Elton John D.

Delos Santos, RN, MAEd,

Instructor, UB-SN

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 Welcome to Introduction to
Biochemistry, where you will begin to
learn how life works at the molecular
level. Biochemistry is at the nexus of
the physical, natural and medical
sciences, yet has developed its own
language and culture that are distinct
from those disciplines.
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 The knowledge and tools of biochemistry
(along with the closely related discipline
of molecular biology) will continue to be
at the forefront of discoveries in medicine
and biotechnology, driving advances in
such areas as molecular and
personalized medicine, nanotechnology,
agriculture, environmental remediation
and evolution.
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 The concepts and skills obtained
in this course will prepare you for
more advanced training in
biochemistry & molecular biology
for careers in biotechnology and
biomedical research, as well as
in medicine and other health
professions. 4
UNIT I: FOUNDATIONS
 Definition of terms
 Aims
 Biochemistry and medicine
UNIT II: WATER and pH
 Water
 pH

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UNIT II: THE CELL
1. Plant versus animal
2. Parts & functions
3. DNA & RNA
4. enzymes

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 UNIT III: BIOCHEMISTRY OF DIGESTION
1. Definition
2. Factors affecting digestion
3. Phases – salivary, gastric and
intestinal digestion; pancreatic, intestinal
juices; bile
4. Chemical changes in the large
intestines and feces- overview,
fermentation, putrefaction, deamination,
decarboxylation; detoxification; chemical
composition of feces
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 UNIT IV: CARBOHYDRATES
1. Definition and general structure; Location and
Physiologic Significance/ Importance and functions
4. Classifications- monosaccharides, disaccharides and
polysaccharides
5. Digestion and absorption and metabolism
6. Gylcogen-glucogenesis, glycogenolysis & metabolism
7. The Main powerhouse: location, Krebs cycle, electron
transport, oxidative phosphorylation, alcohol
metabolsim
8. lactose, fructose & galactose metabolisms
9. Glucoronate
10. Test for carbohydrates; Clinical significance of CHO
metabolism/clinical disorders-DM, GSDs
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 UNIT V: PROTEINS
1. Pproteins- location & important
functions, classifications, categories of
structure
2. Amino acids- definition & general
structure, location, properties & important
functions, classifications, metabolism,
3. Lipids- lipolysis, Knoops‟s Beta, lipid
storage, tests for lipids, clinical
significance of lipid metabolism/disorders
like obesity, lipid storage diseases
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 Additional topics: own reading
1. The combo cycle- location,
lipoprotein, glycolipid, glycoprotein
2. Blood and guts
3. Vitamins, hormones, minerals
4. Clinical disorders that involve
biochemistry: vitamins,
hormones and minerals
5. Biochemistry and aging
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 Lecture-discussion
 Oral questioning
 Group or individual reporting
 Activities and experiments for the
laboratory
 Library works/discovery
 others

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1 stgrading examination-
Sept. 4-8, 2018
 Midterm examinations-
October 16-20, 2018
 Final examinations- Nov.
28-29; December 3-
4,2018
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1 stgrading: Cumulative
 Midterms:
[(Tentative Midterm grade x 2) + 1st
grading grade]/ 3
 Finals
[(Tentative final grade x 2) + midterm
grade]/ 3
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 Chary, TM. & Sharma, H. (2004). Practical
Biochemistry for Medical & Dental Students,
1st ed. Noida: Gopsons Papers Ltd., Sector
60.
 Goldberg, S. (2004). Clinical Biochemistry
made ridiculously simple, 2nd ed. Florida:
Medmaster, Inc
 Murray, R., Bender, D., Botham, K.,
Kennelly, P., & Weil, P. (2012). Harper‟s
Illustrated Biochemistry, 29th ed. Mcgraw-
Hill Companies.

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 Harvey, R., Champe, P., &
Ferrier, D. (2005). Lippincott‟s
Illustrated Reviews:
Biochemistry, 3rd ed.
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
 Stoker, H. (2017).
Biochemistry , 3rd ed. C & E
Publishing, Inc.
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 1. Use your knowledge of fundamental principles of chemistry
and physics (e.g. molecular bonding, thermodynamics,
kinetics) to explain important concepts in biochemistry.
 2. Describe and interrelate the hierarchical levels of protein
structure (1˚ to 4˚) and provide examples of how this structure
relates to the function (or dysfunction) of various classes of
proteins.
 3. Explain how enzymes can increase the rates of biochemical
reactions at the molecular level, and how enzymes may be
inhibited and regulated. 16
 4. Outline the major pathways by which
precursor biomolecules (carbohydrates, lipids,
amino acids) are synthesized and degraded, and
the key points at which these pathways are
regulated.
 5. Describe how organisms obtain, store, and
utilize energy through metabolic interconversion
of biomolecules.
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 6. Understand how metabolic pathways are
controlled to maintain homeostasis of organisms
under normal physiological conditions, and how
this may be disrupted by certain pathological
states.
 7. Place biochemical events within a genomic
and cellular context.

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 Living matter consists of small number of elements
 Elemental composition of human body (98%)
 C- 61.7% N-11%,O- 9.3% ,P- 3.3% ,S- 1%,H- 5.7%-
most abundant, essential elements for all
organisms
 Na- 0.7%,Mg- 0.3%, K- 1.3%, Ca- 5%, Cl-0.7% =
less abundant, essential elements for all organisms
 Fe, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, = trace levels, essential
elements for all organisms
 V, Cr, Mo, B, Al, Ga, Sn, Si, As, Sc, I = trace
elements essential for some organisms
 Most organisms are ca 70% water

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 The Physical Laws of Life

•Philosophers thought life contained a “vital force” or VITALISM but

this has been rejected by modern science.

•Haldane – simple organic compounds from H2O, N2

and CO2
•Urey – chemical synthesis of urea

•Living organisms operate within the same physical laws that apply to
physics and chemistry:

•Conservation of Mass, Energy

•Laws of Thermodynamics
•Laws of Chemical Kinetics
•Principles of Chemical Reactions
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 Molecular Logic of Life
These physical laws describe several axioms that make up
the Molecular Logic of Life. These axioms define:

•Energy converted to work

•Catalytic chemical transformations
•Assembly of molecules with great complexity from
simple subunits.
•Complex molecules combine to form supra molecular
components, organelles and finally assemble into a cell.
•Store and pass on instructions for the assembly of all
future generations from simple non-living precursors
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 Life is in constant flux
Enzyme catalyzed reactions- Substrates  Products 10-3 sec -
milli sec
Unwinding of DNA 10-6 sec - micro sec

10-15 s 10-12 s 10-9 s 10-8 s 10-6 s 10-3 s 10 s

103s
femto pico nano micro milli sec

•femto fs excitation of chlorophyll

•pico ps charge separation in photosynthesis
•nano ns hinge protein action
•10-8 10 ns fluorescence lifetime
•micro ms DNA unwind
•milli ms enzymatic reactions
•103 generation of bacteria
•2.3 x 109 sec average human life span 24
 What distinguishes living organisms?

1) Structurally complicated and highly organized

a. intricate internal structures
b. many kinds of complicated molecules

proteins, DNA, RNA, starches, and lipids etc. (inanimate objects

sand clay are mixtures of simple compounds)

2) Living organisms:
a. extract
b. transform ENERGY
c. store
d. use
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a. Living things can extract energy from the
environment
Chemical: Chemoautotrophs or lithoautotrophs

H2S  2H+ +S +2e-

2NH3 + 4O2  2HNO3 + 2H2O
4FeCO3 + O2 + 6H2O  4Fe(OH)3 + 4CO2
or
Sunlight: Photoautotrophs
nCO2 + nH2O + hu (CH2O) + nO2

b. Energy is needed to build and maintain structures

a) mechanical energy - muscles
b) chemical energy - electric eel
c) osmotic energy - plant turger
d) light energy -bioluminescence
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3) Most characteristic attribute of living things is self-
replication and self assembly
it is the quintessence of the living state

1 single bacteria  109 in 24 hr

With near-perfect fidelity during replication!

A crystal at equilibrium grows but life at equilibrium is death!

Life is a set of relationships characterizing the nature, function and

interaction of biomolecules.

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 Mid 1700- Karl Schelle- Swedish founder of
biochemistry; studied chemical composition of
matter
 1840- Schleiden & Schwann formulated the CELL
theory
 1875- Walter Flemming discovered CHROMOSOMES
 Carl Newberg- German Scientist; coined the word
BIOCHEMISTRY
 1897- Edward & Hans Buchner found that yeasts
extracts could bring about fermentation of sugar
into ethanol
 1925- Embden & Mayerhoff described the
GLYCOLYTIC pathway
 1937- Hans Kreb proposed the KREB cycle
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 1953- James Watson & Francis Crick
described the double helical structure of DNA
 1997- Paul Boyer & J.Walker discovered the
“ROTARY engine” that generated ATP
 Danish J. Skou studied the “pump” that drives
sodium and potassium across membrane
 Stanley Frusiner- discovered the organism
that caused “MAD COW DISEASE”
 Ruska, et. al – discovered the electron
microscope & provided a whole new level of
insight into cellular structure

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Section 1.7
Discovery and Abundance of the Elements
Abundance of Elements (in Atom Percent) in the
Universe

Return to TOC

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Section 1.7
Discovery and Abundance of the Elements
Abundance of Elements (in Atom Percent) in the
Earth’s Crust

Return to TOC

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 SERUM ELECTROLYTE CONVENTIONAL SI

Na+ 135-145mEq/L 135-145

mmol/L
Cl- 98-106 mEq/L 98-
106mmol/L
HCO3 22-26mEq/L 22-26
mmol/L
Ca++ 8.5-10mg/dL 2.1-2.6
mmol/L
PO4 1.7-2.6 mEq/L 0.8-1.5
inorganic absorption (2.5-4.5 mg/dL) mmol/L
Mg++ 1.6-2.6mEq/dL 0.8-1.3
mmol/L
K+ 3.5-5.1mEq/dL 3.5-5.0
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Biochemistry: Life at the Molecular Level

Biochemistry is the
study of biological
processes
at a chemical level

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2. To understand how life began

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 Most and perhaps all of the
disease has a biochemical
basis
 The major cause of disease
is by influencing the various
biochemical mechanisms in
all parts of the body
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 Biochemistry is the science concerned
with studying the various molecules
that occur in living cells and organisms
and with their chemical reactions
 It has become the basic language of all
biologic science. It is concerned with
the entire spectrum of life forms, from
relatively simple viruses and bacteria
to complex human beings
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 Biochemistry is the science concerned
with studying the various molecules
that occur in living cells and organisms
and with their chemical reactions
 It has become the basic language of all
biologic science. It is concerned with
the entire spectrum of life forms, from
relatively simple viruses and bacteria
to complex human beings
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 An advanced biochemical knowledge has
illuminated many areas of medicine and
nursing. Conversely, the study of
diseases have often related previously
unsuspected aspects of biochemistry.
The determination of the sequence of the
human genome, nearly completes, will
have a great impact on all areas of
biology, including biochemistry,
bioinformatics, and biotechnology
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 Biochemical approaches are often fundamental
in illuminating the causes of disease in
designing appropriate therapies

 The judicious use of various biochemical

laboratory test is an integral component of
diagnosis and monitoring of treatment

 A sound knowledge of biochemistry and of

other related discipline is essential for the
national, nursing and related health science
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1. Prevent diseases:
It helps for prevention,
treatment of diseases
and also increases the
production or yield.
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2. Enhance growth:
Biochemistry gives an
idea of how the use
of fertilizers can increase
plant growth, their yield,
quality of food etc.
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3. Enhance Yield:
Some hormones promote
growth, while other promote
flowering fruit formation etc. In
fisheries, use of substances to
promote fish growth, their
reproduction, etc can be
understood.
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4. Adulteration: Even the
composition of food material
produced, their alteration or
adulteration for example in honey
can be found by biochemical
tests. Biochemistry tests help
prevent contamination.
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5. Biochemical tests for
the pesticide residues or other
toxic waste in plant, food grain
and soil can be evaluated. Hence
during import and export of food
grains a biochemical check of the
toxic residues is done to fix the
quality. 85
6. In animal husbandry, the
quality of milk can be
checked
by biochemical tests. It also
helps diagnose any disease
condition in animals
and birds 86
7. Biochemical tests for
the pesticide residues or other
toxic waste in plant, food grain
and soil can be evaluated. Hence
during import and export of food
grains a biochemical check of the
toxic residues is done to fix the
quality.
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8. In fisheries, the water quality is
regularly monitored by biochemical tests.
Any drastic change in water chemistry &
composition of fishery ponds can lead to
the vast death of fishes and prawns, hence
the tests are done on regular basis to see
salt content (calcium content), pH,
accumulation of waste due to not
changing water for long etc.
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1. Photosynthesis: This describes
how carbohydrates are synthesized
by use of sunlight, CO2, and water in
the green leaves of plants. It goes on
to explain about different complex
enzymes involved in the process to
combine the energy of sun within the
molecules H2O+ CO2 in the form of
carbohydrates.
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2. Respiration: By use of
above photosynthesis
pathway, plants leave out
Oxygen while taking up
Carbon dioxide from
the air.
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3. Different sugars: Biochemistry
defines different types of carbohydrates
formed in plants like trioses (3 carbon
sugars i.e. glyceraldehyde), tetroses (4),
pentoses (5), hexoses (6= glucose),
heptuloses (7) etc. Heptuloses are the
carbohydrates which go on to form the
nucleic acids i.e deoxyribonucliec acid
(DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA).

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4. Plants secondary
metabolites: Biochemistry also
describes how the plant
products like gums, tannins,
alkaloids, resins, enzymes,
phytohormones are formed
inside the plants.
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5. Other functions: It also describes
how plants fruits get ripened, how
plant seed germinates, the
respiration process inside the plant
cell, how proteins and amino
acids are formed on rough
endoplasmic reticulum and fats are
formed on smooth ER.
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1. Food chemistry gives an
idea of what we eat, i.e. it‟ s
components like
carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
etc. and also the possible
physiological alteration due to
their deficiency.
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2. The role of nutrients: Due to
biochemistry the importance of
vitamins, minerals, essential fatty
acids, their contribution to health were
known. Hence there is a frequent
recommendation for inclusion of
essential amino-acids, cod liver oil,
salmon fish oil etc. by physicians and
other health and fitness experts.
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1. Drug Constitution: Biochemistry gives an
idea of the constitution of the drug, its chances
of degradation with varying temperature etc.
How modification in the medicinal
chemistry helps improve efficiency, minimize
side effects etc.
 The half-life: This is a test done on
biochemical drugs to know how long a drug
is stable when kept at so and so temperature
 Biochemical tests: These tests helps fix the
specific half-life or date of expiry of drugs.
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2. Drug storage: The storage
condition required can be estimated
by the biochemical test. For example
many enzymes, hormones are stored
for dispensing. These get
deteriorated over time due to
temperature or oxidation,
contamination and also due to
improper storage. 97
3. Drug metabolism: It also gives an
idea of how drug molecules
are metabolized by many biochemical
reactions in presence of enzymes.
This helps to avoid drugs which have
a poor metabolism or those with
excessive side effects from being
prescribed or dispensed to the
patient. 98
1. Physiology: Biochemistry
helps one understand the
biochemical changes and related
physiological alteration in the
body. Pathology of any disease is
studied through biochemical
changes.
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2. Pathology: Based on the symptoms
described by the patient, the physician
can get a clue on the biochemical change
and the associated disorder. For
example, if a patient complains about
stiffness in small joints, then the
physician may predict it to be gout and
get confirmed by evaluating uric acid
levels in the blood. As uric acid
accumulation in blood results in gout. 10
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3. Nutrition deficiency: In the
present scenario, many people rely
on taking multivitamin & minerals
for better health.
The function and role of
the vitamin in the body are
described only by biochemistry.
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4. Hormonal deficiency: There are
many disorders due
to hormonal imbalance in especially
women and children. The formation,
role of hormones in the normal body
function is taught in biochemistry by
which the physician can understand
the concerned problem during
treatment. 10
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 In nursing, importance of clinical
biochemistry is invaluable. When a patient is
in the hospital nurses need to keep a watch
on how his condition is progressing through
clinical biochemistry. That is the treatment
helping him recover from said condition etc.
Almost all the diseases or disorders have
some biochemical involvement. So the
diagnosis of any clinical condition is easily
possible by biochemical estimations
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1. Kidney function test: For
example in kidney disorders,
other chemotherapy treatment
etc urine test help understand
the extent of excretion of drugs
or other metabolites, the change
in pH, the color of urine etc.
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2. Serum cholesterol
test: Evaluation of blood
cholesterol level and other
lipoproteins helps
understand the proneness of
the patient to cardiovascular
diseases. 10
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3. Blood test:
In diabetes, biochemical analytical
test for blood glucose level (above
150mg/ deciliter helps one understand
the severity of diabetes disorder.
-Another biochemical test for ketones
bodies in urine also indicates the stage of
diabetes. The appearance of ketone
bodies or ketone urea is mostly the last
stage of diabetes. 10
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4. Liver function
tests help understand
the type of disease or
damage to the liver, the
effect of any medication
on liver etc. 10
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Homeostasis
maintained by:
• Ion transport
• Water movement
• Kidney function

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 Age variations exist in regards to
H20 content of fluid compartments
 Infants =
60% of H20 is found in ECF
40% of H20 is found in ICF
 What might this mean in regards to fluid
loss for an infant?

Reverse of adults!
Infant MORE PRONE to fluid LOSS!
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 The Essential Role of Water

•H2O is the key to understanding the behavior

of macromolecules. It is the solvent of life
and all living transformations occur in an
aqueous media-
Life is thought to have arisen from the sea.
•Even water-insoluble compounds such as
lipid membranes derive their nature and
function by their interactions with H2O.
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Depends on:
 Control of thirst by HYPOTHALAMUS
 ADH-antidiuretic hormone
 Retention or excretion of water by:
a. kidney (micturition)
b. Skin (perspiration)
c. Lung (Respiration)

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• Be aware that patients being treated
for hypovolemia can quickly develop
hypervolemia (fluid volume overload)
following rapid or over infusion of
isotonic fluids
• Document baseline VS, edema
status, lung sounds, and heart
sounds before beginning the
infusion, and continue monitoring
during & after the infusion
• The decrease in vascular bed volume can
worsen hypovolemia & hypotension and cause
cardiovascular collapse
• Monitor patients for s/sx of fluid volume
deficit
• In older adults, CONFUSION maybe an
indicator of FVD. Instruct to inform you if they
fell DIZZY or just „DON‟T FEEL RIGHT‟
BODY FLUID
MOVEMENT
Fluid Movement in Capillaries
Amount and direction of movement
determined by:
–Capillary hydrostatic pressure
–Plasma oncotic pressure
–Interstitial hydrostatic pressure
–Interstitial oncotic pressure
 Fluid Shifts
Plasma to interstitial fluid shift results
in edema:
–Elevation of hydrostatic pressure
–Decrease in plasma oncotic pressure
–Elevation of interstitial oncotic
pressure
 Fluid Shifts
Interstitial fluid to plasma
–Fluid drawn into plasma space with
increase in plasma osmotic or
oncotic pressure
–Compression stockings decrease
peripheral edema
 Fluid Movement between
ECF and ICF

Water deficit (increased ECF)

–Associated with symptoms
that result from cell
shrinkage as water is pulled
into vascular system
 Fluid Movement between
ECF and ICF

Water excess (decreased ECF)

–Develops from gain or
retention of excess water
 Fluid Spacing
First spacing
–Normal distribution of fluid in ICF
and ECF
Second spacing
–Abnormal accumulation of
interstitial fluid (edema)
Sodium–Potassium Pump

Copyright © 2007, 2004, 2000, Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 2 TYPES
1. Simple –occurs by the random movement of
particles thru a solution
 2 TYPES
2. Facilitated diffusion- called CARRIER-MEDIATED DIFFUSION
 Solvent (H20) Movement
• Cell membranes are
semipermeable allowing water to
pass through
• Osmosis- major way fluids
transported Water shifts from low
solute concentration to high solute
concentration to reach
homeostasis (balance).
Oncotic pressure
 Osmotic diuresis
Osmotic diuresis is the increase
in urine output caused by the
excretion of substances such as
glucose, mannitol, or contrast
agents in the urine.
 OSMOLARITY
• Concentration of particles in
solution
• The greater the concentration
(Osmolarity) of a solution, the
greater the pulling force (Osmotic
pressure)
• Normal serum (blood) osmolarity =
280-295 mOSM/kg
(Priff, 2006, p.6)
 Balanced fluid gain and loss for an adult
SOURCE AMOUNT
GAIN Fluids taken orally 1,300 mL
Water in food 1,000
Water as by-product of 300
food metabolism
TOTAL 2,600
LOSS Urine 1,500
Feces 200
Insensible:
Skin (Perspiration) 600
Lungs (Respiration) 300
Mechanisms that regulate hemostasis

1. Thirst
2. Kidneys
3. Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone-
mechanism
4. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
5. Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF)
Regulation of Water Balance

• Hypothalamic regulation
• Pituitary regulation
• Adrenal cortical
regulation
• Renal regulation
 Hypothalamic Regulation
Osmoreceptors in
hypothalamus sense fluid
deficit or increase
– Stimulates thirst and
antidiuretic hormone
(ADH) release
– Result in increased free
water and decreased
plasma osmolarity
Osmoreceptors
 Pituitary Regulation
• Under control of
hypothalamus,
posterior pituitary
releases ADH
• Stress, nausea,
nicotine, and
morphine also
stimulate ADH
release
 Adrenal Cortical Regulation
 Releases
hormones to
regulate water and
electrolytes
a. Glucocorticoids
Cortisol
b. Mineralocorticoids
c. Aldosterone
Factors Affecting Aldosterone Secretion
 Renal Regulation
 Primary organs for
regulating fluid and
electrolyte balance
– Adjusting urine volume
• Selective reabsorption of
water and electrolytes
• Renal tubules are sites of
action of ADH and
aldosterone
Balancing Systems
 Cardiac Regulation
 Natriuretic peptides are
antagonists to the RAAS
– Produced by
cardiomyocytes in
response to increased
atrial pressure
– Suppress secretion of
aldosterone, renin, and
ADH to decrease blood
volume and pressure
Gastrointestinal Regulation
• Oral intake accounts for most water
• Small amounts of water are
eliminated by gastrointestinal tract
in feces
• Diarrhea and vomiting can lead to
significant fluid and electrolyte loss
Heart and Blood Vessel Functions
Parathyroid Functions
Lung Functions
Release of Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)
Released when atrial pressures
increase
Opposes the RAAS (shuts it off)
Key Functions of ANP:
Suppresses serum renin levels
Decreases aldosterone release
Increases glomerular filtration
rate (excretion of Na+ and
H2O)
Decreases ADH release
Decreases vascular resistance
by causing vasodilation
Effects of Stress on F&E Balance
 Consider This….
The Geriatric Client
-normal physiological aging results in
decreased thirst mechanism
decreased # of sweat glands
decreased renal function
-there also may be decreased mobility
and/or cognitive function which impacts
their ability to get adequate fluid intake.
 CHANGES IN THE OLDER ADULT
1. Water is about 50% for older male and
45% for older female.
2. Sodium and water regulation become
less efficient with aging
3. Thirst perception decreases,
interfering with thirst mechanism
4. Change in temperature regulation
5. Functional changes
 Gerontologic Considerations
1. Normal physiologic changes of aging including reduced
cardiac, renal and respiratory function and reserve and
alterations in the ratio of body fluids to muscle mass
2. Routine procedures, such as the vigorous
administration of laxatives or enemas before colon x-
ray studies
3. Alterations in fluid and electrolyte balance that may
produce minor changes in young and middle-aged
adults may produce profound changes in older adults
4. Dehydration
=It occurs when fluids seep out from the
lumen of a vessel into the surrounding tissue

Causes:
1.Damage to the posterior wall of the vein
2.Occlusion of the vein proximal to the
injection site
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Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

• Arrhenius acid: Hydrogen-

containing compound that
produces H+ ions in solution
HNO3  H + NO3+ –

• Arrhenius base: Hydroxide-

containing compound that
produces OH– ions in solution
NaOH  Na   OH –
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231
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Ionization
• The process in which
individual positive and
negative ions are produced
from a molecular compound
that is dissolved in solution
–Arrhenius acids
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232
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Dissociation
• The process in which
individual positive and
negative ions are released
from an ionic compound
that is dissolved in solution
–Arrhenius bases Return to TOC

233
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory
Figure 10.1 - Difference Between Ionization and
Dissociation

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234
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

• Brønsted–Lowry acid: Substance that

can donate a proton (H+ ion) to some other
substance
– Proton donor
• Brønsted–Lowry base: Substance that
can accept a proton (H+ ion) from some
other substance
– Proton acceptor

HCl  H 2 O  Cl – + H 3O +
Acid Base Return to TOC

235
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Amphiprotic Substance

• A substance that can either lose or accept a

proton and thus can function as either a
Brønsted–Lowry acid or a Brønsted–Lowry base
‒ Example
‒ H2O, H3O+, H2O, OH–

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236
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Diprotic Acid

• An acid that supplies two protons (H+ ions) per

molecule during an acid–base reaction

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237
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Strong Acid

• Transfers
~100% of its
protons to
water in an
aqueous
solution
• Equilibrium
position lies far
to the right
Return to TOC

238
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Weak Acid

• Transfers
only a small
percent of its
protons to
water in an
aqueous
solution
• Equilibrium
position lies
far to the left
Return to TOC

239
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory
Figure 10.5 - Differences Between Strong and Weak Acids in
Terms of Species Present

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240
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

• Ionic compounds containing a metal

or polyatomic ion as the positive ion
and a nonmetal or polyatomic ion
(except hydroxide) as the negative
ion
• All common soluble salts are
completely dissociated into ions in
solution
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241
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Neutralization Reaction
• The chemical reaction between an
acid and a hydroxide base in which a
salt and water are the products
HCl + KOH → HOH + KCl

H2SO4 + 2 KOH → K2SO4 + 2 H2O

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242
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Figure 10.7 - Formation of Water

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243
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Self-Ionization

• An extremely small percentage of water

molecules in pure water interact with one
another to form ions

H2O + H2O H3O+ + OH–

• Net effect is the formation of equal amounts of

hydronium and hydroxide ions

Return to TOC

244
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Figure 10.8 - Self-Ionization of Water

Return to TOC

245
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Salts
• Ionic compounds
• When dissolved in water, break up into
their ions
• Hydrolysis is defined as the reaction of a
salt with water to produce:
– Hydronium ions
– Hydroxide ions
– Both hydronium and hydroxide ions
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246
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Types of Salt Hydrolysis

1.The salt of a strong acid and a strong base

does not hydrolyze, so the solution is
neutral
 NaCl, KBr

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247
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Types of Salt Hydrolysis

4. The salt of a weak acid and a weak base

hydrolyzes to produce a slightly acidic, neutral,
or slightly basic solution, depending on the
relative weaknesses of the acid and base

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248
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Table 10.7 - Neutralization “Parentage” of Salts

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249
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Key Points about Buffers

• Buffer: An aqueous solution

containing substances that prevent
major changes in solution pH when
small amounts of acid or base are
added to it
• Typically, a buffer system is
composed of a weak acid and its
conjugate base
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250
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Buffers Contain Two Active

Chemical Species

1.A substance to react with

and remove added base
2.A substance to react with
and remove added acid
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251
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Addition of Base [OH– ion] to the Buffer

The added OH– ion reacts with H3O+ ion,

producing water (neutralization)
• The neutralization reaction produces the stress
of not enough H3O+ ion because H3O+ ion was
consumed in the neutralization
• The equilibrium shifts to the right to produce
more H3O+ ion, which maintains the pH close to
its original level

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252
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Addition of Acid [H3O+ ion] to the Buffer

• The added H3O+ ion increases the

overall amount of H3O+ ion present
• The stress on the system is too much
H3O+ ion
• The equilibrium shifts to the left
consuming most of the excess H3O+
ion and resulting in a pH close to the
original level Return to TOC

253
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Return to TOC

254
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Return to TOC

255
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Return to TOC

256
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

• Acids, bases, and soluble salts all

produce ions in solution; thus
they all produce solutions that
conduct electricity
• Electrolyte: Substance whose
aqueous solution conducts
electricity
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257
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Nonelectrolytes
• They do not
conduct
electricity
• Example -
Table sugar
(sucrose) and
glucose
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258
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Strong Electrolytes
• They
completely
ionize/
dissociate into
ions
• Example -
Strong acids,
bases, and
soluble salts Return to TOC

259
 Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

Weak Electrolytes

• They
incompletely
ionize/
dissociate into
ions
• Example -
Weak acids and
bases
Return to TOC

260
Section 10.1
Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory
Table 10.8 - Concentrations of Major Electrolytes in
Blood Plasma*

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261
26
2
26
3
26
4
26
5
26
6
26
7
26
8
26
9
27
0
27
1
27
2
27
3
27
4
27
5
27
6
27
7
27
8
27
9
28
0
28
1
28
2
28
3
28
4
28
5
28
6
28
7
28
8
28
9
29
0
29
1
29
2
29
3
29
4
29
5
29
6
29
7
 Condensation reactions
•Chemical Evolution, simple molecules condense to form more complex
forms (polymers)

Reaction of a carboxylic acid with an amine

29
8
29
9
30
0
 Specific pairing of
functional groups gives
rise to complementarity
 More complex molecules
increases chemical
versatility
 Complementarity makes
it possible for
macromolecules to
replicate
 Over time natural
selection favored
molecules that made
accurate copies of
themselves
30
1
30
2
30
3
30
4
30
5
30
6
30
7
30
8
30
9
1. DIGESTION
- Breakdown of large
foodstuffs into smaller
particles
a. Physical
b. Chemical
31
0
 Diffusion or movement of nutrients
and other ingested materials from
small intestines (esp. JEJUNUM) into
the blood stream.
 The process is facilitated by
MICROVILLI: mobile, finger like
projections which increase the
absorptive area of the GIT

31
1
 Selectiveuptake of a
specific nutrient by an
organ of the body. In other
words, absorbed nutrients
ARE NOT uniformly
distributed in the body

31
2
 Process by which the
absorbed nutrients are
USED by the different cells
for specific purpose or
function
 Example: ATP- for energy

31
3
 Processby which the absorbed
nutrients are included or
incorporated into the
STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORK of
the body like bones, muscles,
teeth, hair, skin, joint,
ligaments, etc.
31
4
 Process by which ALL HARMEFUL &
POTENTIAL TOXIC materials
introduced into the body (like food,
preservatives, food colorings & other
chemicals like FORMALIN) are
INACTIVATED or DETOXIFIED by the
LIVER into something non-toxic or
less toxic, thus no significant harm is
done on the body
31
5
 Process by which metabolic
waste products are finally
expelled or removed from the
body. These waste products
when allowed to circulate
inside will destroy cells and
tissues so they must be
disposed of fast
31
6
 Kidneys- urine- most important
 Lungs- volatile acids, form of CO2
 Skin- sweat – hypotonic, NaCl
 GIT- stool/feces (defecation)
*stool- undigested residue of
food

31
7