Atmospheric Water

WATER VAPOUR

Atmospheric water mostly exists as a gas or vapour, but briefly and locally it becomes a liquid in rainfall
and in water droplets in clouds, or it becomes a solid in snowfall, hail and in ice crystals in clouds.

Vapour transport in air through a hydrologic system can be described by the Reynolds Transport
Theorem letting the extensive property 𝐵 be the mass of water vapour. The intensive property 𝛽 =
𝑑𝐵⁄𝑑𝑚 is the mass of water vapour per unit mass of moist air; this is called the 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑞𝑣 ,
and equals the ratio of the densities of water vapour (𝜌𝑣 ) and the moist air (𝜌𝑎 ):
𝜌𝑣
𝑞𝑣 =
𝜌𝑎

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟏

By the law of conservation of mass, 𝑑𝐵⁄𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑣 , the rate at which water vapour is being added to the
system. For evaporation from a water surface, 𝑚̇𝑣 is negative and represents the rate at which vapour is
being removed from the system. The Reynolds Transport equation for this system is the continuity
equation for water vapour transport:

𝑑
𝑚̇𝑣 = ∭ 𝑞𝑣 𝜌𝑎 𝑑∀ + ∬ 𝑞𝑣 𝜌𝑎 𝑽. 𝒅𝑨
𝑑𝑡

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟐

Vapour Pressure

Dalton’s law of partial pressures states that the pressure exerted by a gas (its vapour pressure) is
independent of the presence of other gases; the vapour pressure 𝑒 of the water vapour is given by the
𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 as

𝑒 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑅𝑣 𝑇

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟑

Where 𝑇 is the absolute temperature in 𝐾, and 𝑅𝑣 is the gas constant for water vapour. If the total
pressure exerted by the moist air is 𝑝, then 𝑝 − 𝑒 is the partial pressure due to the dry air, and

𝑝 − 𝑒 = 𝜌𝑑 𝑅𝑑 𝑇

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟒

Where 𝜌𝑑 is the density of dry air and 𝑅𝑑 is the gas constant for dry air (287 𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔. 𝐾 ). the density of
moist air 𝜌𝑎 is the sum of the densities of dry air and water vapour, that is, 𝜌𝑎 = 𝜌𝑑 + 𝜌𝑣 , and the gas
constant for water vapour is 𝑅𝑣 = 𝑅𝑑 ⁄0.622, where 0.622 is the ratio of the molecular weight of water
vapour to the average molecular weight of dry air. Combining equations 3 and 4 using the above
definitions gives
𝜌𝑣
𝑝 = [𝜌𝑑 + ( )] 𝑅𝑑 𝑇
0.622

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟓

By taking the ratios of equations 3 and 5, the specific humidity 𝑞𝑣 is approximated by

𝑒
𝑞𝑣 = 0.622
𝑝

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟔

Also, equation 5 can be rewritten n terms of the gas constant for moist air, 𝑅𝑎 , as

𝑝 = 𝜌𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝑇

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟕

The relationship between the gas constants for moist air and dry air is given by

𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑑 (1 + 0.608𝑞𝑣 )

= 287(1 + 0.608𝑞𝑣 ) 𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔. 𝐾

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟖

The gas constant of moist air increases with specific humidity, but even for a large specific humidity, the
difference between the gas constants for moist and dry air is only about 2 %.

For a given air temperature, there is a maximum moisture content the air can hold, and the
corresponding vapour pressure is called the 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑠 . At this vapour pressure,
the rates of evaporation and condensation are equal. Over a water surface the saturation vapour
pressure is related to the air temperature by;

17.27 𝑇
𝑒𝑠 = 611 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )
237.3 + 𝑇

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟗

Where 𝑒𝑠 is in pascals and 𝑇 is in degrees Celsius.

The gradient ∆= 𝑑𝑒𝑠 ⁄𝑑𝑇 of the saturated vapour pressure curve is found by differentiating equation 9:

4098𝑒𝑠
∆=
(237.3 + 𝑇)2

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟏𝟎
Where ∆ is the gradient in pascals per degree Celsius.

The 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅ℎ is the ratio of the actual vapour pressure to its saturation value at a given air
temperature
𝑒
𝑅ℎ =
𝑒𝑠

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟏𝟏

The temperature at which air would just become saturated at a given specific humidity is its
𝑑𝑒𝑤 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇𝑑

Exercise 1

At a climate station, air pressure is measured as 100 kPa, air temperature as 20 ℃, and wet bulb or dew-
point temperature as 16 ℃. Calculate the corresponding vapour pressure, relative humidity, specific
humidity and air density.

EVAPORATION

The two main factors influencing evaporation from an open water surface are the supply of energy to
provide the latent heat of vaporization and the ability to transport the vapour away from the
evaporative surface. Solar radiation is the main source of heat energy. The ability to transport vapour
away from the evaporative surface depends on the wind velocity over the surface and the specific
humidity gradient in the air above it.

Evaporation from the land surface comprises evaporation directly from the soil and vegetation surface,
and 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 through plant leaves, in which water is extracted by the plant’s roots, transported
upwards through its stem and diffused into the atmosphere through tiny openings in the leaves called
stomata.

The processes of evaporation from the land surface and transpiration from vegetation are collectively
termed 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. Evapotranspiration is influenced by the two factors described previously
for open water evaporation, and also by a third factor, the supply of moisture at the evaporative
surface. The 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 is the evapotranspiration that would occur from a well
vegetated surface when moisture supply is not limiting, and this is calculated in a way similar to that for
open water evaporation. Actual evapotranspiration drops below its potential level as the soil dries out.

Energy Balance Method

To develop the continuity and energy equations applicable for evaporation, consider evaporation from
an 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑛 as shown in figure 1 below. An evaporation pan is circular tank containing water,
in which the rate of evaporation is measured by the rate of fall of the water surface. A control surface is
drawn around the pan enclosing both the water in the pan and the air above it.
Figure 1: Control volume defined for continuity and energy equation
development for an evaporation pan

continuity. Because the control volume contains water in both the liquid and vapour phases, the
integral continuity equation must be written separately for the two phases. For the liquid phase, the
extensive property 𝐵 = mass of liquid water; 𝛽 = 1, 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑤 (the density of water), and 𝑑𝐵⁄𝑑𝑡 = −𝑚̇𝑣 ,
which is the mass flow rate of evaporation. The continuity equation for the liquid phase is

𝑑
−𝑚̇𝑣 = ∭ 𝜌𝑤 𝑑∀ + ∬ 𝜌𝑤 𝑽. 𝒅𝑨
𝑑𝑡

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟏

The pan has impermeable sides, so there is no flow of liquid water across the control surface and
∬ 𝜌𝑤 𝑽. 𝒅𝑨 = 0. The rate of change of storage within the system is given by (𝑑⁄𝑑𝑡) ∭ 𝜌𝑤 𝑑∀ =
𝜌𝑤 𝐴 𝑑ℎ⁄𝑑𝑡, where 𝐴 is the cross-sectional area of the pan and ℎ is the depth of the water in the pan.
Substituting into equation 1:

𝑑ℎ
−𝑚̇𝑣 = 𝜌𝑤 𝐴 ( )
𝑑𝑡

Or

𝑚̇𝑣 = 𝜌𝑤 𝐴𝐸

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟐

Where 𝐸 = − 𝑑ℎ⁄𝑑𝑡 is the 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒.

For the vapour phase, 𝐵 = mass of water vapour, 𝛽 = 𝑞𝑣 , the specific humidity, 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑎 , the air density,
and 𝑑𝐵⁄𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑣 , so the continuity equation for this phase is

𝑑
𝑚̇𝑣 = ∭ 𝑞𝑣 𝜌𝑎 𝑑∀ + ∬ 𝑞𝑣 𝜌𝑎 𝑽. 𝒅𝑨
𝑑𝑡

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟑

For a steady flow of air over the evaporation pan, the time derivative of water vapour stored within the
control volume is zero. Thus, after substituting for 𝑚̇𝑣 from equation 2, equation 3 becomes

𝜌𝑤 𝐴𝐸 = ∬ 𝑞𝑣 𝜌𝑎 𝑽. 𝒅𝑨

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟒

Which is the continuity equation for an evaporation pan, considering both water and water vapour. In a
more general sense, equation 4 can be used to define the evaporation or evapotranspiration rate from
any surface when written in the form

1
𝐸=( ) ∬ 𝑞𝑣 𝜌𝑎 𝑽. 𝒅𝑨
𝜌𝑤 𝐴

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟓

Where 𝐸 is the equivalent depth of water evaporated per unit time (mm/day)

Energy. The heat energy balance of a hydrologic system, as expressed by the equation;

𝑑𝐻 𝑑𝑊 𝑑 1 1
− = ∭ (𝑒𝑢 + 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧) 𝜌𝑑∀ + ∬ (𝑒𝑢 + 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧) 𝜌𝑽. 𝒅𝑨
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 2

Can be applied to the water in the control volume:

𝑑𝐻 𝑑𝑊 𝑑 1 1
− = ∭ (𝑒𝑢 + 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧) 𝜌𝑑∀ + ∬ (𝑒𝑢 + 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧) 𝜌𝑽. 𝒅𝑨
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 2

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟔

Where 𝑑𝐻 ⁄𝑑𝑡 is the rate of heat input to the system from external sources, 𝑑𝑊 ⁄𝑑𝑡 is the rate of work
done by the system (zero in this case), 𝑒𝑢 is the specific internal heat energy of the water, and the two
terms on the RHS are, respectively, the rate of change of heat energy stored in the control volume and
the net outflow of heat energy carried across the control surface with flowing water. Because 𝑉 = 0 for
the water in the evaporation pan, and the rate of change of its elevation, 𝑧, is very small, equation 6 can
be simplified to
 𝑑𝐻 𝑑
= ∭ 𝑒𝑢 𝜌𝑤 𝑑∀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟕

Considering a unit area of water surface, the source of heat energy is net radiation flux 𝑅𝑛 , measured in
watts per square metre; the water supplies a sensible heat flux 𝐻𝑠 to the air stream and a ground heat
flux 𝐺 to the ground surface, so 𝑑𝐻 ⁄𝑑𝑡 = 𝑅𝑛 − 𝐻𝑠 − 𝐺. If it is assumed that the temperature of the
water within the control volume is constant in time, the only change in the heat stored within the
control volume is the change in the internal energy of vaporization. Hence equation 7 can be rewritten
as

𝑅𝑛 − 𝐻𝑠 − 𝐺 = 𝑙𝑣 𝑚̇𝑣

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟖

By substituting for 𝑚̇𝑣 from equation 2 with 𝐴 = 1 𝑚2 , equation 8 may be solved for 𝐸:

1
𝐸= (𝑅 − 𝐻𝑠 − 𝐺)
𝑙𝑣 𝜌𝑤 𝑛

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟗

Which is the 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 for evaporation. If the sensible heat flux 𝐻𝑠 and the ground
heat flux 𝐺 are both zero, then an evaporation rate 𝐸𝑟 can be calculated as the rate at which all the
incoming net radiation is absorbed by evaporation:

𝑅𝑛
𝐸𝑟 =
𝑙𝑣 𝜌𝑤

𝑬𝒒𝒏 𝟏𝟎

Exercise 2

Calculate by the energy balance method the evaporation rate from an open water surface, if the net
radiation is 200 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 and the air temperature is 25 ℃, assuming no sensible heat or ground heat flux.
(𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑡: 𝑙𝑣 = 2.501 × 106 − 2370𝑇 𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔)