Title: Speed Control of Adjustable Frequency Drive

Submitted By

Group No.
Name of Student Registration Numbers
Usama Khan 15ABELT0633
Mehroz Fatima 15ABELT0636
Syed Osama Bin Abid 15ABELT0675

Supervisor

Engr. Wajid Mehmood

Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
ABBOTTABAD

August 2019

I
 Title
Speed Control of Adjustable Frequency Drive

Submitted By

Name of Student Registration Numbers

Usama Khan 15ABELT0633
Mehroz Fatima 15ABELT0636
Syed Osama Bin Abid 15ABELT0675

A report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

B.Sc. Electronic Engineering

Thesis Supervisor:

Engr. Wajid Mehmood

Assistant Professor

Head of Department Signature: ____________________________________

External Examiner Signature: _____________________________________

Thesis Supervisor Signature: _____________________________________

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS

August 2019
II
 Acknowledgement

All grace to Almighty Allah who is the most beneficent and the most merciful, and who has
given His men the instinct and power to think and create. Behind every work’s success there is
an effort of a number of wonderful people who have always given their valuable advice or lent
a helping hand. We sincerely appreciate the support and guidance of all those people who have
been helping in making this project a success. We would like to thank department of Electronic
Engineering of our prestigious campus for allowing us to commence this project to success. We
are extremely grateful to our supervisor sir Wajid Mehmood whose help, critical advice and
guidance helped us doing this project successfully. We are deeply indebted to his whole hearted
supervision and dedication in accomplishment of this project. Lastly, place a deep sense of
gratitude to my family members and my friends who have been constant source of inspiration
during the preparation and completion of this project work.

III
 Abstract
In a country like Pakistan energy saving is of great significance. In order to overcome
energy crisis the only thinkable solution with least possible cost is to save energy. It has been
stated that 50% of the world’s electricity is being consumed by AC motors. And there is a big
problem related with these motors that is, large starting inrush current. When a motor starts a
large current is drawn by the motor which is of no use till motor attains its synchronous speed.
This high current produces heat, causing reduction in the life time of electrical equipment and
power consumption also increased. This current can be reduced by using adjustable frequency
drives. Adjustable frequency drive is a device that is used to control the speed and frequency
of AC induction motors thus it is also known as adjustable speed drive or variable speed drive.
In this phenomenon motor’s frequency and voltage magnitude are taken under control by using
a technique known as PWM (Pulse Width Modulation). It offers energy to electrical appliance
according to demand, enhances the life time of equipment and the biggest benefit is that it is an
energy saving device, and such device is highly desirable in a country like Pakistan where
energy crisis are getting in the way of development of the country.

Key words: Rectifier，Inverter，ARDUINO，Driver IC IR2110，Induction motor

IV
 List of Abbreviations

The following table describes the significance of various abbreviations and acronyms used
throughout the thesis.

Abbreviation Meaning
AC Alternating Current
DC Direct Current
RMS Root Mean Square
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
Metal-Oxide Semi-conductor
MOSFET
Field Effect Transistor
BJT Bipolar Junction Transistor
AFD Adjustable Frequency Drive
VVVF Variable Voltage Variable Frequency
VFD Variable Frequency Drive
I/O Input/ Output

V
 List of Figures
Figure 1-1 Block diagram of AFD……………………………………………………………..2
Figure1-2 Circuit diagram of AFD ……………………………………………………..……..2
Figure 1-3 Rotary converter……………………………………………………………………3
Figure 2-1 Single phase half wave rectifier circuit…………………………………………….6
Figure 2-2 Single phase full wave rectifier (center tapped)……………………………………6
Figure 2-3 Single phase full wave bridge rectifier with filtering capacitor…………………….7
Figure 2-4 Three phase voltage waveform……………………………………………………..8
Figure2-5 Three phase half wave rectification…………………………………………………9
Figure 2-6 Three phase full wave rectification………………………………………………..10
Figure 3-1 Single phase inverter circuit………………………………………………………13
Figure 3-2 Three phase inverter circuit …………………………………………...…………..14
Figure 3-3 Characteristic waveform of inverter voltages & currents……………..……….....14
Figure 3-4 PWM representation (a) with longer ON time (b) with shorter ON time…..…….15
Figure 3-5 Different PWM waveforms resulting in different frequencies………………...….16
Figure 4-1 ARDUINO ATmega2560………………………………………………………....17
Figure 4-2 Features of ATmega2560………………………………………………………….18
Figure 4-3 Pin configuration……………………………………………………………….....19
Figure 5-1 (a) Single phase full wave bridge rectifier simulation in Proteus…....….....……..21
Figure5-1 (b) output waveform of single phase bridge rectifier…………..………………….22
Figure 5-2 Rectifier with filtering capacitor………………………………………………….22
Figure 5-3 Three phase inverter………………………………………………………………23
Figure 5-4 Valid switching on & off pattern of three phase inverter…………………………24
Figure 5-5 waveforms for 180 degree conduction mode of inverter…………………………24
Figure 5-6 (a) Symbol of an IGBT……………………………………………………………25
Figure 5-6 (b) Internal circuitry of an IGBT…………………………………………….……26
Figure 5-7 Absolute maximum ratings of an IGBT……………………………………….….26
Figure 5-8 Thermal characteristics of an IGBT………………………………………………27
Figure 5-9 Electrical characteristics of an IGBT……………………………………………..27
Figure 5-10 Output characteristics of an IGBT………………………………………………28
Figure 5-11 14 lead PDIP driver IR2110/IR2130…………………………………………….29
Figure 5-12 Typical connections of IGBT with driver IR2110…………………………..……29
Figure 5-13 Absolute maximum ratings of driver IR2110………………………………........30

VI
Figure 5-14 Recommended operating conditions of driver IR2110………………………….30
Figure5-15 Dynamic electrical characteristics of driver IR2110……………………………..31
Figure 5-16 Static electrical characteristics of driver IR2110………………………………...31
Figure 5-17 Functional block diagram of driver IR2110……………………………………..32
Figure 5-18 Internal circuit of an opto-couple………………………………………………..33
Figure 5-19 (a) Inverter simulation in Proteus………………………………………………..33
Figure 5-19 (b) Output of inverter with 60Hz frequency…………………………………….33
Figure 5-19 (c) Output of inverter with 50Hz frequency…………………………………….34
Figure 5-19 (d) Output of inverter with 40Hz frequency……………………………….........34
Figure 5-20 Inverter section of AFD…………………………………………………………35
Figure 5-21 Adjustable frequency drive……………………………………………………...36
Figure 5-22(a) Line voltage with 60Hz frequency…………………………………………...37
Figure 5-22 (b) Line voltage with 50Hz frequency…………………………………………..37
Figure 5-22 (c) Line voltage with 43Hz frequency…………………………………………..37

VII
 Table of Contents
Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………..…………......II
Abstract .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

List of Abbreviations................................................................................................................. V

List of Figures ..........................................................................................................................VI

Table of Contents ................................................................................................................... VII

Chapter 1 .................................................................................................................................... 5

Project Introduction and Background ........................................................................................ 5

1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 5

1.2 Project Description............................................................................................................... 5

1.3 Block Diagram ..................................................................................................................... 6

1.4 Circuit diagram…………………………………………………………………………….2

1.5 Background………………………………………………………………………………...2
1.5.1 Rotary Converters………………………………………………………………………..2
1.5.2 Downsides of Rotary Converters………………………………………………………...3
1.6 Offered Solution……………………………………………………………………………3
1.7 Aims and Objectives…………………………………………………………………….…4
1.8 Outline of Dissertation……………………………………………………………….…….4
Chapter 2……………………………………………………………………………………….5
Diode Rectifiers………………………………………………………………………………..5
2.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..5
2.2 Single Phase Rectifiers……………………………………………………………………5
2.3 Three Phase Rectifiers…………………………………………………………………….7
Summary……………………………………………………………………………………..10
Chapter 3……………………………………………………………………………………..11
Inverters……………………………………………………………………………………...11
3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………11
3.2 Single Phase Inverters……………………………………………………………………11
3.3 Three Phase Inverters…………………………………………………………………….13
3.4 Pulse Width Modulation Control…………………………………………………………14
3.4.1 What is Pulse Width Modulation……………………………………………………….14
VII
Summary……………………………………………………………………………………..16
Chapter 4……………………………………………………………………………………..17
Control Unit………………………………………………………………………………….17
4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………....17
4.2 ARDUINO ATmega2560………………………………………………………………...17
4.2.1 ATmega2560…………………………………………………………………………...18
4.2.2 Features………………………………………………………………………………...18
4.2.3 Pin Configuration………………………………………………………………………19
4.3 Role of Control Unit……………………………………………………………………..19
Summary……………………………………………………………………………………..19
Chapter 5…………………………………………………………………………………….20
AFD Designing Procedure…………………………………………………………………..20
5.1 Rectifier stage……………………………………………………………………………20
5.1.1 Software simulations…………………………………………………………………..20
5.1.2 Analysis………………………………………………………………………………..21
5.1.3 Hardware design of single phase full wave bridge rectifier…………………………...21
5.2 Inverter stage…………………………………………………………………………….22
5.2.1 IGBTs………………………………………………………………………………….24
5.2.1.1 Symbol and circuit of IGBT(FGA25N120ANTD)………………………………….24
5.2.1.2 Features of IGBT (FGA25N120ANTD)…………………………………………….25
5.2.1.3 Absolute maximum ratings………………………………………………………….25
5.2.1.4 Thermal characteristics……………………………………………………………...26
5.2.1.5 Electrical characteristics…………………………………………………………….26
5.2.1.6 Typical output characteristics……………………………………………………….27
5.2.2 Three phase bridge driver IC (IR2110)……………………………………………….27
5.2.2.1 Features of driver IC (IR2110)……………………………………………………...27
5.2.2.2 Pin configuration……………………………………………………………………28
5.2.2.3 Typical characteristics………………………………………………………………28
5.2.2.4 Absolute maximum ratings…………………………………………………………28
5.2.2.5 Recommended operating conditions………………………………………………..29
5.2.2.6 Electrical characteristics……………………………………………………………29
5.2.2.7 Functional block diagram of driver IC IR2110……………………………………..31
5.2.3 Bootstrap circuit………………………………………………………………………31
5.2.4 Opto-coupler………………………………………………………………………….31

VIII
5.2.5 Software simulation and output waveform of inverter circuit………………………..32
5.2.6 Hardware design………………………………………………………………………34
5.3 Adjustable frequency drive……………………………………………………………..34
5.3.1 Components used……………………………………………………………………..34
5.3.2 AFD hardware………………………………………………………………………...35
5.3.3 Output waveform……………………………………………………………………..35
5.4 Benefits of AFD………………………………………………………………………...37
5.5 Applications of AFD…………………………………………………………………....38
5.6 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………...…39
5.7 Future recommendations…………………………………………………………….....39

IX
 Chapter 1

Project Introduction and Background

1.1 Introduction
This chapter provides an outline of speed control of AC motor using Adjustable Frequency
Drive (AFD). The speed of AC motors remains constant due to the reason that it takes rated
power from supply and therefore causes complications when less motor speed is desirable. The
AFD mechanism offers an approach for variation in speed of AC motors. It is meant for
controlling the speed and torque of the motor which is done by changing motor’s input
frequency and voltage. This project provides the working code of AFD, its performance and the
use of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) in the three phase inverter to control or maintain the
ratio of voltage to frequency. The model is simulated using Proteus Design Suite and the results
are analyzed. This project is intended to achieve tighter process control and to get precise speed
for AC motors for the desired task in order to save energy.

1.2 Project Description

AFD fundamentally controls the speed and torque of regular induction AC motors. The
frequency as well as the amplitude of AC voltage waveform which is conveyed is varied as
desired thereby saving money and electricity. AFD comprises of three main sub-systems: AC
motor, main drive controller assembly and a drive operator interface. The applications of AFD
are typically in three phase induction motor. The AFD circuitry comprises of following parts:
• Bridge Rectifier The bridge rectifier has a diode assembly that transforms AC line
voltage delivered to the drive to DC voltage.
• DC Link It comprises of a capacitor which smoothens out the bridge rectifier’s DC
rippled output. Thus it offers a pure DC input to the inverter.
• The Inverter It comprises of IGBTs as the switching components and their switching
is controlled by the ARDUINO which controls the input to the driver IC henceforth
controlling the switching of the IGBTs.

5
1.3 Block Diagram

Fig.1-1 Block diagram for AFD.

1.4 Circuit Diagram

Fig.1-2 Circuit diagram of AFD

1.5 Background
1.5.1 Rotary converters
In the earlier times, rotary converters were used for the frequency transformations. Rotary

6
converters are electrical devices which act as a mechanical rectifier, inverter or frequency
converter at a time. Rotary converters are used to alter AC current into DC current. Also used to
convert DC voltages into AC voltages and are also used to transform frequency from one level
to another level .So it can be called as a rectifier, an inverter and also as a frequency converter.

Fig.1-3 Rotary converter

1.5.2 Downsides of Rotary Converters

The rotary converters have many disadvantages that are as follows:

• Price Concern They are very costly. The renovating cost of the machinery is also
high. And the spare parts are not accessible easily and have to be imported if any
error occurs.
• Size Problem The main shortcoming of this machinery was that they worked on
obsolete techniques. Rotary converters are very bulky in size and needed to be
imported from foreign countries, which is a difficult job and expensive.
• Troublesomeness They cannot be effortlessly carried to far-off places in time of
necessity.

1.6 Offered solution

By understanding the nature of problem, we have devised it to be:

• Proficient The operating machinery in the project is proficient and designed according
to the modern and innovative technology and made-up under latest techniques.

7
 • Cost effective Also that the project is cost effective as it doesn’t need any machinery
to be imported from the far-off countries and all apparatus is designed within country
and has less built-up cost and so is cost effective.
• Transportable Lastly the project is convenient and moveable and can be easily carried
to far of places, in the time of need. It is made compact and can be easily carried to
far-off places.

1.7 Aims & Objectives

The following objectives are accomplished.

• 220V AC is successfully converted to 310V DC.

• DC is successfully converted again to AC (sinusoidal wave).
• Frequency is adjustable according to user’s desire.
• Motor speed is in under control.
• Project is compact.
• Worth is reduced.
• Design is proficient.

1.8 Outline of Dissertation

An outline of this dissertation follows. In Chapter 2, the concept of rectifiers has been
discussed including single phase as well as three phase rectifiers. Chapter 3, includes the
concept of inverters along with how PWM is used to obtain AC voltage from the DC voltage.
Chapter 4 focuses on the control unit that is meant for the controlling and monitoring the AFD.
In Chapter 5 the detailed procedure of designing the AFD has been explained along with
software simulations and hardware design. Chapter 5 also discusses the benefits and application
of AFDs. In the end conclusion and future recommendations are given.

Chapter 2

8
 Diode Rectifiers

2.1 Introduction
Rectifiers are one of the elementary building blocks of AC power transformation with half-
wave or full-wave rectification, generally achieved by semiconductor diodes. Diodes permit
alternating currents to flow through them in the forward direction while hindering current flow
in the reverse direction forming a fixed DC voltage level making them best for rectification.
However, direct current which has been rectified by diodes is not as pure as that obtained from
a battery, but has ripples overlaid on it as a result of the alternating supply. Rectifiers are
categorized as single phase and three phase rectifiers and rectification is a simple process in
which AC is converted into pulsating DC using diodes. Rectification renovates a wavering
sinusoidal AC voltage source into a fixed current DC voltage supply by means of diodes. This
rectifying process can take on many forms with half-wave, full-wave, uncontrolled and fully-
controlled rectifiers converting a single-phase or three-phase supply into a constant DC level.

2.2 Single Phase Rectifiers

There are two kinds of single-phase diode rectifier that transform a single-phase ac supply into
a dc voltage, namely, single phase half-wave rectifiers and single-phase full-wave rectifiers.
All single phase rectifiers use solid state devices as their prime AC-to-DC converting device.
Single phase uncontrolled half-wave rectifiers are the simplest and feasibly the most widely
used rectification circuit for small power levels as their output is greatly affected by the
reactance of the coupled load.
For uncontrolled rectifier circuits, semiconductor diodes are the most commonly used device
and are so organized to create either a half-wave or a full-wave rectifier circuit. The advantage
of using diodes as the rectification device is that by design they are unidirectional devices
having an inherent one-way PN-junction. This PN-junction transforms the bi-directional
alternating supply into a one-way unidirectional current by removing one-half of the supply.
Depending upon the assembly of the diode, it could for example permit the positive half of the
AC waveform when forward-biased, while removing the negative half-cycle when the diode
becomes reverse-biased. Following are the single phase rectifier circuits with their output
waveforms are shown below:

9
 Fig.2-1 Half wave rectifier circuit

Fig.2-2 Full wave rectifier (centered tapped)

10
 Fig.2-3 Full wave bridge rectifier with filtering capacitor

2.3 Three-phase rectifiers

They transform a balanced 3-phase power supply into a fixed DC supply by means of solid
state diodes. Three-phase rectification, also known as poly-phase rectification circuits are like
the previous single-phase rectifiers, the difference is that it uses three, single-phase supplies
connected together that have been created by one single three-phase generator. The benefit here
is that three-phase rectification circuits can be used to power many industrial applications such
as motor control or battery charging which involve higher power requirements than a single-
phase rectifier circuit is capable of supplying. Three-phase supplies take this idea one step
additional by combining together three AC voltages of matching frequency and amplitude with
each AC voltage being called a “phase”.

These three-phases are 120 electrical degrees out-of-phase from each other creating a phase
arrangement, or phase rotation of: 360o /3=120o.

11
 Fig.2-4 three-phase waveform

Like single-phase rectification, three-phase rectification also uses diodes to create half-wave,
full-wave, uncontrolled and fully-controlled rectifier circuits changing a given three-phase
supply into a constant DC output level. In most applications a three-phase rectifier is provided
directly from the main utility power grid or from a three-phase transformer if different DC
output level is mandatory by the connected load. As with the prior, single-phase rectifier, the
most basic three-phase rectifier circuit is that of an uncontrolled half-wave rectifier circuit
which uses three semiconductor diodes, one diode per phase whereas, full-wave three-phase
uncontrolled bridge rectifier circuit uses six diodes, two per phase in a similar manner to the
single-phase bridge rectifier. A Three-phase full-wave rectifier is obtained by using two half-
wave rectifier circuits. The benefit here is that the circuit yields a lower ripple output than the
prior half-wave and the three-phase rectifier has a frequency of six times the input AC
waveform[1].

12
Fig.2-5 Half wave three-phase rectification

13
 Fig.2-6 Full wave three-phase rectification

In this chapter we have seen different rectifiers and their resultant output waveforms. In the
design of AFD, our first task is to design a single phase full wave rectifier that will transform
220V AC to a 310V DC. In the next chapter we will lead to inverters and their role in the design
of AFDs.

Summary

This chapter provides a detailed concept about how rectifiers are used to convert AC
line voltage to a DC voltage .Different types of rectifiers can be made by using diodes in
different configurations. For lower voltages single phase rectifiers are used whereas three phase
rectifiers are used to meet high voltage and power requirements.

14
 Chapter 3
Inverters
3.1 Introduction

An inverter is a semiconductor-built power converter. An inverter that transforms a direct

current into an alternating current is a DC-AC inverter. Still, the term “inverter” commonly
mentions the apparatus that chains an AC-DC converter (that transforms an alternating current
into a direct current) & a DC-AC inverter so as to be capable of generating arbitrary frequencies
and voltages. Inverters are used to generate single or poly-phase AC voltages from a DC source.
In the discussion of poly-phase inverters, three-phase inverters are definitely the largest group.
A very big number of inverters are used for adjustable speed/frequency motor drives. The
characteristic inverter for this application is a “hard-switched” voltage source inverter making
pulse-width modulated (PWM) signals with a sinusoidal fundamental. Modern inverters use
insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) as the chief power control devices. In addition to
IGBTs, power MOSFETs are also in use especially for lower voltages, low power ratings, and
applications that necessitate high efficiency and high switching frequency. In fresh years,
IGBTs, MOSFETs, and their control and safeguard circuitry have made noteworthy progress.
IGBTs are now obtainable with voltage ratings of up to 3300 V and current ratings up to 1200A.
MOSFETs have attained on-state resistances approaching a little milliohms. In addition to the
devices, manufacturers today deal with customized control circuitry that offers for electrical
isolation, correct operation of the devices under normal operating circumstances and safeguard
from a diversity of fault conditions .In addition, the industry offers good upkeep for dedicated
passive devices such as capacitors and mechanical constituents such as low inductance bus-bar
assemblies to assist the design of dependable inverters.

3.2 Single Phase Inverters

Figure 3.1 displays a full-bridge inverter with a single-phase output. This alignment is
frequently called an H-bridge, due to the arrangement of the power switches and the load. The
inverter can distribute and receive both real and reactive power. The inverter has two legs, left
& right. Each leg comprises of two power control devices (here IGBTs) attached in series. The
load is linked between the midpoints of the two phase legs. Each power control device consists
15
of a diode linked antiparallel to it. The diodes offer an alternative path for the load current if
the power switches are turned off. For example, if the lower IGBT in the left leg is conducting
and carrying current to the negative DC bus, this current would “commutate” into the diode by
the upper IGBT of the left leg, if the lower IGBT is turned off. Control of the circuit is done by
changing the turn on time of the upper and lower IGBT of every inverter leg, with setting them
to not ever turning on both at the similar time, to escape short circuit of the DC bus. In fact,
recent drivers will not let this to happen, even if the controller would mistakenly command
both devices to be turned on. The controller will then alternate the turn on commands for the
upper and lower switch, i.e., turn the upper switch on and the lower switch off, and vice versa.
The driver circuit will normally add some extra blanking time (typically 500 to 1000 ns)
throughout the switch transitions to avoid any intersection in the conduction intervals. The
controller will thus control the duty cycle of the conduction phase of the switches. The average
potential of the center-point of every leg will be set by the DC bus voltage multiplied by the
duty cycle of the upper switch, when the negative side of the DC bus is used as a reference. If
this duty cycle is modulated with a sinusoidal signal with a frequency that is far smaller than
the switching frequency, the short term average of the center-point potential will track the
modulation signal. “Short-term” in this environment means a small fraction of the period of
the fundamental output frequency to be formed by the inverter. For the single phase inverter,
the modulation of the two legs are opposite of each other such that if the left leg has a large
duty cycle for the upper switch, the right leg has a small one, etc. The output voltage is then
known by Eq. (3.2) in which ma is the modulation factor. The limits for ma are for linear
modulation. Values greater than 1 lead to over modulation and an obvious increase in output
voltage distortion.

Vac1 (t) = ma. Vdc. Sin (w1.t), 0 ≤ ma ≤ 1 (3.2)

This voltage can be filtered by using a LC low-pass filter. The voltage on the output of the filter
will strictly look like the shape and frequency of the modulation signal. This means that the
frequency, wave-shape, and amplitude of the inverter output voltage can all be taken under
control as long as the switching frequency is at least 25 to 100 times greater than the
fundamental output frequency of the inverter .The actual generation of the PWM signals is
generally done using microcontrollers and digital signal processors (DSPs).

16
 Fig.3-1 single-phase inverter

3.3 Three-phase Inverters

Figure 3-2 shows a three-phase inverter, which is the most frequently used in today’s motor
drives. The circuit is basically an extension of the H-bridge-style single-phase inverter, by an
extra added leg. The control plan is similar to the control of the single-phase inverter, excluding
that the reference signals for the altered legs have a phase shift of 120° instead of 180° for the
single-phase inverter. Due to this phase shift, the odd triplex harmonics (3rd, 9th, 15th, etc.) of
the reference waveform for each leg are removed from the line-to-line output voltage. The
even-numbered harmonics are lost as well if the waveforms are pure AC, which is usually the
case. For linear modulation, the amplitude of the output voltage is lessened with respect to the
input voltage of a three-phase rectifier. To pay for this voltage reduction, the fact of the
harmonics cancellation is occasionally used to enhance the amplitudes of the output voltages
by purposely injecting a third harmonic component into the reference waveform of every phase
leg.

Figure 3-3 shows the characteristic output of a three-phase inverter during a startup transient
into a usual motor load. The upper graph displays the pulse-width modulated waveform
between phases A and B, while the lower graph displays the currents in all three phases. It is
obvious that the motor performs a low-pass filter for the applied PWM voltage and the current
undertakes the wave shape of the fundamental modulation signal with very minor amounts of
switching ripple[1].

17
 .

Fig.3-2 Three-phase inverter

Fig.3-3 Characteristic waveforms of inverter voltages and currents

3.4 Pulse Width Modulation Control

3.4.1 What is Pulse Width Modulation?

The method involved in inverting the DC voltage to the variable voltage variable frequency
(VVVF) AC voltage in the inverter unit of the AFD is called pulse width modulation. Pulse
width modulation comprises of transistors which switch the DC voltage on and off in a defined
sequence to yield the AC output voltage and frequency. Most VFD’s today use insulated gate
bipolar transistors or IGBT’s. The transistors act as a switch linking the DC bus across the
windings of the motor. A VFD with a 220VAC input will have a DC bus of almost 310VDC.
Thus the ‘pulse’ refers to the switching on and off of the transistors creating a pulse of voltage
with an amplitude of about 310VDC. The aim of the PWM control is to create a sine wave

18
current waveform output to produce torque in the motor. In order for current to flow between
two phases of the motor, at least one transistor in the top portion of the figure and one in the
bottom of the figure essentially active. By using precise combinations of transistors, current
can be induced in either direction between phases. For example, if T1 and T6 are open, current
will be flowing from DC bus positive through the U to V phase of the motor and then to the
DC bus negative. If T3 and T4 are open, then current will be flowing from the DC bus positive
through the V to U phase of the motor to the DC bus negative. One of the benefits of using a
VFD with PWM technology is the capability of controlling the amount of current going to the
motor windings, which in turn running a rotary industrial motor, turns into controlling the
amount of torque at the motor shaft. In the case of a VFD that uses PWM technology, this is
done by changing the RMS voltage to the motor. By controlling the expanse of time each pulse
is on and off, resulting a controlled RMS voltage across the motor phases. The ‘width’ of the
pulse causes the resulting RMS voltage output. A longer ‘ON’ time of the pulse results in RMS
voltage of higher value across the phases & shorter ‘ON’ time of the pulses leads to a lower
RMS voltage across the motor phases[1].

Fig.3-4 PWM representation (a) with longer ON time (b) with shorter ON time

19
So by modulating the pulse width over each succeeding half wave, the RMS voltage across the
motor phases can be taken under control. The resultant variable RMS voltage allows the VFD
to vary the current amount flowing between motor phases. The current waveform obtained
through the PWM process is also effected by the IGBT’s switching frequency.
The IGBT’s switching frequency is the rate of the on/off switching of the individual IGBT’s.
A higher switching rate will lead to a cleaner waveform to the motor as there will be maximum
pulses over each half wave.
Along with the motor torque (current), motor speed (frequency) can also be controlled by
using PWM. By varying the period of the voltage pulses which induces the current in the motor
phases the resulting output current waveform frequency can also be altered.

Fig.3-5 Different PWM waveforms resulting in different frequencies

Hence, by linking the control of the pulse width and the pulse group period, PWM drives
offer a means to control both the voltage and frequency output to an AC motor.

Summary

This chapter provides the detailed concept of inverters & explains how PWM technique is
used in inverters in order to obtain an AC voltage of desired frequency from a DC voltage. It
also explains how a DC is converted to AC by rapid on & off of the switches used in the inverter.
The rate of on & off of the individual switch defines the frequency of the output voltage and
the width of the on & off pulses defines the RMS value of the output voltage. Greater the on
time duration, greater will be the RMS voltage & vice versa.

21
 Chapter 4

Control Unit

4.1 Introduction

To chiefly regulate the inverter part, a control unit is used. It controls the entire operation of
the adjustable frequency drive; it monitors and controls the rectifier, the intermediary circuit
i.e. the smoothing circuit and the inverter to give the correct output in response to an external
control signal.

4.2 ARDUINO ATmega2560

The control section includes of ARDUINO with a microcontroller board based on

ATmega2560. The ARDUINO ATmega2560 consists of 54 input and output pins, out of
which 14 can be used as PWM, 16 pins are analog input pins, four hardware serial ports. It
has everything that is require to support the microcontroller. It only requires a PC with a USB
cable, and it can also be powered through an AC to DC adapter. A battery can also be
desirable to get it started. Figure 4.1 shows an ARDUINO ATmega2560.

Fig.4-1 ARDUINO ATmega2560

22
4.2.1 ATmega2560

The microcontroller is prepared using Atmel’s high density and non-volatile memory apparatus.
The Atmel ATmega2560 is a powerful microcontroller that is highly flexible and cost effective.
It has key to many installed control applications. It does not use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver
chip that makes the Mega2560 differs from all earlier boards. It structures the Atmega8U2
programmed as a USB-to-serial converter. It is the chief controller. The code, that we write for
the ARDUINO is implemented by the controller ATmega2560 and is connected straight to the
I/O pins. The USB to serial controller loads the code into the ATmega2560 so that it can be
programmed directly through the ICSP pins.

4.2.2 Features

The features include pin count, flash, general drive input and output lines. Also contains 8-bit
and 16-bit counters. The figure 4-2 shows several features of microcontroller ATmega2560,
that marks it a better and preferred microcontroller.

Fig.4-2 features of ATmega2560

23
4.2.3 PIN CONFIGURATION

The pin configuration of the ARDUINO ATmega2560 is shown in figure 4-3. It contains
of 54 pins, each accomplishing different functions, having 14 pins that can be used as PWM
&16 pins are analog input pins, also has four hardware serial ports along with four power pins.

Fig.4-3 Pin configuration

4.3 Role of control unit

The control unit is meant for the monitoring and controlling of AFD. It is connected with the
inverter to offer the required voltage and frequency at the output by controlling the switching
of the IGBTs. It produces command pulses, which turn the IGBTs on & off in the inverter. The
DC voltage at the input of the inverter is transformed to AC voltage by switching the IGBTs
on & off through a definite pattern.

24
 An electronic circuit accepts a feedback information from the driven motor and modifies
the output voltage or frequency to the designated values. Usually the output voltage is regulated
to yield a constant ratio of voltage to frequency (V/Hz).Controllers may bond many complex
control functions. Transforming DC to variable frequency AC is done by using an inverter.
Most presently available inverters use pulse width modulation (PWM) as the output current
waveform strictly approximates a sine wave. Power semiconductors switch DC voltage at high
speed, generating a series of short-duration pulses of constant amplitude. Output voltage is
varied by varying the width and polarity of the switched pulses. Output frequency is adjusted
by altering the switching cycle time by using microcontroller.

Summary

Hence, a control unit performs numerous functions like controlling, organizing drive settings,
fault conditions and interfacing communication protocols. It takes feedback signal from motor
as current speed reference and accordingly sets the ratio of voltage to frequency to control
motor speed.

25
 Chapter 5

AFD Designing Procedure

This chapter include the details of the work. The AFD was first designed on Proteus and
then implemented as a hardware. This chapter will provide step wise procedure that enabled us
to reach our goal. This chapter provides software simulations along with hardware pictures,
enabling the reader to get a complete picture of the design.

5.1 Rectifier Stage

A full wave bridge rectifier transforms single phase or three phase 50 Hz power from regular
utility supply to either stable or adjustable Dc voltage. One diagonal diode pair of rectifier will
permit power to pass through only when the voltage is positive. A second diagonal diode pair
of rectifier will let power to pass through only when the voltage is negative. Hence, two
diagonal pair of rectifiers are obligatory for each phase of power.

5.1.1 Software Simulations

Rectifier was first simulated on Proteus Design Suit .Fig.5-1(a) shows the schematic of a single
phase full wave bridge rectifier circuit & (b) shows its output waveform.

Fig.5-1(a) single phase full wave bridge rectifier

26
 Fig.5-1 (b) Output waveform of single phase full wave bridge rectifier.

5.1.2 Analysis

The sine wave is representing the input AC voltage of 220V with a frequency of 50 Hz and the
wave above is the output DC voltage of value 308V.

5.1.3 Hardware Design of single phase full wave bridge rectifier

Fig.5-2 Rectifier with a filtering capacitor

27
5.2 Inverter Stage

Electric switches switch the rectified DC on and off, and produce a current or voltage waveform
at the chosen new frequency. The final segment of the AFD is referred to as an “inverter.” The
“Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor” (IGBT) is a common switch choice in recent AFDs. The
IGBT can switch on and off several thousand times per second and accurately control the power
transported to the motor. The IGBT uses a method named “pulse width modulation” (PWM) to
simulate a current sine wave at the wanted frequency to the motor. Motor speed (rpm) is reliant
on frequency. Changing the frequency output of the AFD controls motor speed:

Speed (rpm) = frequency (hertz) x 120 / no. of poles

There are six IGBTs used in the circuit as switches. The three phase output is attained by
monitoring the switching pattern of these switches. The basic catch in this circuit is that the
switches are driven in such a way that the switches of same column are not turned on at the
similar time. The output signals of single phase inverters essential phase shift of 120 degrees
between each other so as to accomplish a three phase AC signal when combined. To attain the
above stated goal, there are two categories of conduction modes in a three phase 6 leg inverter
circuit.

1. 180 degree conduction

2. 120 degree conduction

In both the cases all the IGBTs are turned on after the interval of 60 degrees but there on
interval is not same.

The inverter’s circuit with switching pattern is shown below[2]:

Fig.5-3 Three phase inverter

28
 Fig.5-4 Valid switching on and off pattern for three phase inverter

In this project 180 degree conduction mode is used the switching pattern desired line and phase
voltage waveforms are shown below[2]:

Fig.5-5 waveforms for 180 degree conduction mode of inverter

29
Now, we will proceed to the design & the components used in the inverter circuit are discussed
as follows:

5.2.1 IGBTs

The insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) is a combination of MOS gate with high-current
and low-saturation-voltage ability of bipolar transistors, and they are the right choice for high-
current and high voltage uses. IGBT and MOSFET operation is almost same. A positive voltage,
given from the emitter to gate terminals, yields a flow of electrons to the gate terminal in the
body region. If the gate to emitter voltage is equal or above the threshold voltage, electrons
flow towards the gate to make a conductive channel across the body region, allowing current
to flow from the collector-to-emitter. (It permit electrons to flow from the emitter to the
collector). This flow of electrons attract holes, or positive ions, from the p-type substrate to the
drift region to the emitter. The balance in trade-offs among switching speed and losses during
conduction is finely tuned and the latest technology, especially for high voltage (> 400 V)
devices, improves speed and conduction so that IGBTs are overrun on the high frequency
applications.

5.2.1.1 Symbol & circuit of IGBT (FGA25N120ANTD)

Fig.5-2 (a) shows the symbol for an IGBT switch & Fig.5-2(b) shows its internal circuitry.

Fig.5-6(a) Symbol for an IGBT

30
 Fig.5-6(b) internal circuitry of an IGBT

5.2.1.2 Features of the IGBT (FGA25N120ANTD)

The IGBT used in the project is (FGA25NI20ANTD). The cause to use this IGBT among many
IGBT’s is:

• It deals with superior conduction properties.

• It has better switching performance.
• The IGBT is correct for the many applications.
• It offers soft switching applications[3].

5.2.1.3 Absolute maximum ratings

Absolute maximum ratings are conditions that should never be exceeded, even momentarily.
Absolute maximum ratings for an IGBT (FGA25N120ANTD) are given in figure below[3]:

Fig.5-7 Absolute maximum ratings of IGBT (FGA25N120ANTD)

31
5.2.1.4 Thermal characteristic

They are shown in the figure below[3]:

Fig.5-8 Thermal characteristics of IGBT(FGA25N120ANTD)

5.2.1.5 Electrical characteristics

Electrical characteristics of IGBT(FGA25N120ANTD) are shown in the figure below[3]:

Fig.5-9 Electrical characteristics of IGBT(FGA25N120ANTD)

32
5.2.1.6 Typical output characteristics

Typical output characteristics of IGBT is shown in the figure below[3]:

Fig.5-10 output charecteristics of IGBT(FGA25N120ANTD)

5.2.2 Three Phase Bridge Driver IC (IR2110)

The driver IC used in this project is IR2110 to drive the IGBTs. The IR2110 is a high voltage,
high speed power MOSFET and IGBT driver with independent high and low side referenced
output channels.. Logic inputs are well-matched with standard CMOS or LSTTL outputs, down
to 3.3V logic. The output drivers feature a high pulse current buffer stage intended for minimum
driver cross-conduction. Propagation delays are coordinated to simplify use in high frequency
applications. The floating channel can be used to drive an N-channel power MOSFET or IGBT
in the high side configuration which functions for up to 500 or 600 volts.

5.2.2.1 Features of Driver IC IR2110

Features of driver IC IR2110 are shown as under:

• Floating channel intended for bootstrap operation,fully operational to +500V or

+600V,easy-going on negative transient voltage,dV/dt immune.
• Range of gate drive source is from 10 to 20V.
• Undervoltage lockout for both the channels.
• 3.3V logic compatible ,discrete logic supply range from 3.3V to 20V, logic and power
ground ±5V offset.
• CMOS Schmitt-triggered inputs with pull-down.
• Cycle by cycle edge-triggered shutdown logic.

33
 • Propagation delay is matched for both channels.
• Outputs are in phase with inputs[4].

5.2.2.2 Pin Configuration

The pin configuration of thr driver IC IR2110 is shown in the figure below:

Fig.5-11 14 lead PDIP IR2110/IR2130

5.2.2.3 Typical connections

The typical way of connecting IGBTs with the driver IC is shown in the figure below[4]:

Fig.5-12 Typical conections of IGBT with driver IC

5.2.2.4 Absolute maximum ratings

The absolute maximum ratings for the driver IC IR2110 are shown in the figure below[4]:

34
 Fig.5-13 absolute maximum ratings of driver IR2110

5.2.2.5 Recommended operating conditions

The recommended operating conditions are shown in the figure below[4]:

Fig.5-14 recommended operating conditions of driver IR2110

5.2.2.6 Electrical characteristics

The electrical characteristics of Driver IC IR2110 are shown in the figure below:

35
Dynamic electrical characteristics

Dynamic electrical characteristics are shown in the figure below[4]:

Fig.5-15 Dynamic electrical characteristics of Driver IR2110

Static electrical characteristics

Static electrical characteristics are shown in the figure below[4]:

Fig.5-16 static electrical characteristics

36
5.2.2.7 Functional Block Diagram of driver IC IR2110

Fig.5-17 functional block diagram of IR2110

5.2.3 Bootstrap circuit Operation

The bootstrap circuit comprises of a capacitor (CBOOT), a diode (DBOOT), and a surge limiting
resistor (RBOOT), and it is used to supply the necessary power to the gate drivers which in turn
drives the high-side IGBT. While the high-side IGBT is turned off and the low-side IGBT is
turned on, the power source, VSOURCE, charges CBOOT, by RBOOT and DBOOT. The CBOOT charge
then acts as a power source to the gate driver, and drives the high-side IGBT through the
discharge current path.

5.2.4 Opto-coupler

The name specifies that this device is used to couple isolated circuits. It is made of light sensing
constituents. It is used to connect two isolated circuits by optical interfacing, using light. The
opto-coupler used in the project is 6N137 as shown in figure and is used for coupling the
isolated circuits of 6 pulse inverter and ARDUINO. It also offers protection to ARDUINO
against high voltages or any fault conditions[5].

37
 Fig.5-18 internal circuit of an opto-coupler

5.2.5 Software simulation & output waveform of an inverter circuit

The simulation for an inverter circuit and its output waveform are shown in the figures below:

Fig.5-19 (a) inverter simulation in Proteus

Fig.5-19 (b) output of inverter with 60Hz frequency

38
Fig.5-19 (c) output of inverter with 50Hz frequency

Fig.5-19 (d) output of inverter with 40 Hz frequency

39
5.2.6 Hardware Design

Fig.5-20 inverter section of AFD

5.3 Adjustable Frequency Drive

AFD is designed successfully and the speed of the motor is taken under control by
varying the frequency that is varied by an app and is linked to the design through a Bluetooth
module. The list of components used along with the complete design of AFD in hardware form
shown below:

5.3.1 Components Used

• Diodes
• Resistors (1k ohms & 10k ohms)
• Capacitors

I. Filtering capacitor of 220uF

40
 II. Bootstrap capacitors of 100uF
III. Bypass capacitors of 0.1uF

• IGBTs (FGA25N120ANTD)
• Opto-couplers (6N137)
• Voltage regulator IC (7805)
• ARDUINO ATMEGA 2560
• Driver IC (IR2130)
• Bluetooth module

5.3.2 AFD hardware

Fig.5-21 Adjustable Frequency Drive

5.3.3 Output waveforms

Output is checked through an oscilloscope and results are analyzed. The output line
voltages with varied frequency are given below:

41
5.3.3.1 Line voltages

Fig.5-22 (a) line voltage with 60 Hz frequency

42
 Fig.5-22 (b) line voltage with 50Hz frequency

Fig.5-22 (c) line voltage with 43Hz frequency

5.4 Benefits of AFD

Variable frequency drives not only offers adjustable speeds for correct and precise control
applications, but also have more aids in terms of process control and conservation of energy.
Some of them are given below:

• High power factor

Inherent power factor correction circuit in DC link of AFD lessens the need for extra power
factor correction devices. Power factor for induction motor is very low for mostly no load
application, whereas at full load, it is 0.88 to 0.9. Low power factor marks in poor use of power
due to high reactive losses.

• Energy savings
More than 65% of the power is used up by electric motors in industries. Both voltage
magnitude and frequency control techniques, to vary the speed, eats less power when variable
speed is required by the motor. So an excessive amount of energy is conserved by these VFD’s.
This sort of energy saving and price saving is related with pumps and centrifugal machines.
Such energy price savings are especially noticeable in variable-torque centrifugal fan and pump
43
applications. And on these applications the torque and power P differ with square and cubes of
speed. This innovation gives decrease in the power consumptions and results in energy saving
as compared to constant-speed operation that gives less reduction in power consumption.

• Control performances
AFD’s have brought quality enhancements in the field of industrial and commercial
progresses like acceleration, speed, temperature and pressure flow. A motor can also be made
to run in order to minimalize electrical and mechanical stresses, and this is accomplished by
AFDs.
• Increased reliability
Outdated mechanical approaches are less dependable than speed motor-drive systems such
as using valves, gears, turbines to control speed and flow. They are much reliable as they have
no moving parts like that of mechanical control system.

• Provides soft starting

AFD’s are used for starting large motors, and so the drawbacks linked to heavy starting
currents is eliminated. This drops the chances of damage caused due to insulation and winding.
It also offers sustained motor life.

• Increases machine life

Due to optimal voltage and frequency control it offers enhanced protection and increases the
machine life hence, less maintenance is required.

• Closed loop controlling

AFD allows correct positioning of the motor speed by unceasingly comparing with reference
speed even at variations in the loading conditions and input disturbances like voltage
variations[6].

5.5 Applications of AFD

Adjustable Frequency Drive (AFD) can be used in numerous fields. Adjustable frequency
drives are extensively used to control the speed of AC motors, like conveyor systems, blower
speeds, pump speeds, machine tool speeds, & other uses that necessitate variable speed with
variable torque. In some applications such as speed control for a conveyor, the variable
frequency drive is mounted with a remote potentiometer that workers can amend physically to
adjust the speed for the conveyor. In this type of application, the persons who use the conveyor
44
can manually set the motor speed with the least & maximum frequency that is programmed
into the adjustable frequency drive parameters.
AFDs are broadly used to control the speed of conveyor systems, blower speeds, pump speeds,
machine tool speeds, & other uses that require variable speed with variable torque. Its major
applications are in[7]:
• Cement industry
• It is used for cranes and hoists
• In centrifugal chillers
• In railway systems for virtual vibration testing
• In centrifugal pumps
• For refrigerator compressor
• In oil and gas industry
5.6 Conclusion
This project was chosen to control the speed of induction motors that are utilizing 50% of the
electricity generated. From speed control it means to save extra energy consumptions during
any industrial process through getting tighter process control. This project helped us to achieve
this goal. The speed is controlled by varying the frequency that is coming from the main i.e.
50Hz. By increasing or decreasing this frequency we can directly increase or decrease the speed
of AC induction motors.
Simple circuitry and techniques are used in this project to make it simple and compact. The
program has been loaded on microcontroller that in turn controls the inverter section in order
to get the three phase AC voltage of desired frequency at the output. Hence, speed is taken
under control accordingly.

5.7 Future Work and Recommendations

The Project has a tendency to be progressed in near future by integrating it with any Renewable
energy resources i.e. Solar, Wind etc. Moreover, this project can also be more compact. Further
work can also be done to make it a more marketable and impartial product in foreseeable future.

45
 Appendix

#include <LiquidCrystal.h>

LiquidCrystal lcd(23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 33);

int FULL_TIME = 2303 ;

double STEP_TIME = FULL_TIME / 6;

const int DEAD_TIME = 1;

int count1 = 0;

// Pins to write to

/*

const int DRIVER_PIN1 = 5;

const int DRIVER_PIN4 = 6;//l1

const int DRIVER_PIN2 = 7;//h2

const int DRIVER_PIN5 = 8;

const int DRIVER_PIN3 = 9;

const int DRIVER_PIN6 = 10;

*/

int en_b=11;

const int DRIVER_PIN1 = 10;

const int DRIVER_PIN4 = 7;//l1

const int DRIVER_PIN2 = 9;//h2

46
const int DRIVER_PIN5 = 6;

const int DRIVER_PIN3 = 8;

const int DRIVER_PIN6 = 5;

boolean on_off=0;

boolean got_data=0;

String data="";

String fs="";

String fs1="";

boolean ncf=0;

boolean show_freq=0;

boolean ok=0;

void setup() {

Serial.begin(115200);

Serial1.begin(9600);

fs.reserve(200);

fs1.reserve(200);

count1 = 0;

pinMode(51,OUTPUT);

pinMode(53,OUTPUT);

digitalWrite(51,0);digitalWrite(53,0);

47
 pinMode(en_b,OUTPUT);

digitalWrite(en_b,0);

pinMode(13, OUTPUT);

pinMode(DRIVER_PIN1, OUTPUT);

pinMode(DRIVER_PIN2, OUTPUT);

pinMode(DRIVER_PIN3, OUTPUT);

pinMode(DRIVER_PIN4, OUTPUT);

pinMode(DRIVER_PIN5, OUTPUT);

pinMode(DRIVER_PIN6, OUTPUT);

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN1, 1);

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN2, 1);

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN3, 1);

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN4, 1);

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN5, 1);

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN6, 1);

delay(100);

lcd.begin(16, 2);

lcd.print("Variable Freq");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print("System");

48
delay(2000);

on_off=1;

/*

lcd.clear();

lcd.print("Enter Frequency!");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

*/

ok=0;

String datav="50";

//lcd.clear();

//lcd.print("Freq-->");

int uu=datav.toInt();

if(uu<40){uu=40;}

if(uu>60){uu=60;}

//lcd.print(uu);lcd.print(" Hz");

Serial.print("Freq-->");

Serial.println(uu);

float nf=(float)1/uu;

nf=nf*1000*1000;

Serial.print("Total Microseconds tp -->");Serial.println(nf);

49
 float nf11=nf/6;

unsigned int nb=nf11;

STEP_TIME=nb-46;

// lcd.setCursor(0,1);

int yyyy=nf;

// lcd.print(yyyy);lcd.print("<=>");

// lcd.print("(");lcd.print(STEP_TIME,1);lcd.print(")<=>");

Serial.print("Total Step Time -->");Serial.println(STEP_TIME);

on_off=1;

digitalWrite(en_b, 1);

void all_off()

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN1, 1);

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN2, 1);

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN3, 1);

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN4, 1);

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN5, 1);

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN6, 1);

50
void loop() {

serialEvent();

if(on_off)

delayMicroseconds(STEP_TIME);

switch(count1) {

case 0:

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN4, 1);

digitalWrite(51,1);

delayMicroseconds(DEAD_TIME);

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN1, 0);digitalWrite(53,0);

break;

case 1:

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN5, 1);

delayMicroseconds(DEAD_TIME);

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN2, 0);

break;

case 2:

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN6, 1);

delayMicroseconds(DEAD_TIME);

51
 digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN3, 0);

break;

case 3:

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN1, 1);

digitalWrite(53,1);

delayMicroseconds(DEAD_TIME);

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN4, 0);digitalWrite(51,0);

break;

case 4:

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN2, 1);

delayMicroseconds(DEAD_TIME);

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN5, 0);

break;

case 5:

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN3, 1);

delayMicroseconds(DEAD_TIME);

digitalWrite(DRIVER_PIN6, 0);

break;

count1 = (count1 + 1) % 6;

52
}else

all_off();

if(ncf)

String nds=fs;

//Serial.println("Data : ");Serial.println(nds);

String nvf=nds.substring(1,nds.indexOf("*"));

int frqq=nvf.toInt();

if(frqq>=40&&frqq<=400)

} else

frqq=50;

Serial.println("Freq : ");Serial.println(frqq);

float nf1=(float)1/frqq;

nf1=nf1*1000*1000;

STEP_TIME=nf1/6;

53
 fs="";

ncf=0;

if(show_freq)

float tttt=STEP_TIME*6;

tttt=(float)tttt/1000000;

tttt=(float)1/tttt;

Serial.print("Freq Set #");Serial.println(tttt);

show_freq=0;

void serialEvent() {

while (Serial.available()) {

// get the new byte:

char inChar = (char)Serial.read();

if(inChar=='a')

STEP_TIME=STEP_TIME+50;

show_freq=1;

54
 }

if(inChar=='s')

STEP_TIME=STEP_TIME-50;

show_freq=1;

if(inChar=='o')

on_off=1;

digitalWrite(13,1);

digitalWrite(en_b,1);

if(inChar=='f')

on_off=0;

digitalWrite(13,0);

digitalWrite(en_b,0);

55
void serialEvent1() {

while (Serial1.available()) {

// get the new byte:

char inChar1 = (char)Serial1.read();

Serial.write(inChar1);

if(inChar1=='$')

fs="";

if(inChar1=='*')

ncf=1;

fs+=inChar1;

if(inChar1=='o')

on_off=1;

digitalWrite(13,1);

digitalWrite(en_b,1);

56
 }

if(inChar1=='f')

on_off=0;

digitalWrite(13,0);

digitalWrite(en_b,0);

57
 References

[1] M. H. Rashid, Power electronics handbooks - Third Edition. 2011.

[2] A. C. Converters, “DC to AC Converters Lesson 36 3-Phase Pulse Width Modulated
(PWM) Inverter,” pp. 1–11.
[3] Fairchild, “FGA25N120ANTD 1200 V, 25 A NPT Trench IGBT,” no. November, pp. 1–
9, 2013.
[4] P. Summary, “Ir2110 High and Low Side Driver,” vol. 2110, pp. 1–18.
[5] V. Semiconductors, “Vishay Semiconductors High Speed Optocoupler , Single and Dual ,
10 MBd OUTPUT,” pp. 30–32.
[6] “Brief Explaination about Working of VFDs, Benefits and Application.” .
[7] P. Angers, “Variable frequency drive testing,” vol. 1. pp. 4–5, 2009.

58