Materials and Methods was filtered through four layers of cheese cloth.
The extract
When writing a lab report, it is often a good idea to
begin by writing the Materials and Methods section. This
section is usually very straightforward, and writing it
first helps many people establish the proper thought
process and understanding of the work that will allow
the rest of the report to flow more smoothly. Following
this section, it is generally recommended to write the
Results section, followed by the Discussion, and finally
the Introduction. Although this strategy is only a
recommendation, and although it may seem illogical at
first, many have found this approach very effective for
writing scientific papers.
The Materials and Methods section is a vital component of
any formal lab report. This section of the report gives a
detailed account of the procedure that was followed in
completing the experiment(s) discussed in the report. Such an
account is very important, not only so that the reader has a
clear understanding of the experiment, but a well written
Materials and Methods section also serves as a set of
instructions for anyone desiring to replicate the study in the
future. Considering the importance of "reproducible results" in
science, it is quite obvious why this second application is so
vital.
There are several common mistakes that are often found in the
Materials and Methods section of a lab report. One major
concern is deciding upon the correct level of detail. (Pechenik,
p. 55) It is often very easy for a writer to get carried away and
include every bit of information about the procedure,
including extraneous information like the number of times
he\she washed their hands during the experiment. A good
guideline is to include only what is necessary for one
recreating the experiment to know. Keeping this in mind will
lead to a Materials and Methods section that is thoroughly
written, but without the kind of unnecessary detail that breaks
the flow of the writing. Another common mistake is listing all
of the materials needed for the experiment at the beginning of
the section. Instead, the materials and equipment utilized
during the experiment should be mentioned throughout the
procedure as they are used. Enough detail should be included
in the description of the materials so that the experiment can
be reproduced. Finally, it is generally recommended that the
Materials and Methods section be written in past tense, in
either active or passive voice. Many are written in third-person
perspective but check with the professor to be certain what
verb tense and perspective the report should use. This is
demonstrated throughout the example of a well written
Materials and Methods section.
Materials and Methods examples
Sample 1: In preparing the catecholase extract, a potato was
skinned, washed, and diced. 30.0 g of the diced potato and 150
ml of distilled water were added to a kitchen blender and
blended for approximately two minutes. The resulting solution
was stored in a clean, capped container.
Four individually labeled spectrophotometer tubes were
prepared using different amounts (as represented in Table 1) of
the following reagents: a buffer of pH 7, a 0.1% catechol
substrate, and distilled water. The wavelength of the
Spectronic 20 spectrophotometer was set at 540 nm. To
calibrate the specrophotometer at zero absorbance, a blank
control tube prepared with no catechol substrate and labeled
"tube 1" was inverted and inserted into the spectrophotometer.
It is important to note that the extract to be tested was added to
each tube immediately before placing the tube into the
spectrophotometer. 1.0 ml of catecholase extract was pipetted
into tube 2. Tube 2 was immediately inverted and placed in the
spectrophotometer. The absorbance was read and recorded for
time zero (t0), the ten minute mark (t10), and each minute in
between. Tube 2 was removed from the spectrophotometer and
the same measurements were taken for tube 3 and tube 4 using
the same protocol.
Sample 2: A potato and a knife were obtained for this
experiment. Also, distilled water, a blender, cheese cloth, a
clean container with a cover, and eight spectrophotometer
tubes were used. A Spectronic 20 spectrophotometer was used
for this experiment, as were buffers of pHs 4, 6, 7, and 8.
Catechol substrate, Parafilm coverings, KimWipes, a black
pen, and pipettes were also obtained for this experiment.
Finally, a pencil and pad were obtained for recording results.
Sample 3: In preparing the catecholase extract, a potato was
skinned, washed, and diced. A balance was used to obtain 30.0
g of the diced potato. 150 ml of distilled water was poured into
a beaker. The water was added to the diced potato. The cover
of a kitchen blender was removed. The potato and water were
added to the blender. The solution smelled like potato. The
cover was placed on the blender and the power button was
depressed. The clock was observed until the second hand
circled twice. The power button was pushed again to stop the
blender. The resulting solution was filtered through four layers
of cheese cloth. The extract was stored in a clean, capped
container.
WRITING MATERIALS AND METHOS
1. Begin writing the Materials and Methods while you are
performing your experiments.
Writing during the research process will prevent you from
forgetting important details and save you time when you begin
writing the full manuscript. You can also ask co-authors who
performed specific experiments to write the corresponding
parts of the Methods section.
2. Start with general information that applies to the entire
manuscript and then move on to specific experimental
details.
Examples of general information that you could begin with are
characteristics of the study population, sources and genotypes
of bacterial strains, or descriptions of samples or sample sites.
Then, you could share more details about your experiment.
3. Match the order in which methods are described to the
order of the results that were generated using those
methods.
Also, be sure that each method you used is described, even if
it is just a quick sentence (e.g., “Toxin assays were performed
as described [reference]”). This practice is helpful for
transparency, as well as reproducibility.
4. Always include citations for procedures that have been
described previously.
If you made any modifications, be sure to list them.
5. Describe statistical tests as fully as possible.
Give as much information about the tests as possible; just
mentioning a t-test is not sufficient for the reader to determine
if the correct statistical analysis was performed.
6. Avoid discussing the pros and cons of certain methods or
results of any kind.
Save evaluations for different methods for the Discussion
section of your paper.
7. To save space, be concise, yet thorough, when listing the
equipment you used.
You might consider listing all of your equipment purchased
from a single company in one sentence. Or, you could create a
flowchart figure of the steps in an important procedure.
ESTABLISHING PATTERNS OR TRENDS IN THE DATA
COLLECTED
2 Introduction In the conduct of your experiment or your
investigation, you collected a lot of information. What do you
call these pieces of information that you have collected from
your experiment? These are called data. Since these data are
unorganized and unordered, they are called raw data.
3 Generally, it is very hard to interpret data in its raw form –
unorganized and unordered data. Data in its raw form have
little or no meaning at all. So, as the investigator you should
do something to make the gathered data meaningful.
4 In this seminar- workshop, we are going to look at the
different forms of data, how to present data, and how to make
your collected data meaningful.
5 I. Classifying Data Data may be classified in different ways:
A. Quantitative Data vs. Qualitative Data Data Quantitative
data – data gathered Quantitative data – data gathered based
on measurement based on measurement or counting like
height of or counting like height of plant, weight of plant,
plant, weight of plant, number of seedlings in a number of
seedlings in a plot plot
6 Qualitative data – data gathered using a non-standard using a
non-standard scale or unequal intervals scale or unequal
intervals or discrete categories or discrete categories like leaf
condition like leaf condition categorized as categorized as
healthy or not healthy; healthy or not healthy; color of leaves
as green, color of leaves as green, dark green, light green or
dark green, light green or yellow green, etc. yellow green, etc.
7 B. Continuous Data vs. Discontinuous/Discrete Data
Discontinuous/Discrete Data Continuous data – data gathered
Continuous data – data gathered through measurement like
through measurement like heights of plants, weights of heights
of plants, weights of plants, flowering time, etc. plants,
flowering time, etc. Discrete data – gathered obtained Discrete
data – gathered obtained through counting like through
counting like number of leaves per plant, number of leaves per
plant,
8 number of pods number of pods produced per plant,
produced per plant, number of mangoes per number of
mangoes per basket, number of basket, number of seedlings in
a plot, etc. seedlings in a plot, etc.
9 Data may also classified according to scales of measurement
– nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio. Data may also classified
according to scales of measurement – nominal, ordinal,
interval or ratio. Nominal data – data where objects are placed
in discrete objects are placed in discrete categories which
cannot be categories which cannot be ranked in ascending or
ranked in ascending or descending order like brand of
descending order like brand of detergents, color of leaves, etc.
detergents, color of leaves, etc.
10 Ordinal data – data where Ordinal data – data where
objects are placed into objects are placed into categories that
can be ranked categories that can be ranked or ordered in an
ascending or or ordered in an ascending or descending manner
like descending manner like condition of leaves of plants
condition of leaves of plants categorized as healthy or not
categorized as healthy or not healthy; healthy; Interval data –
data collected using Interval data – data collected using a scale
with equal interval but no a scale with equal interval but no
absolute zero value like absolute zero value like temperature
in 0 C. temperature in 0 C.
11 Ratio data – data collected using a Ratio data – data
collected using a scale of equal interval and an scale of equal
interval and an absolute zero like height of absolute zero like
height of plants, weights of plants, plants, weights of plants,
number of leaves per plant, etc. number of leaves per plant,
etc.
12 II. Tabulating and Graphing the Data Although you have
classified your data as quantitative or qualitative; discrete or
continuous; nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio, they do not say
anything yet or they do not have any meaning yet. Although
you have classified your data as quantitative or qualitative;
discrete or continuous; nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio, they
do not say anything yet or they do not have any meaning yet.
To be able to extract meaning from your data, you have to
organize or transform your raw data in to a more compact or
organized way. To be able to extract meaning from your data,
you have to organize or transform your raw data in to a more
compact or organized way.
13 Tabular Presentation – presenting data in rows and columns
rows and columns Table 1. Height of plants. Table 1. Height of
plants. ========================
======================== Plant No. Height of Plants
(cm) Plant No. Height of Plants (cm) Horse manure Urea
Horse manure Urea -------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------- 1 26 25.7 1 26 25.7 2 23
26.2 2 23 26.2 3 23.5 24.6 3 23.5 24.6 4 25.3 27.0 4 25.3 27.0
5 26.5 25.8 5 26.5 25.8 6 24.8 27.6 6 24.8 27.6 7 25.6 27.4 7
25.6 27.4==========================
14 Graphical Presentation – pictorial or visual representation
of data visual representation of data - pictures are easier to -
pictures are easier to understand than words understand than
words * What are the different kinds of * What are the
different kinds of graphs? graphs? * What is the appropriate
type of * What is the appropriate type of graph for a certain set
of data? graph for a certain set of data?
15 III. DESCRIBING DATA Two ways of describing a set of
quantitative or numerical data: Two ways of describing a set of
quantitative or numerical data: 1. Measures of Central 1.
Measures of Central Tendency Tendency Mean Mean Median
Median Mode Mode
16 2. Measures of Variation 2. Measures of Variation Range
Range Quartile Deviation Quartile Deviation Mean Deviation
Mean Deviation Variance Variance Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
17 IV. INTERPRETING QUALITATIVE AND
QUANTITATIVE DATA After you have organized and
presented your data in a more compact form, you are now
ready to analyze, interpret and synthesize the relationships
between and among your data variables. After you have
organized and presented your data in a more compact form,
you are now ready to analyze, interpret and synthesize the
relationships between and among your data variables.
18 Guide in analyzing and interpreting data interpreting data
1. Write a topic sentence stating the independent and
dependent variables. Give reference to table and graph. 1.
Write a topic sentence stating the independent and dependent
variables. Give reference to table and graph. 2. Write a
sentence comparing the measure of central tendency of the
collected data. 2. Write a sentence comparing the measure of
central tendency of the collected data. 3. Write a sentence
describing the variation.
19 4. Write a sentence stating how the data support the
hypothesis. 4. Write a sentence stating how the data support
the hypothesis.Example: The responses of plants to compost
and urea were investigated. The responses measured in the
study were height of plants, how long plants started to flower,
number of pods produced per plant and total weight of plants
per plot. The data are shown in Table 1.
20 It can be noted from the table that the mean height of plants
grown in soil with fertilizer was higher than that of plants in
the control group (without fertilizer). The mean height of
plants grown in soil with horse manure was higher than that in
urea. The bar graph shows the trend. It can be noted from the
table that the mean height of plants grown in soil with
fertilizer was higher than that of plants in the control group
(without fertilizer). The mean height of plants grown in soil
with horse manure was higher than that in urea. The bar graph
shows the trend. The range of plant height in the control group
(without fertilizer) was greater that that of the plants grown in
soil with horse manure and urea. The range of plant height in
the control group (without fertilizer) was greater that that of
the plants grown in soil with horse manure and urea.
21 The data supported that hypothesis that plants grown with
fertilizer would be taller than plants grown without fertilizer.
The flowering time would also be shorter with the use of
fertilizer. The data supported that hypothesis that plants grown
with fertilizer would be taller than plants grown without
fertilizer. The flowering time would also be shorter with the
use of fertilizer.
22 V. TESTING HYPOTHESIS After determining the
measures of central tendency and variation of your data, you
can present a summary table showing these measures showing
these descriptive information.
23 Example: Table 2. Mean heights of plants grown in soil
with and without fertilizers. and without
fertilizers.================================
Descriptive Without Horse Urea Information Fertilizer
Manure (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm)---------------------------------------------------------- Mean
20.60 32.60 30.80 Range 5 8 6 Maximum 21 33 32 Minimum
16 25 26 Number of Plants 7 7 7
==================================
24 Consider the following questions: 1. Are there significant
differences in the mean heights of the three sets of plants? 2.
Can you conclude that fertilizers improve plant height? 3. Are
the differences due to the application of fertilizer alone or is it
by chance?
25 How do you answer these questions? How do you answer
these questions? To be able to answer these questions, you
should use inferential statistics particularly the area of
hypothesis testing. To be able to answer these questions, you
should use inferential statistics particularly the area of
hypothesis testing.
26 List of some appropriate List of some appropriate statistical
tools statistical tools==============================
Category Analysis Quantitative Qualitative of Data Data Data
of Data Data
Data================================ Descriptive
Measure of Mean Median statistics Central Range Mode
statistics Central Range Mode Tendency/ Variance Frequency
Tendency/ Variance Frequency Variation Standard distribution
Variation Standard distribution deviation deviation

27 Inferential Statistical Parametric Non- Statistics Test

parametric Statistics Test parametric Two dependent Two
dependent samples t-test Wilcoxon samples t-test Wilcoxon
test test Two independent t-test z-test z-test F-test F-test Three
or more inde- pendent samples ANOVA pendent samples
ANOVA F-test F-

Frequency table

test================================

TABULATING AND GRAPHING THE DATA Cumulate frequency

Graphing Numerical Data
  What do we gain or lose by dichotomizing optimism?

 Why did they use the t2/t1 ratio?

o What else could they have used?

o How might we decide what to use?

o What would happen if we made a different

decision?

 What do you think of my idea of splitting the subjects

by flipping a coin when they were tied for the same
pessimism score and I needed only 4 people with 11’s
in Group 1?
OTHER KINDS OF GRAPH
o Note that I have unintentionally committed a
 Bar graphs to show numbers that are independent of common error here. I have labeled the
each other. Example data might include things like variable as Pessimism, but then talk about
the number of people who preferred each of Chinese Optimism. It can get very confusing when
takeaways, Indian takeaways and fish and chips. you do that, and we need to be careful.

 Pie charts to show you how a whole is divided into  The results of dichotomizing optimism follow.
different parts. You might, for example, want to show (Group 1 = Optimists)
how a budget had been spent on different items in a
particular year. Report

 Line graphs show you how numbers have changed RATIO

over time. They are used when you have data that are
connected, and to show trends, for example, average
night time temperature in each month of the year. G2 Mean N Std. Deviation

 Cartesian graphs have numbers on both axes, which

therefore allow you to show how changes in one 1.00 .9670 16 6.033E-02
thing affect another. These are widely used in
mathematics, and particularly in Algebra.
2.00 1.0110 17 5.067E-02
DESCRIBING DATA

Data can be defined as facts, figuresor statistics used for Total .9897 33 5.906E-02
reference or analysis. It can be numbers,characters, symbols,
images etc. Data must be interpreted, by a humanor machine,
to derive meaning. Data is raw material for dataprocessing.
 (Comment on E-notation)
Data refers to unprocessed information. Information is data
that has beenprocessed in such a way as to be meaningful to
the person whoreceives it. It is anything that is communicated.  What would you conclude?
Information refersto interpreted data.
 The results of trichotomizing optimism follow.
Review study
Report

 What are the variables? RATIO

 How would you describe those variables?

G3 Mean N Std. Deviation
 What is the hypothesis behind the study?

 How might we examine this hypothesis?

 Hypothesis testing is an act in statistics whereby an analyst tests an
assumption regarding a population parameter. The methodology
1.00 .9504 11 4.490E-02 employed by the analyst depends on the nature of the data used and
the reason for the analysis. Hypothesis testing is used to infer the
result of a hypothesis performed on sample data from a larger
2.00 1.0157 11 6.897E-02 population.

Key Takeaways
3.00 1.0030 11 4.183E-02
 Hypothesis testing is used to infer the result of a hypothesis
performed on sample data from a larger population.

Total .9897 33 5.906E-02

 The test tells the analyst whether or not his primary
hypothesis is true.

 What would you conclude?
Finally, I have drawn a diagram plotting the ratio of t2/t1
against the pessimism score (notice that I have switched to
Pessimism). It follows.
 Statistical analysts test a hypothesis by measuring and
examining a random sample of the population being
analyzed.
How Hypothesis Testing Works

In hypothesis testing, an analyst tests a statistical sample, with

the goal of accepting or rejecting a null hypothesis. The test
tells the analyst whether or not his primary hypothesis is true.
If it isn't true, the analyst formulates a new hypothesis to be
tested, repeating the process until data reveals a true
hypothesis.

Statistical analysts test a hypothesis by measuring and

examining a random sample of the population being analyzed.
All analysts use a random population sample to test two
different hypotheses: the null hypothesis and the alternative
hypothesis.

The null hypothesis is the hypothesis the analyst believes to be

true. Analysts believe the alternative hypothesis to be untrue,
making it effectively the opposite of a null hypothesis. Thus,
 What conclusion would you draw from this they are mutually exclusive, and only one can be true.
plot? However, one of the two hypotheses will always be true.

o Is this a better test of the hypothesis Four Steps of Hypothesis Testing

than the previous ones?
All hypotheses are tested using a four-step process:
o How can you decide?
1. The first step is for the analyst to state the two
hypotheses so that only one can be right.
 What conclusions would you draw from the
results of this experiment?
2. The next step is to formulate an analysis plan, which
outlines how the data will be evaluated.
 This example should be kept in mind when
students read the introductory chapters. How
3. The third step is to carry out the plan and physically
does it fit with what is there?
analyze the sample data.
o Why didn't I plot the distribution of
each of the variables?
4. The fourth and final step is to analyze the results
and either accept or reject the null hypothesis.
What can I do to better fit this example with the first several
chapters? Perhaps I should assign that to them as a problem. WRITING CONCLUSION AND DEFINITION

TESTING HYPOTHESIS
 1. be written to relate directly to the aims of the project
as stated in the Introduction.
2. indicate the extent to which the aims have been
achieved.
3. summarise the key findings, outcomes or information
in your report.
4. acknowledge limitations and make
recommendations for future work (where
applicable)
WRITING ABSTRACT
An abstract is a 150- to 250-word paragraph that provides
readers with a quick overview of your essay or report and its
organization. It should express your thesis (or central idea) and
your key points; it should also suggest any implications or
applications of the research you discuss in the paper.
According to Carole Slade, an abstract is “a concise summary
of the entire paper.”
 The function of an abstract is to describe, not to
evaluate or defend, the paper.
 The abstract should begin with a brief but precise
statement of the problem or issue, followed by a
description of the research method and design, the
major findings, and the conclusions reached.
 The abstract should contain the most important key
words referring to method and content: these
facilitate access to the abstract by computer search
and enable a reader to decide whether to read the
entire dissertation.
Note: Your abstract should read like an overview of your
paper, not a proposal for what you intended to study or
accomplish. Avoid beginning your sentences with phrases like,
“This essay will examine...” or “In this research paper I will
attempt to prove...”
PREPARING FOR THE SCIENCE PAIR
1. Select a Topic
See the list of projects and read What Makes a Good Project?.
Remember a Science Fair Project is a test you do to find an
answer to a question, not just showing what you know about
something.
2. Gather Background Information
Gather information about your topic from books, magazines,
the Internet, people and companies.
Keep notes about where you got your info
3. Scientific Method
State the Purpose of your experiment - What are you trying to
find out?
Select a variable (something you will change/vary) that will
help you find your answer.
State your Hypothesis - your guess about what the answer will
be.
Decide on and describe how you will change the thing you
selected.
Decide on and describe how you will measure your results.
4. Run Controlled Experiment and Record Data
Do the experiment as described above.
Keep notes in one place. Write down everything you can think
of, you might need it later.
5. Graphs and Charts
What happened? Answer that question, then put the results in
graphs and charts.
6. Construct an Exhibit or Display
It has to be neat, but it does NOT have to be typed.
Make it fun, but be sure people can understand what you did.
Show that you used the Scientific Method.
7. Write a short Report
Tell the story of your project - tell what you did and exactly
how you did it.
Include a page that shows where you gathered background
information. It can be 2 pages or even more. Paper Guidelines
to help you out.
8. Practice Presentation to Judges
Practice explaining your project to someone (parent, friend,
grandparent, etc.) This will help you be calm on Science Fair
Day. The judges are very nice and will be interested in what
you did and what you learned.
9. Come to the Fair and have fun! See you there