H2 History – Approach to National Unity

A - Level H2 History
C2

Approach to National Building

South-East Asia
Newly Independent States
1945-1997

- Extent and Approaches of Nation Building

- Minority Policy

~ Challenges to Nation Building

0
 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

Overall Strengths and Limitations of Approaches

Remember to tweak thesis and analysis to adapt to extent of nation building and effectiveness of
approaches of nation building vs Challenges

Possible Introductions:

 Modern nation-states which are legacies of colonial rule often comprise of

fragmented communities that bear little historical, cultural, religious or linguistic
affinity
 Attempts at assimilating or integrating these sizeable minorities more often than not
been a challenge
 Lack of physical and emotional investment often resulted in violent rejection
 Few have managed to create some semblance of unity
 Erroneous to believe it has been successful in all aspects of forging national unity

Possible Introductions:

 To access extent of success,

 Tangible – Political stability and absence of conflict
 Intangible – Sense of “imagined community”

All factors: Education, Language, Religion, Dominant Culture, Ideology,

National Symbols, Economic Development, Political representation

All Concepts: Ideology, Communalism, national identity, pluralism, regionalism,

secession, assimilation, accommodation, multiculturalism

IF QUESTION SPECIFIES MINORITY – LINK ALL POLICIES TO HOW IT AFFECTS MINORITY

NOTE: Nation Building is about Platform/Toois
Minority usually questions the effectiveness on the minority group.
REMEMBER to state effect of policy!

Nation Building Minority Policy

(Tools/Platforms) (Policies)
Education Assimilation
Language Multiculturalism
Religion and Culture/Ideology Political Representation
Socio-Economic Development
Political Representation Discrimination and Coercion
Socio-Economic Development

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

**Platforms for Approach** (Nation Building)

Note: Some sections highly interlinked with similar evidences, remember not to overlap.
Either combine factors or ensure different set of evidences and links

**1. Education
-ve: Education [Assimilation]




Indonesia Burma Thailand

 Chinese language  Teaching of history  Aim of assimilating hill tribes

schools phased out from Burman into Thai culture
 Banned Chinese perspective  Border Patrol Police assigned to
language teaching,  Patronage of establish schools in hills
speaking Buddhism  Primary Education Act closed
 Established  Emphasis on pondoks and children were to
schools and Buddhist precepts attend state schools
colleges run by  Pondok teachers loss their
Chinese  These attempts at positions of influence as
Indonesian Burmanisation educators
foundations were alienated
nationalized and minorities  Prohibition of Jawi language in
facilities seized  Karen and other schools which anger Patani
without minorities involved Malays
compensation in separatist
 Converted to state struggle against  Resulted in 1948 Dyson Nyor
schools such as the civilian Revolt where more than 1000
Universitas Trisakti government Muslims attacked police due to
Prohibition of teaching of Jawi
 Transmigration language
 Further  Continued assimilation also
strengthened triggered birth for independent
feelings of Islamic state PULO in 1968
discontent  Waged insurgency against Thai,
 assassinating police and army,
Buddhist and bombing of
 schools

 Overall Link

o Evaluation of importance with relation to stand

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

+ve: Education [Multiculturalism]





Singapore Malaysia

 English selected as school medium  Growth in national curricula in history

language due it its international status
 Policy of bilingualism to acknowledge
mother tongue, by making it
compulsory 2nd language subjects
 1997, Compulsory Nation Education to
inculcate loyalty and common sense of
values across all racial groups, eg.
“Racial and religious harmony”,
“Consensus, not conflict”
and social sciences
 Lives and deeds of men and women
who fought for ideals of communities
were held up as worthy to be
honored
 National heroes names replaced road
or town names
 Languages allowed to be taught



 Showed that there was a mode of
communication amongst different 
ethnic groups
 Concerned also with languages to be
taught for moral and civic values

 Overall Link

o Difficult to excess intangibles

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity
**2. Language
-ve: Language [Assimilation]
 Assimilationist opted to impose majority language as national language
 Resulted in division rather than unity

Burma
 Ne Win’s language policies
 Measures to restrict use of ethnic
languages
 While allowing Karen, Shan and Mon
languages to be taught in standards 1
and 2 in their home state, they
gradually starved necessary resources
which resulted in a de facto ban
 1999, minority languages rarely used
and publications restricted to folksy
and housewife magazines
 Resulted in continued demands by
ethnic minorities for separate states till
1990s
 Overall Link
o Evaluation of importance with relation to stand
Thailand
 Pursued use of Thai and national
language and medium of instruction
in all schools, government offices,
religious text
 Resentment from Minority Muslims
in Patani South
 Feared marginalization and dilution
or language
 Resulted in 1948 Dyson Nyor Revolt
where more than 1000 Muslims
attacked police due to Prohibition of
teaching of Jawi language
 Continued assimilation also triggered
birth for independent Islamic state
PULO in 1968
 Waged insurgency against Thai,
assassinating police and army,
Buddhist and bombing of schools
 Separatist movement evidence of
failure
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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

+ve: Language [ABNORMALY] [Assimilation]

(Write only if necessary)
[Linked to Assimilation]

 Some instances of successful use of assimilation

Thailand Malaysia [LIMITED multiculturalism]

 “Nation-Religion-King”, loose definition of  Adopted Multiculturalist approach, but

Thai – Adhered to Buddhism, spoke Thai
and loyalty to King
 Emphasis on Thai language, undermining
study of Chinese and minority languages
 Students allowed to study Chinese for only
2 hours a week, rest of subjects in Thai
 Central Thai in government, schools and
religious texts
 Successful in unifying the Chinese with Thai
 Chinese took on Thai names, spoke Thai
language fluently
 Assimilation enabled Chinese to integrate
as Thais
adoption of Malay language can be seen
as assimilation of limited extent
 Article 152 which made Malay National
language and Malay official language in
1967
 Malay as medium of instruction in
education
 Understanding and commitment by all
groups to honor bargain of Merdeka
Constitution
 Assimilation with consent of people as it
was developed in a context of
multiculturalism as opposed to
assimilation

 Language in the form of assimilation enabled integration through the adoption of majority
rules

o Despite this, important to consider that only Chinese integrated into society, gave rise ot
resentment from other minority groups such as Patani Malays

Thailand [This would be better used for factor above]

 Pursued use of Thai and national language and medium of instruction in all schools,
government offices, religious text
 Resentment from Minority Muslims in Patani South
 Feared marginalization and dilution or language

 Resulted in 1948 Dyson Nyor Revolt where more than 1000 Muslims attacked police
due to Prohibition of teaching of Jawi language
 Continued assimilation also triggered birth for independent Islamic state PULO in 1968
 Waged insurgency against Thai, assassinating police and army, Buddhist and bombing
of schools

 Separatist movement evidence of failure

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

+ve: Language [Multiculturalism]

 Medium of communication
 Foster sense of collective consciousness
 Adoption of neutral language succeed to larger degree (multi-culturalism)
 Assimilation resulted in negative consequences (refer below)

Indonesia Singapore

 Despite Javanese being language of  Pursued policy of multi-linguicism

majority, it was not designated as
national language
 Bahasa Indonesia as national language
 Provided basis for linguistic unity
among various groups within
archipelago
 Used in government, education, public
administration and armed forces
 Ensured language has not provided
point of contention between different
ethnic groups
 All four official languages treated
equally
 Malay as national language for
historical purposes
 However, not compulsory for non-
Malays to learn it for citizenship
 English selected as working language
for its international status
 Policy of bilingualism to acknowledge
mother tongue, by making it
compulsory 2nd language subjects
 Ethnically neutral language English
removed inter-ethnic conflict based
on language issue
 Promote equality to foster strong
sense of unity

 Overall Link

o Evaluation of importance with relation to stand

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

**3. Religion and Culture

-ve: Religion [Assimilation]
 Religion intertwined with culture and daily lives of population
 Hencce it was a viable basis to build national unity
 However, its application was often divisive to the point of alienating minorities resulting in
separatist movement

Burma Philippines

 U Nu’s patronage of Buddhism  Dominant Catholic character

 Buddhism in state schools in 1954
 Made Buddhism state religion in 1961
 Alienated non-Buddhist minority
 Karen perceived it as Burmanisation
policy
 Led to formation of Karen National
Union in 1948 to defend identity
 Continued demands for separation till
1990s
 Christian
 Government promoted state
penetration into peripheral areas by
encouraging Christian settlers from
Luzon and central islands to resettle
into Mindanao
 Muslim majority of 76% became 19% by
1990
 Exacerbated existing tensions between
Christians and Muslims as they loss land
and control
 Compounded by superior status of
 Resulted in MNLF demanding
independence in 1968
 Ressulted in open rebellion in 1972
 MILF in 1981

 Overall Link

o Evaluation of importance with relation to stand

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

+ve: Religion [ABNORMALY] [Assimilation]

(Write only if necessary)
 Religion enabled forging of communities

Thailand

 Ideology of “Nation-Religion-King” constituted loose definition of what it is to be Thai –

Adhered to Buddhism and offered loyalty to king
 Brought minority Chinese in peripheral areas and converted them to Buddhist
 Thammathut program in 1965, by Thanom, where Buddhist monks travelled to
peripheral areas to strength villagers to Buddhism

 Instrumental as Chinese saw themselves as Thais

 Chinese who married Thais adopted Buddhism
 Took on Thai culture and names

 Overall Link

o However, must consider majority of other minorities rebelled, eg. Patani Malays

Thailand

 Banning of practice of Sharia law

 Resentment from Minority Muslims in Patani South

 Resulted in 1948 Dyson Nyor Revolt where more than 1000 Muslims attacked police
 Continued assimilation also triggered birth for independent Islamic state PULO in 1968
 Waged insurgency against Thai, assassinating police and army, Buddhist and bombing of
schools which were seen as brainwashing Muslims to convert into Buddhists

 Separatist movement evidence of failure

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

+ve: Religion [Multiculturalism]

(Do not phrase it as a multiculturalist approach, phrase it as “Downplaying religion, “focus
on secularism”, Not “Using of religion by downplaying differences”)

 Religion intertwined with culture and daily lives of population

 Hence it was a viable basis to build national unity
 However, in countries which downplayed its importance, (multiculturalism), it showed
better results of nation building

Singapore Indonesia

 National pledge asserts “regardless of  Pancasila – Principle of Unity and

race, language or religion”
 Enthnic integration policy 1989 which
placed ethnic quotas in public housing
and faculties of local universities
 Prevented the formation of racial
enclaves
Diversity acknowledging ethnic,
religious, cultural distinctions but
adopting secular approach
 Adopted by government
 1983 made Pancasila sole official
ideology to be adopted by all political
parties
 1985 Pancasila compulsory core
ideology for all political organisations
 Anyone who opposed Pancasila
branded as communist or Islamic
extremist


 Essential

 Overall Link

o Evaluation of importance with relation to stand

-ve: Religion [ABNORMALY] [Multiculturalism]

(Write only if necessary/for evaluation)
Malaysia

 Growing challenges by Islamic parties such as PAS to UMNO’s position

 Party for Malays led to growing Islamisation under Mahathir in 1980s


 Raised fears among the minorities of possible marginalization

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity
4. ~Ideology
-ve: Differing ideologies spawned conflict [Assimilation]



Burma
 Ideology under military junta in form of
the Buddhist Socialism proved unable to
create stable basis for nation building
 Emphasis on Burma as unitary state in
1974 constitution further asserted
domination of Burmans over ethnic
minorities
+ve: Created guidelines for national unity [Multiculturalism]



Indonesia
 Pancasila - Principle of Unity and
Diversity acknowledging ethnic,
religious, cultural distinctions but
adopting secular approach
 Adopted by government
 1983 made Pancasila sole official
ideology to be adopted by all political
parties
 1985 Pancasila compulsory core
ideology for all political organisations
Burma
 “Nation, religion, King”, although it
suggested that anyone could become
Thai just by fulfilling these 3 aspects, it
caused discontent on the issue of
“religion” where it was focused on
Buddhism
 Patani Malays resented this
Malaysia
 Rukunegara 1970
 Philosophy created after 1969 racial
riots
 Focus on multi-ethnic population
 Pledge of Rukunegara has important
aspects such as “liberal approach to
her rich and diverse cultural
tradition”

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

 Overall Link

5. Economic Development
-ve: Discriminatory Economic Policies [Discriminatory]
 Outright discrimination against minorities
 Increased fissures within state


Malaysia Indonesia Burma

 Bumiputra  Sukarno  Discriminatory policies

 New Economic policy
after 1970
 Increased
disenfranchisement
among minority groups
 By 1990, Malays and
other bumiputra own
30%, Malaysians 40%,
Foreigners 30% as
compared to 1.9%,
22.5% and 60.7% in 1970
 Chinese left country in
search of tertiary
education and
employment
opportunities
 Pribumis sought to towards Indians
relinquish properties  Denial of development
acquired and business in minority areas
by Chinese  Exacerbated tensions
 1959 Sukarno between central
approved directive that government and
forced Chinese to close peripheral areas
business in rural areas
and relocate to urban  Resulted in voluntary
areas emigration
 Enforcement was  Between 125,000-
brutal – 1967, Western 300,000 Indians and
Kalimantan, 42000 Pakistani left the
accused separatist country between 1963-
were killed 1965
 119,000 Chinese left
Indonesia for China
 Led to migration of
Chinese and
discontent


 Overall Link

o Evaluation of importance with relation to stand

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

+ve: Government Aid to minorities [Assimilation/Aid]





Burma Thailand

 Government encouraged and  Adopted policy in 1950s where

facilitated entry to legitimate business
beyond own regions such as transport,
tourism, hotels, mining
 Master Plan for Development of the
Border Areas and National Races in
1989
 1994 government established Ministry
of Development of the Border Areas
and National Races to oversee efforts
 Enabled restoration of peace with
minorities
ethnic Chinese encouraged to take
Thai names and participate as Thais
in economy and society
 Through this, they acquired
protection from extortion and
discrimination
 Enabled Chinese integration with
Thai


 Overall Link

o Evaluation of importance with relation to stand

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

6. ~National Symbols
-ve: Created Division among people [Assimilation]




CS CS

 

 

+ve: Experience of struggle - Symbols and Ideologies [Common]

 Countries experience struggle for independence during decolonization process
 Certain symbols and ideologies which shaped those struggles as part of national identity
 Relation of struggle through common experience

Indonesia Vietnam

 National flag  Ideology of Communism

 Indonesia Raya – Anthem  Role in resistance against French
 One people, one language, one colonial rule
homeland slogan  Resistance against American
 intervention during Vietnam War
 Ho Chi Minh key unifying symbol for
 Common experience and struggle DRV in quest to reunify country in 1975
 Venerated as “Father of Nation”

 Overall Link

o Evaluation of importance with relation to stand

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

7. Political Representation
+ve: Political Representation and Autonomy [Multiculturalism]




Singapore Malaysia

 Presidential Council of Minority Rights  UMNO, MCA, MIC – Alliance

 Political representation for minorities  Consensus that that communal issues
through GRC system settled in private and not with public
debate – Avoidance Priciple
  Cooperative alliance in first municipal
elections in 1952

 Overall Link

o Evaluation of importance with relation to stand

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

-ve: Political Representation and Autonomy [Assimilation/No effort

at Nation Building]




Indonesia Thailand

 50% of Chinese Indonesians failed to  Patani Malays displaced from their

seek citizenship positions of authority by Thai officials
 Due to loyalty to China or Taiwan with each round of administrative
compounded by prohibitive costs of centralisation
gaining citizenship papers  Rejected demands for Patani Malays
 Those with citizenship had different to be appointed into governorship of
identity cards from pribumi which 4 provinces
made it easy for government officials
to extract bribes from them 
 Restricted role of Chinese in politics,
academics and military
 Failed assimilation seen in anti-Chinese
riots in 1998 where business was
looted and 1198 Chinese were killed in
Jarkarta

 Not only did Chinese not feel part of

Indonesia, Indonesians were unwilling
to accept them

 Overall Link

Evaluation of importance with relation to stand

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

Possible Conclusion:

Evaluate the success of nation-building efforts:

 Fraught with more failures than successes

 Evidenced by prevalence of inter-ethnic tensions and separatist movements by
minorities

Language and religion more important than multiculturalism:

 Adoption of multiculturalism tended to be more effective

 Language and religion although easily identifiable, have emotional appeal, in which
emphasis on dominant language or culture brought divisions rather than unity
 More inclusive, the greater the sense of unity

National identities developed by governments have not been effective in forging national
unity:

 Degree of national identities were effective depended on a variety of factors

 Demographic makeup of country
 Approach by government

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

Types of Approach (Minority Policy)

Remember to show before and after effects

Possible Introductions:

 Minority Policy affected outcome

 Relative successful policies saw decrease in violence or few incidences
 Relatively unsuccessful policies saw separatist movements, interethnic conflict or
migration of minorities

A2 contrast A1 B2 contrast B1 C2 contrast C1

1. Assimilation
+ve: Assimilation [ABNORMALY]
[Linked with “religion” and “language”]]

Thailand

 Ideology of “Nation-Religion-King” constituted loose definition of what it is to be Thai

– Adhered to Buddhism and offered loyalty to king

 Brought minority Chinese in peripheral areas and converted them to Buddhist

 Thammathut program in 1965, by Thanom, where Buddhist monks travelled to
peripheral areas to strength villagers to Buddhism

 Emphasis on Thai language, undermining study of Chinese and minority languages

 Students allowed to study Chinese for only 2 hours a week, rest of subjects in Thai
 Central Thai in government, schools and religious texts

 Successful in unifying the Chinese with Thai

 Chinese took on Thai names, spoke Thai language fluently
 Assimilation enabled Chinese to integrate as Thais
 Chinese who married Thais adopted Buddhism

 Overall Link

o Evaluation of importance with relation to stand

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

(A1)***-ve: Assimilation
[Linked with “religion” and “language”]]

 Imposed interest of majority on minorities

 Spawned separatism among minorities
 Process complicated by historical legacies
 Complicated by colonial government’s divide and rule policies

Burma Philippines (Transmigration)

 Characterized by Burmans establishing  Manila’s migration policies aimed at

tenuos control over Shans, Kachins, Karens
and other minorities
 Religious and federalist policies of U Nu
from 1948-1956 and 1958-1960
 Burmese as official language
 Teaching of history from Burman
perspective
 Patronage of Buddhism
 Emphasis on Buddhist precepts
 These attempts at Burmanisation
alienated minorities
 Karen and other minorities involved in
separatist struggle against the civilian
government
Resulted in:
 Various insurgencies
 1960s fighting with Karen National Union
(KNU)
 Kachin Independence Organisation (KIO)
integration
 Encouragement of Christian migration
to Muslim south
 Domination of Christian in political,
economic and social life
 Apparent privileged position enjoyed by
Ilocanos during rule of Marcos
 Muslim population decrease from 74%
in 1903 to 19$ by 1990
Resulted in:
 Led to sense of neglect and
marginalization
 Spawned reaction and growing violence
from Moros
 Coalescing separatist movements such
as MILF
 Violence fomented by MNLF and Bangsa
Moro army

 Further strengthened feelings of

discontent

 Overall Link

o Less effective compared to Multiculturalism

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

2. Multiculturalism
(A2)***+ve: Multiculturalism
[Largely intertwined with the factors “religion” and “language”, if question specifies its difference,
remember to differentiate it and use different examples]

 Provide stable foundations for nation-building

 Did not seek to impose interests of the majority group on the minorities

Singapore Malaysia

 Various policies to address  (Language)

overwhelming Chinese majority
 Insistence to promote ethnically neutral
ideological pillars
 Ethnic Integration policy 1989 which
placed ethnic quotas in public housing
and some faculties of local universities
to encourage ethnic diversity
 Political representation for minorities
through GRC system
 Although emphasis on Bahasa Melayu
as national language
 Provisions are made for other minority
languages
 (Religion)
 Despite official support for Islam
 Other ethnic groups allowed freedom
to practice religions

 +(Language) (Refer above) Eng, Mother Resulted in:

Tongue  Relative peace between races with no
 +(Religion) (Refer above) separatist movements and few ethnic
 +(Education) (Refer above) Compusolory riots
National Education 1997  Last racial riot in 1969
 Philosophy, Rukunegara in 1970 stating
Resulted in: need for cohesion among races saw
 Lower incidence of inter-ethnic strife ethnic peace from then on
 No racial riots since 1969
 Racial harmony

 Effective in getting minorities to feel

invested

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

-ve: Multiculturalism [ABNORMALY]

[Linked with “religion” and “language”]]

 Emphasis on multiculturalism did at times reinforce their differences

Singapore Malaysia

 Emphasis on equal status of four  Growing challenges by Islamic parties

languages reinforced racial differences
 Over time, English used un
administration, business and education
tended to increase socio-economic
gaps between Chinese majority and
minority Malay and Indian

such as PAS to UMNO’s position
 Party for Malays led to growing
Islamisation under Mahathir in 1980s

 Raised fears among the minorities of
possible marginalization

Conclusion: Despite some reinforcement of differences leading to minor discontent, it must

be said that the sheer contrast in the aspect of the lack of violence, secessionist acts and
ethnic violence is evidence to the relative success to a multiculturalist approach

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

3. Discrimination and Coercion (Assimilation)

(B1)***-ve: Discriminatory Economic Policies and Coercion
 Outright discrimination against minorities
 Increased fissures within state
 Minorities forced to conform to dominant culture

Indonesia Burma

 Sukarno  Discriminatory policies towards Indians

 Pribumis sought to relinquish
properties acquired and business by
Chinese
 1959 Sukarno approved directive that
forced Chinese to close business in
rural areas and relocate to urban areas
 Enforcement was brutal – 1967,
Western Kalimantan, 42000 accused
separatist were killed
Resulted in:
 119,000 Chinese left Indonesia for
China
 Denial of development in minority
areas
 Pariah communities have been forced
out of their homes and businesses.
 Exacerbated tensions between central
government and peripheral areas
Resulted in:
 Voluntary emigration
 Between 125,000-300,000 Indians and
Pakistani left the country between
1963-1965

 Led to transmigration of Chinese and

discontent

 Overall Link

o Evaluation of importance with relation to stand

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

(B2)***Contrast: Promotion of Socio-Economic Developemnt -

Government Aid to minorities




Burma Thailand (Assimilation)

 Government encouraged and  Adopted policy in 1950s where

facilitated entry to legitimate business
beyond own regions such as transport,
tourism, hotels, mining
 Master Plan for Development of the
Border Areas and National Races in
1989
 1994 government established Ministry
of Development of the Border Areas
and National Races to oversee efforts
 Enabled restoration of peace with
minorities
ethnic Chinese encouraged to take
Thai names and participate as Thais
in economy and society
 Through this, they acquired
protection from extortion and
discrimination
 Enabled Chinese integration with
Thai


 Overall Link

o Evaluation of importance with relation to stand

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

4. Increased Political Representation

(C1)***+ve: Increased Political Representation and Autonomy
 Governments became more sensitive to minorities by 1980s and 1990s
 Lead to participation and autonomy being strengthened
 Beginning to acknowledge distinct identity of minorities

Philippines Burma

 By 1970s, growing autonomy given to  Promised local autonomy and

Moros participation in the country’s political
 Tripoli Agreement, autonomy given to 13 process
provinces and referendum to be held
Resulted in:
Resulted in:  Secured peace agreements with most
 Split in MNLF which saw Moro elite groups
favouring to work with Manila  Between 1992 and 1993, SLORC able to
conclude amenity pacts with KIO and
most groups in Shan State
 In 1996, compromise reached by MNLF
and government
 Autonomy given to areas with Muslim
majorities

 Despite continued insurgence, the fact

that there was increased willingness
between factions to work showed
autonomy as a viable minority policy in
spawning violence

 Overall Link

o Evaluation of importance with relation to stand

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

(C2)***Contrast: Denial of Political Representation and Autonomy





Burma Thailand

 1960, election promise, U Nu proposed  Patani Malays displaced from their

formation of separate states for the positions of authority by Thai officials
Arakanese and Mons with each round of administrative
centralisation
 After the elections, he reneged and
 Rejected demands for Patani Malays
delayed the statehood bills, alienating to be appointed into governorship of
them 4 provinces

Resulted in: Resulted in:

 Minorities - unifying factor of common  Separatist movements
enemy  PULO founded in 1968
 Insurgency increased and by the end of

1961, U Nu admitted that minority
rebels controlled one-tenths of the
entire country
 Throughout 1960s, engaged in fighting
the KNU, KIO and Shan United
Revolutionary Army

 Not only did Chinese not feel part of

Indonesia, Indonesians were unwilling
to accept them

 Overall Link

Evaluation of importance with relation to stand

A2 contrast A1 B2 contrast B1 C2 contrast C1

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H2 History – Approach to National Unity

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

Challenges to Nation Building

Definitions:
*Multiculturalism – Accommodation of diverse cultures

*Assimilation – Forced to discard distinct cultural identities and adopt social characteristics
of majority group

Communalism – Allegiance to one’s own ethnic group rather than wider society

Pluralism – System of 2 or more groups of authority

Regionalism – Practice of regional rather than central system of administration

Secession – Action of withdrawing formally from membership of state

Tweak above factors to adapt to below points

Separatist movements / Secession

 Indonesia
 Aceh Session revolt in 1953 after it was integrated into larger North Sumatra province
 Politics of oppression of oil, natural gas and timber
 Free Aceh movement in 1970s
 Papua 1969 became part of Indonesia
 Papua rich in gold, copper, oil, gas, forestry
 Resistance by Free Papua Organisation
 Aim was to be independent state from Indonesia,
 Engaged in low level fighting
 Indonesian government resorted ot use of excessive force including killing rape and torture

Regionalism
 Indonesia
 People of Outer Islands did not want Dutch rule to be replaced by Javanese rule
 Developed regional loyalties
 Rebellions in 1958 in Celebes Islands and Sumatra

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 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

Significant ethnic/religious heterogeneity

Historical Legacies (Colonial)

-ve: Colonial marginalization of minorities
 Process complicated by historical legacies
 Compounded by divide and rule policies which marginalized minorities

Philippines Burma

 Manila’s policies of encouraging  Karen

Christian migration to Muslim south  KNA
 Perceived disregard for Moro’s way of  Unifying element was Christianity
life  Supported the British rule
 Domination of Christian in political,  Was the minority surrounded by the
economic and social life of nation majority Buddhist Burmans
 Apparent privileged position enjoyed by  Use of religion by U Nu
Ilocanos during rule of Marcos
 This was but an extention of American 
policy of marginalizing the Morors
through their migration
 Created Moro province in 1903
 However, the appointing of Christians to

 Overall Link

o Evaluation of importance with relation to stand

27
 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

Historical Struggle
+ve: Experience of struggle - Symbols and Ideologies
 Countries experience struggle for independence during decolonization process
 Certain symbols and ideologies which shaped those struggles as part of national identity

Indonesia Vietnam

 Pancasila  Ideology of Communism

 Articulated during period of revolution
 Sukarno shared importance of national
unity
 Continued by Suharto as ideology for all
political parties
 Common experience and struggle
 Role in resistance against French
colonial rule
 Resistance against American
intervention during Vietnam War
 Ho Chi Minh key unifying symbol for
DRV in quest to reunify country in 1975
 Venerated as “Father of Nation”

 Overall Link

o Evaluation of importance with relation to stand

28
 H2 History – Approach to National Unity

Indonesia

 50% of Chinese Indonesians failed to seek citizenship

 Due to loyalty to China or Taiwan compounded by prohibitive costs of gaining citizenship
papers
 Those with citizenship had different identity cards from pribumi which made it easy for
government officials to extract bribes from them
 Restricted role of Chinese in politics, academics and military

Resulted in:

 Inter-ethnic conflict
 Anti-Chinese riots in 1998 where business was looted and 1198 Chinese were killed in
Jarkarta

Singapore Malaysia

 Presidential Council of Minority Rights  UMNO, MCA, MIC – Alliance

 Political representation for minorities  Consensus that that communal issues
through GRC system settled in private and not with public
debate – Avoidance Principle
  Cooperative alliance in first municipal
elections in 1952

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