SAMREEN AFTAB KAPASI

RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES

7601

Dr. Khalid Mahmood

ASSGNMENT 1

BS708177
 Question 1:
What do you know about scientific approach?
ANSWER:
Scientific approach would be related as
 Scientific attitude in every-day situations.
 Scientific methods in smaller research projects.
 Science in big scientific theories.
Scientists search for answers to queries and explanations to problems by using a method called
the scientific approach/method. This procedure consists of making observations,
framing hypotheses, and designing experiments, which in turn lead to additional observations,
hypotheses, and experiments in repeated cycles

Scientific approach or scientific process is a scientific process to methodically

obtain knowledge based on physical evidence. Scientists make observations and formulate
hypotheses in an attempt to explain certain singularities.
Predictions made by the hypothesis are tested by conducting experiments. If the hypothesis
passes the test many times, the hypothesis can be a scientific theory.

Scientific approach is finding the fact or truth by logical considerations. The idea is to achieve a
systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific approach attempts to achieve “this ideal” by

a) experimentation,
b) observation,
c) logical arguments

In logical approach, rationale helps in making suggestions plainly and precisely so their
conceivable options turn out to be clear.

Further, rationale builds up the outcomes of such choices, and when these are contrasted and
discernible marvels, it ends up workable for the analyst or the researcher to state which elective
is most in amicability with the watched certainties.

This is done through experimentation and review examinations which constitute the necessary
parts of logical approach.

Experimentation is done to test speculations and to find new connections. The ends drawn based
on test information are for the most part condemned for either broken suppositions, inadequately
planned analyses, severely executed investigations or defective translations. Accordingly, the
scientist must give careful consideration while building up the test plan and should state just
plausible deductions. The reason for study examinations may likewise be to give experimentally
accumulated data to fill in as a reason for the scientists for their decisions.

The scientific approach is, thus, based on certain basic hypothesizes which can be stated as
under:

1. It relies on empirical evidence;

2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and correct
statements about population objects;
5. It results into probabilistic predictions;
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in testing
the conclusions through replication;
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.

The main elements of the scientific approach are the repetition of the following four steps:

1. Characterization that is marked through observations and measurements of the given

sample.
2. Hypothesis is a theoretical explanation of the supposed observations and measurements.
3. Prediction is the logical deduction from the hypothesis that is formulated.
4. Experiments in various ways to tests the observations made and hypothesis formulated.
 Question 2:
Highlight the major problems in doing social research. Discuss in detail.

ANSWER:
The term „social research‟ has been defined differently. The few definitions are as follows:

Claims and perspectives are a piece of human science, sociologists utilize experimental proof
(that is, confirm checked by coordinate involvement or potentially perception) joined with the
logical approach or an interpretive system to convey sound sociological research. They
additionally depend on a hypothetical establishment that gives an interpretive point of view
through which they can understand logical outcomes. A really logical sociological investigation
would include these recommended steps:
defining a specific question,

gathering information and resources through observation,

forming a hypothesis,

testing the hypothesis in a reproducible manner,

analyzing and drawing conclusions from the data,

publishing the results,

and anticipating further development when future researchers respond to and retest findings.

Research is a prearranged push to accomplish and increase expanded information. Much depends
on the past experience and prior information. The more extravagant the past learning, more
prominent the assuredity of the outcomes. In science social science is expecting a logical base,
look into has turned into a piece of study, and it's anything but a simple undertaking to foresee
social conduct in light of the fact that the human instinct is consistently evolving. This consistent
change and variety can prompt issues while completing a social research.

As social research manages social a marvel which is very not quite the same as the common
wonders, there are basic distinction between examine in sociologies and that of physical or
characteristic sciences.

PROBLEMS IN DOING SOCIAL RESEARCH

There are two levels of problems of Social Research, or we may there are tow different aspects.
One deals with the formulation and other deals with the execution. Different societies and social
groups have a different way of approaching a social research. From the formulation of the
question/hypothesis to the execution the research will be dealt with differently.

The formulation stage is one of the crucial areas. Not only it defines the research area physically
but also cognitively.
To begin with the problems faced on a physical level, that have been experienced personally as
well.

 Difficulty in Hypothesis Formulation

The hypothesis formulation is very difficult. Every person cannot form a hypothesis about a
problem, as it requires the skill of the research. The choice between the formulation of
research questions and the development of hypotheses depends on your research approach

 Problem of Questionnaire
The construction of a good questionnaire is also required skill. The questionnaire should be
simple, easy and in local language, otherwise it is difficulty. Primary data collection needs to
be preceded by a great level of preparation and pilot data collection may be required in case
of questionnaires.

 Secondary Research
We have to use a wide range of secondary data sources such as books, newspapers,
magazines, journals, online articles etc.

 Dependent on Others
A researcher cannot do everything by himself. It involves other persons in the field as
subjects and they may not have any interest in the research and might not be involved
seriously. Unless it is a closed group that has been put together on purpose with a potential
interest.

 Difficulty in Problem Identification

To know about the causes of the problem and identify it is very difficult. It is the block in the
way of rapid research.

 Difficulty in Designing
The formation of study design is also a difficult work therefore it is a problem.
 No Use of Terminology
Research has its own terminology. If a research has no knowledge about the terminology
then it is a problem in the way of social research.

 Problem of data Collection

People are not ready to provide correct information to a researcher. So, data collection in
field gives a difficulty in the flied to a research. Data collection method(s) need to be
selected on the basis of critically analyzing advantages and disadvantages associated with
several alternative data collection methods. In studies involving primary data collection, in-
depth discussions of advantages and disadvantages of selected primary data collection
method(s) need to be included in methodology.

 Lack of Economic Stability

If visiting team have financial problems, then it will hinder the way of social research to
complete the research in a more efficient and effective way. For a social research the subjects
belong to various social and economic groups. Their interests and priorities are a problem in
social research.

 Difference in Languages
If there is some difference in languages between people and researcher, then they do not
know the purpose of the investigator which leads to difficulty is research. Language creates a
barrier and also slows down the process. For social research trust is very important on field.
The trust between a researcher and the subject. This cannot be made or maintained if there is
a language barrier.

 Accommodation Problem
The research teams should be provided to them the facility of stay. When these things are not
available, the problem faced them is the field. While collecting primary data for a social
research, the researcher and the subject might need to remain in close proximity to make
observations related to behaviour etc. Lack of suitable and save living environment can cause
much problem.
  Time Management
Research is completed in a specific time but some projects are not able to complete it in
defined time.

 Political Instability
In some areas political instability hinder the way of research process. The research remains
incomplete.

 Environmental Differences
Sometimes the difference between various environments brings hurdle in the way of social
research.

 Cultural Differences
Difference in cultures is also responsible for the scarcity of research study.

 Diseases & No Treatment Facility

If there are diseases in a locality and have no specific treatment facility, it leads to hinder the
way of social research.

 Religious Differences
Religious differences and section violence produce a hurdle in the way of social research

The important saying goes, necessity is the mother of invention and invention is the result of
research. So long as necessity exists the research shall be this social science and particularly
sociology has come to occupy an important place for us. This brings to the cognitive research
problems.

 Complexity of Social Data: social science studies the human behavior which depends on
several factors such a physical, social, temperamental, psychological, geographical, biological
socio-cultural etc. These factors cause a researcher to be confused. It is therefore said that
because of this complexity of social phenomenon human put to scientific test adds a lot of
pressure and hinderance to the research.

 Problems of Concepts: In social research, number of problems arise such as

a) abstraction, and

b) faulty reasoning,

these play major role in defining the concepts and law which leads to wrong conclusions.

 Problems in Construing Relationship between Cause and effect: In social research, we

generally find interdependent relationship between cause and effect. The cause and effect are
one and the same, for example, in underdeveloped countries, the economic development
cannot be accelerated due to lack of technical know-how and capital cannot be obtained due to
underdevelopment of the country.
 Dynamic Nature of Social Phenomena: Man is a social animal and the human societies
undergo constant change. What is true today may be not useful tomorrow. The techniques
used in past may prove useless for present and future studies. The task of analyzing data
becomes very much complex and the implications drawn may be ambiguous.
 Problem of maintaining objectivity: The problem of impartiality is in part a problem of
objectivity. It is generally argued that the social scientists are less objective than natural
scientist because their own interest affected by the findings of their studies, hence leading to
prejudice and bias.
 Unpredictability: Predictability is one of the most important characteristics of physical
science, high degree of predictability is possible but it is not so in case of social data, the
social scientist can roughly estimate the behaviour of the group.
 Difficulty in the Verification of the Inferences: In social research, the events non-repetitive
and the social scientists are ill-equipped with their tools to verify inferences.
 Difficulty in the Use of Experimental Method: In case of social research, its product being a
human being cannot be put to laboratory test. Even if it is done, their responses wouldn‟t be
natural but subject to the awareness of the artificial condition. An empirical method cannot be
applied in case of social science research as repeated experiment is not possible, for example,
 the problem of unbiased sampling, selection of data etc. Thus, the social scientist has to watch
them in wide world. Which leads to already discussed physical problems.
 Problems of inter-disciplinary research: Social science being, inter-disciplinary one related
with, Economics, Political Science and Sociology, we cannot draw lines between the other
disciplinaries.

Although different methods are used in social research, the common goal of a social research is
one the same, i.e. furthering our understanding of society, which faces more practical problems
than research on natural phenomenon. Human nature is a complex composition and to research
for generalizations and defining them adds more to the complexity of the matter.
 Question 3:
What do you understand by the term "concept”? What concepts have got to do with science?
Discuss in detail.
ANSWER:

The term Concept is defined as “abstract Idea”. It is a representation of mind that makes up the
fundamental thought process that helps in the understanding of our surroundings.

Concept refers to “the basic understanding that is necessary to make sense of one's world. This
includes ideas about the self and others, objects, and the environment. This foundational
understanding is crucial to communication, travel, and independence.”

The expression "Idea" is brought into utilization in all circles of life, learning and instruction
process also. It is the way to all exploration and the base plan to every one of the advancements.

Idea building has turned into a typical practice that helps improve the comprehension of our
general surroundings. It is a thought that aides in working up the real.
Idea is presently firmly identified with science and research. The idea prompts an inquiry, which
additionally prompts investigation, inferring a speculation and afterward experimentation and
perception to demonstrate the thought.

"In the easiest terms, an idea is a name or name that sees or regards a deliberation as though it
had concrete or material presence, for example, a man, a place, or a thing".

An idea is a dynamic thought speaking to the central attributes of what it speaks to. Ideas emerge
as reflections or speculations from learning or the aftereffect of a difference in existing thoughts.
The idea is instantiated (reified) by the greater part of its real or potential occurrences, regardless
of whether these are things in the genuine world or different thoughts.

Ideas are dealt with in numerous if not most trains both

a) explicitly, for example, in semantics, brain research, rationality, and so on., and

b) implicitly, for example, in arithmetic, material science, and so on.

In casual utilize the word idea frequently just means any thought, yet formally it includes the
reflection segment.

There are requested divisions of ideas and they are at the

top,

superordinate,

the center essential level classes, and

at the base,

1. Concepts as mental portrayals, where ideas are what exist in the mind (mental items);

2. 2. Ideas as capacities, where ideas are capacities unconventional to intellectual specialists

(mental states);

3. Concepts are self-motivated articles, rather than mental items and mental states.
 The importance of "idea" is investigated in standard data science, psychological science,
transcendentalism, and theory of brain.

This discussion concerns the status of ideas – what they are extremely similar to. There is banter
with regards to the connection amongst ideas and normal dialect.

In any case, it is important in any event to start by understanding that the idea "canine" is
rationally unmistakable from the things on the planet gathered by this idea – or the reference
class or expansion.

Investigation of ideas and calculated structure falls into the controls of phonetics, rationality,
brain research, and intellectual science.

It might speak to a characteristic protest that exists in reality like a tree, a creature, a stone, and
so forth. It might likewise name a counterfeit (man-made) protest like a seat, PC, house, and so
forth.

Theoretical thoughts and learning areas, for example, flexibility, correspondence, science, bliss,
and so on., are additionally symbolized by ideas. Realize that an idea is simply an image, a
portrayal of the reflection. The word isn't to be confused for the thing. For instance, "moon" (an
idea) isn't the expansive, brilliant, shape-switching object up in the sky, however just speaks to
that heavenly protest. Ideas are made (named) to portray, clarify and catch reality as it is known
and comprehended.

What has concept to do with science?

If we take a deep look into the study of any science it has evolved from a question, a query, a
conflict in the mind that arisen as reality in which we exist, we are unable to comprehend it.

To clarify our questions in mind we develop a concept which is in probability to what we need to
explain.

This process leads to development of a hypothesis, which further routes into a various form of
experimentations. The results of which are a proof to the validity of the concept.

Science is just not a study of one particular field, it is everywhere as the popular cliché goes. As
it is everywhere the questions are thus asked all the time and for those to be answered, it is the
concept related that comes in hand.

Information and facts out of experimentation and observation are being collected all the time.
These are to validate, approve or disapprove of any formulated concepts. Thus, explain some
problem previously not explained, or that overturns some previously accepted idea. Making
science and concept partners in all the further research.

The concept has given way to a lot of scientific discoveries, that affect us all the time in our daily
life to further complex parts of our lives. From the moment we wake up to the sound of an alarm
clock to sleeping at night with the last check on our cell phones in the modern world, all this is a
birth of ideas and concepts that led science to discover and explore and create.

Concepts and ideas gave way to scientist to discover and invent. The modern world is the
scientific birth of concepts that were conceived and latter formulated and experimented upon to
give us a world that we have today.

Science informs personal decisions and public policy on agriculture, communication,

conservation, defense, economics, energy, exploration, health, leisure and transportation. It's
almost impossible to numerate how many aspects of modern life are impacted by scientific
knowledge.

Science has led us to finding out things that give us what we have today!

From Aristotle's and Lucretus' originations of characteristic marvels through the rot of learning
Oblivious Ages and a resurrection applied requesting with Copernicus and Newton, science with
accentuation on ideas has proceeded with develop. Each new cycle, be that as it may, has
included new degrees. The development toward more prominent accentuation on subjects or
significant ideas in science, which is seen taking structure once more, carries with it this time
solid support from quickly propelling learning hypothesis. Different factors additionally
intervene for science direction focused on building up a comprehension of essential ideas in
science. New information develops at an expanding pace and with expanding sway on the
general public.
 Question 4:
Define the term "hypothesis". What does it suggest? Illustrate your answer with examples.
ANSWER:

A hypothesis is a supposition about how at least two factors are connected; it puts forth an
approximated expression about the connection between those factors. It is a concept since it isn't
arbitrary yet in light of hypothesis, perceptions, examples of experience, or the current writing.
The theory figures this figure as a testable recommendation. In any case, how the hypothesis is
taken care of contrasts between the positivist and interpretive methodologies. Positivist
approaches are frequently alluded to as hypothetic-deductive systems. A theory is gotten from a
hypothetical suggestion. Based on the theory a forecast or hypothesis is legitimately concluded.
In positivist humanism, the hypothesis predicts how one type of human conduct impacts another.

Fruitful expectation will decide the ampleness of the hypothesis and subsequently test the
hypothetical recommendation. Commonly positivist methodologies operationalize factors as
quantitative information; that is, by deciphering a social marvel like "wellbeing" into a
quantifiable or numerically quantifiable variable like "number of visits to the healing facility."
This licenses sociologists to define their forecasts utilizing scientific dialect like relapse
equations, to exhibit inquire about discoveries in charts and tables, and to perform numerical or
measurable strategies to show the legitimacy of connections.

Factors are analyzed to check whether there is a relationship between them. At the point when an
adjustment in one variable matches with an adjustment in another variable there is a connection.
This does not really show that adjustments in a single variable causes an adjustment in another
variable, in any case, only that they are related. A key refinement here is amongst free and ward
factors. In research, independent factors are the reason for the change. The needy variable is the
 impact, or thing that is changed. For instance, in an essential report, the scientist would set up
one type of human conduct as the autonomous variable and watch the impact it has on a reliant
variable. How does sexual orientation (the autonomous variable) influence rate of pay (the needy
variable)? How does one's religion (the autonomous variable) influence family measure (the
needy variable)? How is social class (the needy variable) influenced by level of instruction (the
free factor)? For it to wind up conceivable to talk about causation, three criteria must be fulfilled:

 There must be a relationship or correlation between the independent and dependent variables.
 The independent variable must be prior to the dependent variable.
 There must be no other intervening variable responsible for the causal relationship.

Hypothesis statement--a prediction that can be tested.

In a hypothesis statement, we make a prediction about what we think will happen.

EXAMPLES:

Question: Why do leaves change colours in the fall?

Hypothesis: I think that leaves change colors in the fall because they are not being exposed to as
much sunlight.

Hypothesis: Bacterial growth may be affected by temperature.

 Independent Dependent
Hypothesis Variable Variable

The greater the availability of affordable housing, the Affordable

Homeless Rate
lower the homeless rate Housing

The greater the availability of math tutoring, the

Math Tutoring Math Grades
higher the math grades

The greater the police patrol presence, the safer the Police Patrol Safer
neighbourhood Presence Neighbourhood

The greater the factory lighting, the higher the

Factory Lighting Productivity
productivity

The greater the amount of public auditing, the lower Political

Auditing
the amount of political dishonesty dishonesty

Introduction to Sociological Research Examples of Dependent and Independent Variables

Typically, the independent variable causes the dependent variable to change in some way.

Presently, an expert's operational definitions help measure the elements. In an examination

asking how tutoring improves grades, for instance, one examiner may describe "incredible"
assessments as a C or better, while another uses a B+ as a starting stage for "good." Another
operational definition may depict "training" as "one-on-one help by an expert in the field, shrunk
by an informational establishment." Those definitions set cutoff focuses and develop cut-off
centers, ensuring consistency and replicability in an examination. As the chart shows up, a free
factor is the one that rolls out a dependent variable improvement. For example, a researcher may
speculate that demonstrating kids fitting tidiness (the self-sufficient variable) will help their
sentiment of certainty (the dependent variable). Or then again reexamined, a tyke's sentiment of
certainty depends, to a restricted degree, on the quality and openness of clean resources.

Clearly, this hypothesis can in like manner work an alternate way. Perhaps a humanist trusts that
growing a child's sentiment of certainty (the free factor) will normally augmentation or upgrade
inclinations for neatness (now the destitute variable). Recognizing the free and ward factors is
basic. As the neatness representation shows up, fundamentally recognizing two subjects, or
factors, isn't adequate: Their arranged relationship must be a bit of the hypothesis. Since a
humanist structures an educated desire for an examination's outcome doesn't mean data
invalidating the hypothesis are not welcome. Sociologists dismember general cases in light of an
examination, anyway they are comparably motivated by exceptions to plans.

In an examination of direction, an expert may anticipate that optional school dropouts encounter
impressive troubles finding a repaying calling. While it has advanced toward turning into no not
as much as a social doubt that the higher the preparation, the higher the compensation and level
of livelihood happiness, there are obviously exceptions. People with little direction have had
stunning callings, and people with front line degrees encounter experienced issues searching for
some sort of business. A humanist prepares a hypothesis understanding that results will move.

While various sociologists rely upon the positivist hypothetic-deductive system in their
investigation, others work from an interpretive approach. While exact, this approach does not
take after the theory testing model that hopes to make generalizable desires from quantitative
variables. Or maybe, an interpretive structure attempts to grasp social universes from the point of
view of individuals, inciting start to finish data. It bases on abstract data, or the suggestions that
guide people's lead. Instead of relying upon quantitative instruments like reviews or
investigations, which can be phony, the interpretive approach tries to find ways to deal with
move closer to the witnesses' lived comprehension and observations. Interpretive research is
generally more particular or record in its disclosures. It can begin from a deductive approach, by
getting a theory from speculation and a short time later attempting to certify it through
frameworks like all around gatherings.

In any case, it is ideally suited to an inductive approach in which the hypothesis rises just after a
huge time of direct observation or relationship with subjects. This kind of approach is
exploratory in that the pro furthermore learns as he or she proceeds, now and again altering the
examination methods or techniques most of the way to respond to new bits of information and
disclosures as they create. Once the crucial work is done, it's the perfect open door for the
accompanying examination steps: arranging and coordinating an examination, and achieving
judgments.

Like all hypothesis, a working theory is built as an announcement of desires, which can be
connected to the exploratory research reason in observational examination. Working theories are
regularly utilized as a reasonable system in subjective research.

The temporary idea of working theories makes them helpful as a sorting out in connected
research. Here they act like a valuable manual for addressing issues that are still in a
developmental stage.

Lately, scholars of science have endeavored to coordinate the different ways to deal with
assessing theories, and the logical technique all in all, to frame a more total framework that
incorporates the individual worries of each approach who have delivered novel endeavors at such
a combination.
 Question 5:
Define the terms techniques, honorifics, and epistemology. How are these terms related to the
term methodology?
ANSWER:

Defining the terms

TECHNIQUE:
systematic procedure, formula, or routine by which a task is accomplished.

HONORIFICS:
a title or word implying or expressing protocol. Also, hierarchy morals and rules of behaviour

EPISTEMOLOGY:
the study of knowledge acquisition

METHODOLOGY:
a system of methods used in a particular area of study or activity.

These are the basic definitions of the terms that are in a way helpful in designing a research.
From the way, to the hierarchy, to gaining knowledge and finally being able to put in a
sequential manner.
When we put out to research what matters most towards the end is what was gained out of it.
Which is EPISTEMOLOGY. Gaining knowledge and understanding of the question that had
been arisen.

It is vital for a scientist to plan an approach for the issue picked. One should take note of that
regardless of whether the strategy considered in two issues are same the philosophy might be
unique. It is vital for the analyst to know not just the examination strategies essential for the
exploration under taken yet in addition the approach. For instance, an analyst not just has to
know how to ascertain mean, fluctuation and dissemination work for an arrangement of
information, how to discover an answer of a physical framework depicted by scientific model,
how to decide the underlying foundations of mathematical conditions and how to apply a specific
technique yet in addition need to know:

(I) which is a reasonable strategy for the picked issue?

(ii) what is the request of exactness of the aftereffect of a technique?
(iii) what is the productivity of the technique?
Thought of these angles constitute an exploration strategy.

More precisely, research methodology is concerned with the explanation of the following:
(1) Why is a particular research study undertaken?
(2) How did one formulate a research problem?
(3) What types of data were collected?
(4) What particular method has been used?
(5) Why was a particular technique of analysis of data used?
The study of research methodology provides us the necessary training in choosing methods,
materials, scientific tools and training in techniques relevant for the problem chosen.

Techniques, honorifics, and epistemology are closely linked to methodology.

If you tend to look into each one of them, they are the key players in any methodology that is
adopted for a research.

Methodology is the system, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study. It
comprises the theoretical analysis of the body of methods and principles associated with a branch
of knowledge. Typically, it encompasses concepts such as paradigm, theoretical model, phases
and quantative or qualitative techniques.

A methodology dos not set out to provide solutions-it is, therefore not the same as a method.
Instead, a methodology offers theoretical underpinning for understanding which method, set of
methods, or so-called “best practices” can be applied to specific case, for example, to calculating
a specific result.

It has been defined also as follows:

1. The analysis of the principles of methods, rules and postulates employed by a discipline
2. The systematic study of methods that are, can be, or have been applied within a
discipline.
3. The study or description of methods.

When it comes to methodology, you need to go a little deeper. This is your opportunity to reflect
on your methods. If you used a survey, for example, think about the advantages and
disadvantages of using this method. Similarly, think about why you collected quantitative data
instead of qualitative data.

After completing your research, you should also evaluate the method you used; this is part of
your research methodology. Think about whether your research method was easy to carry out.
Did it give you the results you needed? Would you use this method again? These are all
questions to consider in your methodology.

Methodology is a term that basically means the science of how research is done
scientifically. It is a way to systematically and logically solve a problem, help us
understand the process not just the product of research, and analyzes methods in addition to
the information obtained by them.

Technique
• surveys
• experiments
• statistical analysis
• analysis of previous research
• case studies
• questionnaires
 • personal accounts
• unstructured interviews

Honorifics
Honorifics is a fundamental aspect of research and of professional work. It refers to the science
of hierarchy morals and rules of behaviour. It is concerned with the concept of right and wrong
conduct in all stages of doing research. However, while the idea of right and wrong conduct may
seem straightforward, on reflection you will realise how complex it is.
It is concerned with the prevention of any harm which may occur during the course of research.
This is particularly important if your research involves human participants. Harm refers to
psychological as well as physical harm. Human rights and the law must be respected by
researchers with regard to the safety and wellbeing of their participants at all times. Research
ethics is also concerned with identifying high standards of research conduct and putting them
into practice.

Epistemology

Epistemology generally recognize at least four different sources of knowledge:

INTUITIVE KNOWLEDGE takes forms such as belief, faith, intuition, etc. It is based on
feelings rather than hard, cold "facts."

AUTHORITATIVE KNOWLEDGE is based on information received from people, books, a

supreme being, etc. Its strength depends on the strength of these sources.

LOGICAL KNOWLEDGE is arrived at by reasoning from "point A" (which is generally

accepted) to "point B" (the new knowledge).

EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE is based on demonstrable, objective facts (which are determined

through observation and/or experimentation).

All these in turn make the methodology work to obtain results that are carefully organized to
gather information that is potentially aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision
of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or
revised theories or laws.