoduction
CARPEL/PISTIL – female reproductive part/made up of stigma, style and
ovary
STIGMA – sticky part that catches the pollen grains
STYLE – long tube like part that connects the stigma to the ovary
OVARY – contains the ovule/unfertilized egg
POLLINATION – reproduction in flowering plants
SELF-POLLINATION - transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma
of the same plant
CROSS POLLINATION - pollen from the anther of one plant may also be
transferred to the stigma of another plant
FERTILIZATION – sperm and egg cells unite and takes place after
pollination
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION - occurs when a sperm cell unites with an egg
cell to form a zygote
TYPES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
1. SYNGAMY/FERTILIZATION - union of gametes (sperm & ovum)
2. CONJUGATION - involves two organisms of the same species with
similar appearance but have different biochemical compositions
GONADS - sex organs of multicellular animals
MONOECIOUS/HERMAPHRODITES - organisms that have both male
and female reproductive organs
DIOECIOUS - organisms that have separate sexes (either male or
female)
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - only one parent is needed to reproduce a
new individual
MECHANISMS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
1. BINARY FISSION - simplest process of asexual reproduction wherein
the body of an organism divides into new bodies
2. BUDDING - outgrowths or buds develop from the parent organism
3. FRAGMENTATION - organism's body is divided into two or more
parts, wherein each fragment develops into an organisms with
characteristics like that of the parent
4. REGENERATION - specialized form wherein detached parts of some
organisms can regrow or regenerate
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
- one type of asexual reproduction
- new plant can grow from a vegetative part taken from the parent plant
TUBERS
- thick and swollen stolons
- modified stems that grow deep under the ground and contain the
nutrients that the plants need for growth
 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT FOR CELLS TO MANUFACTURE PROTEINS?
EYES
- they are the building blocks for various parts of the human body
- tuber's small nodes

- leaves sprout and grow into new plants

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS - cells produce the proteins that an organism
needs in order to live and grow
MODIFIED STEMS THAT CAN BE USED FOR VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
TWO MAJOR STAGES:
1. BULBS
1. TRANSCRIPTION

- segment of DNA is copied

- this copy or transcript is known as ribonucleic acid (RNA)

2. RHIZOMES - stem that grows horizontally under the ground. as it
grows, it develops new stems that grow in a vertical direction and
produces new plants
TRANSLATION - stage when RNA is transformed into a chain of amino
acids

RIBOSOME - translates RNA into new protein takes place in a part of the
3. RUNNER/STOLON - grows in a horizontal direction but grows above
cell
the ground

MESSENGER RNA (mRNA)

REPRODUCTION AND THE GENETIC MAKEUP
- RNA that attaches to the ribosome
REPRODUCTION - process that supports the perpetuation of a species
- carries the genetic information which specifies the amino acid
CHROMOSOMES - threadlike structures made up of deoxyribonucleic
sequence of its nucleotide bases
and protein
CODON
DNA - made up of a nucleotide, or a pattern that is made up of three
parts: five-carbon sugar, base with nitrogen & phosphate
- three adjoining nucleotide bases (triplet)

- dictates for a specific amino acid

GENES

- small segments of DNA

TRANSFER RNA (tRNA)
- contains information about the traits that an organisms has inherited
- RNA molecule
from its parents
- found in the cytoplasm carries also 3 adjoining nucleotides whose
- store instructions for cells to follow so they can carry out protein
bases correspond to the sequence of bases in the codon
synthesis

PERPETUATION THROUGH GENETIC ENGINEERING

PROTEINS - made up of amino acids

GENETIC ENGINEERING - could manipulate or change the genetic

AMINO ACIDS - special organic molecules that consist of carbon,
makeup of a plant or an animal even outside of reproduction
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
METABOLISM GAS EXCHANGE
- set of life-sustaining chemical processes that occur within the cells of
all organisms BREATHING – physical process of taking in oxygen and releasing carbon
- allow organisms to survive and maintain the functions of their organ dioxide
systems
RESPIRATION – exchange of gases (inhalation and exhalation)
TWO CATEGORIES:
1. CATABOLISM
- breaks down large molecules into smaller ones and release energy in ANIMALS OBTAIN OXYGEN IN DIFFERENT WAYS:
the process
2. ANABOLISM – uses energy to build up the chemical components of 1. From the air or water through the moist surface directly into the
the cells body

NUTRIENTS 2. From the air or water through a thin, moist body wall of blood vessels
- substances that the animal’s body uses for growth, maintenance, and
3. From the air through spiracles or a tracheal system
repair
- carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water 4. From water through moist gill surfaces to blood vessels

5. From the air through moist lungs surface to blood vessels

ROLE OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

INGESTION – process by which an animal takes in food

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM - skin or body surface system
DIGESTION – ingested food is broken down into simple substances that
can be absorbed by the body
GILLS
TWO PHASES:
- aquatic animals use this to promote the exchange of gases
1. MECHANICAL DIGESTION - the food that has been ingested is
physically broken down into smaller pieces - extensions of the outside membranes in most aquatic animals

CHEWING – important in the digestive process because smaller pieces

of food can be processed more easily during chemical digestion
TRACHEAE – several tubes that form a network in their bodies
PTYALIN – the enzyme as food mixes with the saliva
SPIRACLES – open to the outside surface of the animal’s bodies
MASTICATION – process by which mammals tear and chew their food
into pieces using their teeth

LUNGS – pair of organs divided into small chambers filled with

capillaries
2. CHEMICAL DIGESTION – body processes the food in such a way that
the nutrients it contains can be absorbed in the small intestines TRACHEA - tube that connects the nose and mouth to the lungs

ENZYMES – catalyctic proteins/chamicals in the animal’s body that ALVEOLUS/AIR SAC – where actual gas exchange occurs
break down food into nutrients
DIAPHRAGM – dome shaped muscle under the lungs

SOME DISEASES RELATED TO THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:

1. GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX DISEASE (GERD) – weakness in the
valve between the esophagus and the stomach
2. JAUNDICE – blockage of the ducts that drain bile from the liver into
the intestines, or when there is excessive breakdown of red blood cells
3. PORTAL HYPERTENSION – when the liver is damaged and venous
blood through the liver is obstructed
SOME DISEASES RELATED TO GAS EXCHANGE:
1. EMPHYSEMA – progressive destruction of the air sacs in the lungs
and loss of membrane which is responsible for oxygen exchange
2. CYSTIC FIBROSIS – causes frequent lung infections because of mucus
build up
3. PNEUMONIA – inflammation of the lung especially the alveoli or air
sacs
 FORMATION OF UNIVERSE

BIG BANG THEORY

- remains to be the prevailing cosmological model for the

early development of the universe

- small hot dense ball expanded until it massively exploded

- particles either combined/decayed

- coldest layer

- important in protecting Earth from planetary debris

MESOPAUSE

- thin buffer zone before thermosphere

THERMOSPHERE

- hottest layer

IONOSPHERE

- lower part of the thermosphere where particles of O and

N are electrically charged by solar wind causing the
spectacular display of colourful lights called Aurora

AURORA BOREALIS/northern lights – northern regions

AURORA AUSTRALIS/southern lights – southern regions

THERMOPAUSE

- buffer zone before space

BIOSPHERE

- makes up all the living components on Earth

ORIGIN OF BIOSPHERE

- Theory of Primordial Soup

- Deep-sea Vent Theory

- Panpersmia