What are disadvantages of wing sweep?

Sweep reduces a wings coefficient of lift, increases stall speed, thus increasing take off and landing
speeds and reducing field performance. Swept wings tend to stall first at the wingtips, which in turn
causes the C of P to move forward producing a nose up pitching moment. This can lead to a deep stall,
particularly in rear engined, T tailed aircraft
What is Dutch roll?
Dutch roll is a coupled lateral-directional oscillation, which is usually dynamically stable but is
objectionable because of the oscillatory nature. The damping of this oscillatory mode may be weak or
strong depending on the properties of the aircraft. The response of the aircraft to a disturbance from
equilibrium is a combined rolling-yawing oscillation in which the rolling motion is phased to precede
the yawing motion. Generally, Dutch roll will occur when the dihedral effect is large when compared to
the static directional stability.
Span wise flow
Travels from the root to the tip and produces no lift.
Chord wise flow
The airflow over the wing that is perpendicular [at a right angle to the leading edge of the wing].
The airflow is accelerated over the wing and produces lift.
Where will shockwaves first occur on the wing?
At the point of maximum camber, usually at the wing root an a swept wing.
At what point on an aircraft is the local airflow the fastest?
At the point of greatest curvature. [Top of the 747's hump]
How does sweepback affect Mcrit?
By sweeping a wing significantly the velocity vector normal to the leading edge is made less than the
chord wise resultant, thus MCRIT is increased.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of a thin wing?
Advantages:
 Raise Mcrit to a higher value

Buffet, drag rise and control and stability problems are all deferred to a higher Mach number and
when they do occur, they are less severe than on a thicker wing.

Wave drag is proportional to thickness/chord [T/C] ratio

Disadvantages
 Structural weaknesses [rigidity/strength]
 Limited storage capacity [fuel and undercarriage]
 Poor low-speed aerodynamic characteristics [low CL, high Vs] and may also be prone to
leading edge stall [sudden, no buffet]
What are the advantages and disadvantages of sweepback?
Advantages:
 Sweep increases spiral stability, as does dihedral.
 Raise Mcrit to a higher value - Mcrit = Mcrit [straight]__
Cosine sweep angle

Eg. Mcrit straight = 0.8 [Now with sweep angle 30º]

Mcrit [swept] = 0.8___

Cos 30

= 0.8_
0.87
= 0.92 [in theory, a little less in practice]

This increase in Mcrit means buffet, drag rise and control and stability problems are all deferred to a
higher Mach number and when they do occur, they are less severe than on a similar straight wing.

Disadvantages:
 Poor oscillatory stability
 Poor lift at low airspeeds [flatter lift curve]
 Less lift for a given airspeed/AoA [higher stall speed]
 High AoA at stall
 Tendency for the tips to stall first causing a pitch up at stall
 Steep deck angle on approach
 A swept wing has a high Vimd [min drag speed] requiring a large acceleration after rotation to
achieve Vy
 Excessive lateral stability [can result in Dutch roll]
 Aero elastic effects such as aileron reversal, reduced tip AoA under G-loading which may cause
a pitch up and tightening turn
 Limited visibility [of the wing] from the cockpit
Why are wings swept?
As the air passes over the wing accelerates to near sonic speeds, shock waves form and
compressibility effects become apparent; the drag increases, buffeting is felt and changes in lift and C
of P occur. The speed at which these compressibility effects first become apparent is the Critical Mach
number [MCRIT].

By sweeping a wing significantly the velocity vector normal to the leading edge is made less than the
chord wise resultant. As the wing is only responsive to the velocity vector to the normal leading edge,
for a given Mach number the effective chord wise velocity is reduced (in effect the wing is persuaded
to believe it is flying slower than it actually is). This means the airspeed can be increased before the
effective chord wise component becomes sonic and thus the critical Mach number is raised. [HTBJ]
Why doesn’t the B777 have winglets?
The B777 uses the most aerodynamically efficient wing ever developed for sub-sonic commercial
aircraft, allowing it to climb quickly, cruise at higher levels and higher speeds than comparable
aircraft. [FTBJ B777]
Define angle of incidence.
Angle between longitudinal axis and the chord line of the wing.
Define AoA...
Angle between the relative wind and the chord line of the wing.
Define pitch attitude...
The angle between longitudinal axis and the horizon.
What is the mean camber line?
Line drawn halfway between the upper and lower surfaces of a wing.
Define chord.
Measure of the width of the wing.
Positive camber, negative camber, symmetrical airfoil definitions.

 Positive camber: mean camber line is above chord line

 Negative camber: mean camber line is below chord line
 Symmetrical airfoil: mean camber line coincides with chord line

If you decrease AoA how does that affect induced drag?

If you decrease AoA that will increase velocity which means that induced drag will decrease.
Define 'Mach number'...
Mach number is the ratio of the speed of an object or flow to the local speed of sound, under the same
conditions.
How do you get zero lift in a positive camber wing?
You must go to a negative AOA.
Define Equilibrium
Sum of the forces is equals zero.
Sum of the moments is equals zero.
Aircraft is moving in a straight line at a constant velocity.
Draw the forces acting on an aircraft in a descent.

Draw the forces acting on an aircraft in a climb.

Why do some aircraft have winglets?

Tip devices have become a popular technique to increase the aerodynamic performances of lifting
wings, short and slender alike. The idea behind all wingtip devices is to diffuse the strong vortices
released at the tip and optimise the span-wise lift distribution, while maintaining the additional
moments on the wing within certain limits. Investigations and experiments, indicated that the use of
vertical lifting surfaces placed at the wing tips produce a beneficial effect on both lift and drag
characteristics. This is found at the cost of increased bending moment. The increase in root bending
moment is found to be lower than for an equivalent tip extension. Winglet sections can be airfoils with
their own design.
At the tip, due to the pressure differential between the upper and lower surfaces, there is a significant
span wise component to the airflow. On the lower surface, the span wise component of flow is
outwards, away from the wing root, and on the upper surface, the span wise component tends to be
towards the root. Lift is defined as acting perpendicularly to the flow local of the airfoil and the surface
plan form, then with a bit of cunning engineering, the lift on a vertical surface at the wing tip, in a flow
with a span wise component toward the root such as occurs on the upper wing surface, could be
directed "forward" - in the direction of flight, - and "inward" - toward the wing root. The forward
component of lift manifests itself as a reduction in total aircraft drag. Of course, the benefit is reduced
somewhat by the component of winglet drag acting aft, but nonetheless, the net result is a reduction
in total aircraft drag. And as mentioned elsewhere, winglets will indeed reduce the strength of the
shed vortices in the tip region, but only as a consequence of the generation of a lift force on the
winglet. For a given angle of attack, installation of winglets can also increase lift, but since aircraft
mass is approximately unchanged, the aircraft would have to fly at a decreased angle of attack to
maintain the same lift as in the pre-winglet case - which further decreases drag.
Winglets can be used to produce extra lift, besides lower drag. The winglets must be mounted on the
rear part of the wing (region of lowest pressure), to minimize interference effects. Drag reduction
rates are of the order of 5 %.
Winglets are applied in the latest generation of Boeing 747, MD 11, Airbus, and most executive jets
and many sailplanes. Data available for the Boeing 747-400 indicate that without winglets the aircraft.
suffers about 2.5 % drag losses, which corresponds to +9.5 tons at take-off.
How is range increased when flying into a headwind?
In a headwind maximum range is achieved by flying faster than 1.32 Vimd to minimise exposure to
the headwind.
What is the difference between Max Range Cruise [MRC] and Long Range Cruise [LRC]?
MRC: The speed at which, for a given weight and altitude, the maximum fuel mileage is obtained. It is
difficult to establish and maintain stable cruise conditions at max range speeds. 1.32 Vimd constant
speed with variable AoA [dependent on weight].
LRC: Speed slightly faster than MRC at a constant AoA [slightly faster than Vimd] As weight
decreases, speed needs to decrease to maintain AoA Reducing speed necessitates reducing thrust,
though because best SFC for a given engine occurs at a particular design RPM, you must climb
In the graph below a drag curve has been re-labelled 'Fuel Flow vs. Velocity'. In order to better see
the origin of this graph the parasite drag and induced drag curves have been drawn in.

Maximum Endurance
Previously we defined SE as 1/FF. in other words an aircraft achieves more endurance when FF is
smaller. Therefore, it is obvious that maximum endurance occurs at the bottom of the FF curve as
shown above.
Since the above FF curve is exactly the same shape as the Drag curve, the lowest fuel consumption
would correspond to the speed for minimum drag, [also known as L/D max AoA].
Maximum Range
As discussed previously, the speed for maximum specific range, in zero wind, will occur where the
tangent line drawn from the origin just touches the curve [as shown below]. It is worth noting that
maximum range always occurs at a higher speed than maximum endurance.
More correctly best range always occurs at a smaller angle of attack than best endurance. It is critical
to remember that best range and best endurance both occur at specific angles of attack, regardless of
weight.

Effect of wind on Range

A headwind will decrease the range and a tailwind will increase the range. This is only common sense.
However, with a headwind the aircraft must fly faster. In other words at a smaller angle of attack.
The tailwind graph below shows that theoretically the pilot should slow down [fly at a greater angle of
attack] with a tailwind.
Note: the tailwind or headwind tangent line is drawn with the headwind or tailwind added. This
ensures that the tangent [FF/V] of the line has the correct magnitude.

As a rule of thumb the pilot should speed up by half the headwind velocity. You can see from the
above graph that this is a reasonable approximation.
Effect of Weight on Endurance and Range
Previously we examined how weight changes affected the total drag curve. You must remember that
only the induced drag changes with weight.
In the diagram below the green curve is the original drag curve. The red curve is the total drag after
some fuel is consumed [weight reduced].
You can see from the above graph that SE improves with lower weight. In other words the aircraft can
fly for longer if it is lighter. However the aircraft must fly slower at the reduced weight. As proven
earlier in our discussion of gliding however, the same L/D max angle of attack applies in both cases.
If you draw the tangent line in from the origin to both the green and red curves, you can quickly see
that SR also improves at lighter weights. Just as with endurance the aircraft must fly slower as the
weight is decreased. However, it should remain at the same angle of attack.

In summary, there is an optimum angle of attack for endurance. There is another optimum angle of
attack (smaller) for range. The aircraft should always be operated at the correct angle of attack, which
means that airspeed must be reduced as weight decreases (other factors being equal.)

Effect of Altitude on Range and Endurance (Jet)

The graph below shows how the drag curves and Fuel Flow vs. Velocity curves change with altitude. As
the aircraft climbs into the less dense air the parasite drag decreases, but the induced drag increases.
As a result the total drag curve moves to the right. Remember that the drag curve is exactly the same
shape as the FF vs. Velocity graph for a jet.
As you can see in the graphs below there should be no change in the maximum endurance of the
aircraft with altitude. However, the required endurance speed will increase. As before maximum
endurance always occurs at L/D max. [I.e. always the same angle of attack] On web page 8 we will
discuss the effect of engine and propeller efficiency.

For a jet range is significantly affected by altitude. As you can see in the graph below, as the aircraft
climbs higher the max SR [V/FF] keeps getting better and better. Therefore, the jet aircraft should
always be operated at high altitude unless there is a very strong headwind.

Jet Aircraft range/endurance summary

The TSFC of the jet engine improves up to the altitude for the coldest air temperature. In the ISA this
is the tropopause [TSFC holds constant in the stratosphere]. Endurance will increase with altitude as
long as temperature decreases with altitude. Maximum endurance will therefore occur at the
tropopause. Range will increase with altitude up to the altitude at which Mach effects arise (see Cruise
Control.) Endurance does not increase in the stratosphere, but it does not decline either. Therefore,
pilots should not descend when holding. Wind will be a factor. But, due to the powerful benefit of
altitude a jet will often get better range at altitude even with a moderate headwind.

Jet engine fuel consumption

Both jet and propeller engines consume fuel at a certain rate [FF] Jet engines convert the fuel-flow
directly into thrust
Specific Fuel Consumption
Specific Fuel Consumption is a measure of the fuel consumed by an engine. There are two types of
specific fuel consumption:
1. Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption [TSFC]
2. Power Specific Fuel Consumption [SFC]
TSFC is defined as fuel-low per pound of thrust produced [FF/Thrust]
SFC is defined as fuel-flow per horsepower produced [FF/HP]
Fuel-flow should be measured in units of pounds of fuel per hour, rather than gallons per hour. This is
because the chemical energy in the fuel is a function of the mass of the fuel. A gallon of fuel expands
or contracts with temperature. Therefore, a gallon of cold fuel contains more energy than a gallon of
warm fuel.
The units of TSFC and SFC will be:
TSFC = lb per hr/thrust lb
SFC = lb per hr/HP

Converting the Drag vs. Velocity Curve

A perfectly accurate conversion of the drag curve into a Fuel-flow vs. Velocity graph must take
variations in engine and propeller efficiency into account. However, we will find it easier to break the
process into two steps. We will therefore conduct a simple aerodynamic analysis first, in which we will
assume that:

 TSFC is constant for a jet

 SFC is constant for piston and turbo-prop engines

FF vs. Velocity for a Jet

We will start by converting a Drag vs. Velocity curve into a Fuel-flow vs. Velocity curve for a jet
aircraft. This will be very easy because the TSFC is a constant.
Remember the definition of TSFC:
TSFC = FF/Thrust
We will assume that: TSFC = FF/Drag (i.e. we assume thrust = drag)
Therefore: FF = TSFC x Drag
What is the Critical Drag-rise Mach number [Mcdr]?
Mcdr is that free stream Mach number at which, because of compressibility effects the drag co-
efficient at a specified angle of attack, has risen by 20% of its low subsonic value.
Define Mach Number Detachment [Mdet]
Mdet is that free stream Mach number at which the bow wave becomes attached to the leading edge.
Explain Compressibility Mach Number [Mcomp]...
Mcomp is that free stream Mach number at which, because of compressibility effects, control of an
aircraft becomes difficult and beyond which loss of control is probable.
What is Mach Number?
Mach number is the ratio of the speed of an object or flow to the local speed of sound, under the same
conditions.
How do you get zero lift in a positive camber wing?
You must go to a negative AOA.
If you decrease AoA how does that affect induced drag?
If you decrease AoA that will increase velocity which means that induced drag will decrease.
Explain positive camber, negative camber and symmetrical airfoil definitions.

 Positive camber: mean camber line is above chord line

 Negative camber: mean camber line is below chord line
 Symmetrical airfoil: mean camber line coincides with chord line

What is the mean camber line?

A line drawn halfway between the upper and lower surfaces of a wing.
Define chord
This is the measure of the width of the wing.
Define chord line
Infinitely long line drawn through the trailing edge and leading edge of airfoil (wing).
Define angle of incidence.
Angle between longitudinal axis and the chord line of the wing.
Define angle of attack
Angle between the relative wind and the chord line of the wing.
Define pitch attitude
The angle between longitudinal axis and the horizon.
What is the Mean Camber Line?
It's a line drawn between the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil.
Define relative wind
Airflow the airplane experiences as moves through the air.
Equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the flight path.
Explain IAS, EAS and TAS
IAS: Indicated airspeed
EAS: Equivalent airspeed-IAS corrected for position and compressibility errors
TAS: True airspeed, EAS corrected for atmospheric conditions
What limits an aircraft climb performance?
The amount of 'excess thrust' available.
How is drag defined?
Drag acts along the dragline of the aircraft
Drag = CD½ρV²S
Induced drag is the by product of the production of lift
Define Thrust
Thrust acts along the average centreline of the engines.
Thrust = Mass air flow x [Vj-V], or [mass x acceleration]
Define aerodynamic lift
Lift acts through the centre of pressure and acts perpendicular to the relative airflow.
Lift = CL½ΡV²S
CL: Co-efficient of lift [Lifting ability for a particular wing design at a given AoA]
Ρ: Rho represents the value of density [If density doubles, lift doubles]
V: Velocity or TAS of the air flowing around the wing [If velocity doubles, lift quadruples]
S: Surface area of the wing [If wing area doubles lift doubles]
What are the forces acting on an aircraft in flight?
Drag, thrust, lift and weight.
If thrust is greater than drag the aircraft will accelerate. If lift and weight are the same, an aircraft will
maintain a steady, level attitude.If the aircraft is in a turn, lift is reduced due to the reduction of
effective wingspan. The weight of the aircraft though remains the same. To maintain altitude when in
a turn, speed and/or angle of attack has to be increased.

What is the Free Stream Mach number [Mfs]

Mfs is the Mach number of the flow sufficiently remote from the aircraft to be unaffected by it.
Explain Local Mach Mumber [Ml]
Ml is the ratio of the speed of the flow at a specified point to the speed of sound at the same point
Define Critical Mac Number [Mcrit]
MCRIT is that free stream Mach number at which the highest local Mach number reaches Mach 1.
What is the definition of Subsonic, Transonic, and Supersonic?
Subsonic
All flow everywhere on the aircraft is less than the speed of sound
Transonic
Some flow is subsonic and some is supersonic
Supersonic
All flow everywhere on the aircraft is supersonic
How does a wet or contaminated runway or downwind affect V1?
A wet V1 may be up to 10kts less than the same dry V1. This provides a longer stopping distance in
the event of an RTO, due to the reduced brake effectiveness. Unless a corresponding weight reduction
occurs the aircraft will now not be able to make the 35' [for an EFTO continued] screen height and this
may now be reduced to 15'.
Initially on a wet runway, what is the most effective method of braking?
Reverse thrust.
What is the rejected take-off drill?
Maintain directional control
Thrust levers to idle [activated auto-brake and spoilers]
Select reverse thrust
Brake as required
Your flaps don’t extend on approach to land. What do you do?
Follow company failure management procedures.
Conduct missed approach, advise tower of intentions
Check CB’s
Run the checklists
Recalculate LDR by adding 72%
Consult TOLD card for new Vref
Press GPWS override [Config. Warning]
Note: If the failure has resulted due to a hydraulics failure, associated failures may include, Nose
wheel steering and Landing gear extension
Would you depart if there were still ice on the aircraft?
No.
How would you remove ice from the aircraft?
Tepid water and/or deice fluid.
You arrive at work and the conditions are conducive to ice. What would you check?
Check for ice on the airframe and flying surfaces.
Why do they have more excess thrust?
They need to still meet performance requirements with 50% of their thrust gone.
Have you ever been to an airport and noticed that the big twin-engine jets climb at a
steeper angle than the four engine jets. Why is this so?
Have you ever been to an airport and noticed that the big twin-engine jets climb at a steeper angle
than the four engine jets. Why is this so? More excess thrust available
Define Vs...
Power on stall speed in the clean configuration.
How does a wet runway affect V1?
A wet runway reduces acceleration performance, for a take off and deceleration performance, for a
rejected take-off. Companies may have a policy to reduce V1 on a wet runway allowing the TODR
calculation to reduce the 1.2Vs screen height to 15’.
What is a balanced field length?
When ASDR=TODR for an engine failure at V1.
Can a stopway be a clearway?
Yes.
Can you taxi on a stopway?
No.
What is a clearway?
A section at the end of a runway, which can be used for calculating TODA, from lift off to 35’.
How does flap affect the TORR?
TORR increases due to the increase in drag.
How is ASDR calculated?
It is the distance from a standing start to a failure of the critical engine at V1, plus recognition time, to
close the thrust levers and bring the aircraft to a complete using full braking. (No reverse thrust is to
be taken into account when calculating ASDR)
How is TORR calculated?
It is the distance from a standing start to a failure of the critical engine at V1, multiplied by 1.5 times
the take off distance to lift off plus half the distance to 35’.
What is Vimd?
The speed for minimum drag
What is Vdf?
Maximum flight dive speed [highest speed during certification]
What is Vxse?
Single engine best angle of climb
What is Vx?
Best angle of climb
What is Vyse?
Single engine best rate of climb
What is Vy?
Best rate of climb
What is Vmo/Mmo?
Maximum operating speed
What is Vne/Mne?
Never exceed speed. Usually a structural limit.
What is Vno/Mno?
Normal operating speed
Define Va?
The maximum speed at which full and/or abrupt control deflection may be applied without exceeding
the limiting load factor.
Define V2....
Take-off safety speed
Achieved at 35’ following a critical engine failure at V1 and rotation at Vr.
Minimum of 1.2 Vs or 1.1 Vmca
Define Vr....
The speed at which the pilot commences rotating.
Minimum of 1.05 Vmca, 1.1 Vs, 1.1 Vmu
The speed at which allows the greater of 1.1 Vmca or 1.2 Vs to be achieved at 35’ with a critical
engine failure at V1.
How would you reduce Vmcg if it were greater than V1?
A Reduced thrust take off reduces yaw resulting from an engine failure.
What is V1 dependant on?
ASDA, TODA, aircraft weight, ambient temperature, obstacle clearance, runway slope and runway
surface conditions.
Define V1?
Decision speed. The speed at which TODA=ASDA if an engine failure were to occur.
What are the limits of V1?
V1 must be greater than Vmcg and less than Vr.
What changes the AoA when an aircraft stalls?
The centre of pressure moving forward until the stall and then rapidly moving aft and producing a
nose down pitching moment at the stall.
Define Vmcg....
The minimum speed at which it is possible to maintain directional control, whilst on the ground, during
the take-off roll and following a failure of the critical engine whilst employing full rudder deflection.
How does flap affect Vmca?
Flap increases lift and therefore drag. The wing on the operating engine/s side has more resistance to
motion and increases Vmca.
How does C of G affect Vmca?
An aft C of G decreases the moment arm of the rudder and thus it’s effectiveness consequently
increasing Vmca.
How does weight affect Vmca?
Nil effect. Vmca and Vmcg is dependant on pressure altitude and temperature.
What is the configuration for Vmca?
Aircraft at MTOW
Most rearward C of G Max 5ï‚°
AoB towards the live engine
Max continuous power on operating engine
Critical engine failed and propeller windmilling or feathered if auto-feather fitted
Full rudder deflection
Define Vmca...
The minimum airspeed at which it is possible to maintain directional control, when airborne and
following a failure of the critical engine and whilst employing full rudder deflection.
Define Vmu....
Minimum Unstick Speed. The Minimum airspeed at which airplane can safely lift off ground and
continue take-off.
Tell me what you know about LROPS.
Under ETOPS, twin-engine aircraft must use the nearest available diversion airport in case of an
emergency. If this is closed, the pilot must fly on to the next closest diversion airfield. Diversions
under ETOPS are not normally allowed to exceed 180 minutes in duration.
However many diversion airports in remote and inhospitable areas have poor medical, communication
and accommodation facilities to cope with an emergency. They may have extremely challenging
runways – especially in poor weather conditions – or they may simply not be equipped to deal
with a sudden influx of passengers requiring food, accommodation, medical supplies and clothing
suitable for sub-zero temperatures. In a number of areas such as the Polar Regions, there is simply no
airport at all.
The new LROPS rules are based on the idea that a flight crew must be able to choose the safest, most
appropriate airport and not necessarily the closest. This will ensure a high safety level to all
passengers and crews, even in the most extreme regions of the globe. LROPS rules will apply to all
flights with diversion times beyond three hours, regardless of the number of engines on the aircraft,
and to any flight over a designated ‘extreme’ region.
LROPS-certified twins will be able to exceed the maximum 180-minute diversion time, subject to
special permission. However, due to the quantity of reserve fuel necessary to handle a diversion at low
altitude with an inoperative engine, a four-hour limit seems the natural economic diversion time for
two-engine LROPS aircraft. To achieve such certification, these aircraft will have to be equipped with
powerful communication systems, advanced medical equipment and sophisticated fire-fighting
capabilities.
For routes across the Himalayas, Airbus’ On Board Oxygen Generation System [OBOGS], now
under development for LROPS, will be particularly useful. It will enable a depressurised aircraft to
maintain an altitude higher than 10,000ft [3,000 metres]. Since aircraft burn less fuel at higher
altitudes, this will require somewhat lower fuel reserves, which in turn will reduce operating costs.
A long-range means of communication, called Aircraft Dependent Surveillance [ADS] system, which
uses Global Positioning Satellites [GPS] and radio links, is also being developed. It will provide pilots
with a more reliable means of keeping in touch with air traffic controllers in remote and inhospitable
areas.
For four-engine aircraft such as the A340 and the A380, there will be no limit on diversion times, while
aircraft without LROPS certification will be banned from flying in extreme areas.
While twin-engine aircraft will be capable of flying very long-range routes, they will keep relying
heavily on the diversion airports available along these routes. They will also have to demonstrate to
the authorities that these airports can offer safe landing and evacuation of occupants as well as their
subsequent accommodation and transport to a commercial airport in the worst winter conditions.
Therefore Airbus has chosen to develop twin-engine and four-engine aircraft to ensure an optimised
solution for each type of operation. Four-engine aircraft will be free from these constraints and able to
fly to much more distant airports.
All A340 and A380 aircraft will have LROPS certification with options of up to eight hours of diversion
time. Airbus will be offering special LROPS design packages for customers who want to operate such
routes with the A340 and A380. Retrofits will also be available for aircraft already in service. The
aircraft will operate under a ‘no diversion time’ philosophy and will only be limited on long-
range routes by the capacity of their hold fire extinguishers.
What do you know about ETOPS?
Extended Twin Engine Operations
Provision for twin engined to be within a certain flying time of alternate aerodrome:
Suitable: Weather above alternate minima [Engine failure planning]
Adequate: Above landing minima [Depressurised planning]
120-138 min [FAA 1985]
180 min [FAA 1988]
207 min [15% extension to 180 min] [more direct routing (B777)]
180 min ETOPS certification requirements:
Engine system maturity and reliability
Operator experience
Additional maintenance requirements
ETOPS pre-flight inspection [special airworthiness dispatch requirements]
Airworthiness assessment of aircraft type
How do you fly a descent efficiently?
The Descent Problem
A properly timed descent can yield a substantial fuel savings over flight plan values. Once again into a
headwind, proceed faster and vice versa. If you can time the descent use idle power all the way to the
500' AGL point VFR or to the final approach fix for IFR, and don't spend much time at low altitude with
flaps and/or gear extended, you will achieve the most efficient use of the fuel. ATC vectoring, icing
conditions, or a leaky pressure vessel could preclude using idle power.
In general, given a descent speed profile, when flying into a headwind, fly a faster TAS by
approximately half the headwind for maximum range, and when flying with a tailwind behind you, fly
a slower TAS by approximately half the tailwind for maximum range. Typically a profile would consist
of maintaining a constant mach number [perhaps the same as the cruise mach number] until the
"crossover altitude" after which a constant IAS is used until approach manoeuvring.
Drag
Induced Drag
Parasite Drag - D = 0.5pVS2CD
Compressibility
Thrust Required [D] vs. TAS curve Weight increase

 curve moves up and minimum moves to the right Altitude increase

 curve lays back toward the higher speeds and minimum moves to the right Dirty
 curve moves up and minimum moves to the left Critical Mach number
 at a slightly lower TAS than the knee where compressibility drag takes off
 Performance in climb = f [Thrust Available - Drag][V/W] or excess power available at a given
TAS
 Minimum on curve is Max L/D point and minimum Drag and max endurance
 Max Range at tangent from origin or from a point removed from the origin by the value of the
wind, causing a increase [HW] or decrease [TW] in the speed for max range of about 1/2
the HW/TW component.

Specific Range = NAM/1000# of fuel = TAS/FF

 Specific Range vs. Mach Number

 Max range is at the peak of curve
 At a given weight this curve & it's peak move higher and to the Right
 Curve is relatively flat at the peak for a relatively large airspeed range
 Long Range Cruise move along curve until Spec. Range drops 1% and you get a 2%- 10%
increase in speed and, therefore, a timesavings for minimal fuel cost.

What is an 'optimal cruise....'?

The Cruise Problem
Maximum Cruise Thrust - below METO thrust and intended to provide required cruise performance
while maximalising engine life Optimum Cruise - the maximum range will be optimum at a certain
altitude where winds and engine performance are optimum - once again as in the climb, if you are
proceeding against a headwind a faster TAS by approximately 1/2 the wind component yields better
range and vice versa for a tailwind.
Long Range Cruise - move along curve until Specific Range [nm/lb of fuel] drops 1% and you get a
2% - 10% increase in speed and, therefore, a time savings for minimal fuel cost increase.
Buffet Boundaries - depending on your weight, the maximum altitude that you can attain will be
determined by the buffet boundaries at various G-levels due to turbulence, normally 1.2 to 1.6 1.
1.Low speed buffet - stall or g-buffet -caused by separation of flow over the top of the wing due to
high angle of attack - remember that your IAS at stall increases with g-loading [essentially increased
weight] when you encounter varying degrees of clear air turbulence. 2. High speed buffet - mach
buffet - caused by separation of airflow over the top of the wing or any portion of the airframe as the
speed of sound is approached by the aircraft - shock formation can begin as low as Mach .77 on some
aircraft - it is annoying to passengers and causes a huge increase in drag which causes higher fuel
usage - the higher the altitude, the lower the IAS at which it buffet occurs for a given weight aircraft,
since the speed of sound decreases for a higher altitude where the temperature is lower and TAS is
higher for a given IAS - Weight also has an effect as it requires higher AOA and therefore faster
airflow over the top of the wing or fuselage.
Therefore, as altitude is increased or weight is increased, the spread between low & high-speed buffet
decreases. For a given weight, there will be an altitude restriction. For a heavy aircraft flying a long
distance, the desired altitude may only be reached later in the flight after a series of "step climbs" as
fuel is burned off.
What can you say about the 'optimal climb profile'?
The Climb Problem
Maximum Climb Thrust
Best Climb Angle
Best Rate of Climb
Optimum Climb Speed - balance between 3 competing goals

 Getting to altitude as quickly as possible - jet engines burn less fuel at the higher altitudes in
cruise
 Using the minimum fuel in the climb
 Travelling as far as possible in the climb

Note: most airlines try to minimize costs by considering crew costs and maintenance costs [time on
the airframe] as well as minimizing fuel usage. By flying faster, we can increase fuel costs but
decrease time on the airframe and engines and how much they have to pay the crew.
In general, given a climb speed profile, when flying into a headwind, fly a TAS faster by approximately
half the headwind for maximum range, and when flying with a tailwind behind you, fly a TAS slower by
approximately half the tailwind for maximum range. Typically a profile would consist of maintaining a
constant IAS until the "crossover altitude" after which a constant mach number is used until level off.
How does the landing technique's affect the total landing distance?
Threshold crossing height - The target is 50' over the end of the effective runway length. If you are
100' above instead, this will add approximately 100' to the landing distance when using the typical 3-
degree glide slope.
Flare Technique - trying to make the perfect grease job landing could increase the landing distance
considerably more than the high approach as well as increase the chances for a tail strike. 3.
Touchdown speed faster than VREF - Since the object is to dissipate kinetic energy, the faster the
touchdown speed, the longer the stoping distance. The equation for kinetic energy is [mV2]/2. A 10%
increase in weight or mass will yield about a 10% increase in landing roll, whereas a 10% increase in
landing speed will cause about a 20% increase in the landing roll.
Compounding the problem - If on the typical airliner, you were to cross the threshold 30' high and
5 kts fast, you would use up 1/2 of the 40% of the runway that is your margin of safety
What is the 'Maximum Structural Landing Weight '?
The aircraft maximum certified landing gross weight is set by the manufacturer based on structural
considerations.

what is the 'Landing Runway Weight Limit'?

Landing Runway Weight Limit - Turbojets must land within 60% of the effective runway length at both
the destination and at the alternate if the runway is dry and braking action is good or better. Landing
distance is a function of weight, temperature, pressure, wind, runway slope and approach speed as
well as runway braking action. Speed not less than 1.3 Vso at 50' height above runway. Flaps, speed
brakes and wheel brakes used [reverse thrust not considered].
The landing distance increased 15% if landing runway on wet or slippery.
Typically a weight penalty is taken when the runway is wet or when the visibility is low.
Effective Runway Length for landing - what is it?
Effective Runway Length for landing - measured from the point that the obstruction clearance plane
intercepts the runway near the approach end to the far end of the runway. Usually it is the entire
runway length. However, if there is an obstruction that rises high enough near the approach end, the
effective runway length would be shortened from the entire runway length.
What is the Obstruction Clearance Plane?
The Obstruction Clearance Plane - a 20:1 sloped plane that usually intercepts the end of the runway
and through which no obstacle protrudes. The aircraft on approach maintains a minimum of 1.3 Vso at
least 50' above this obstruction clearance plane. It must begin 1500' prior to the intersection with the
runway.
Please tell us something about Reverse Thrust.
Through the use of blocking doors and deflectors the jet engine's exhaust flow is directed at an angle
forward to slow the aircraft after touchdown. On a turboprop aircraft, the same effect is accomplished
by changing prop blade angle to a negative angle. Reverse thrust is not considered in performance
calculations for either landing or accelerate-stop.
Describe Go-Around Thrust...
Basically the same as Take-off thrust except that the EPR or N1 value is different based on the fact
that the aircraft is at a much higher velocity.
What is the Vref?
VREF - Landing Reference Speed is the minimum CAS at the 50' height in a normal landing. This
speed is equal to 1.3 times the stall speed in the landing configuration [VSO]. There are typically two
landing flap settings, the greater of which is typically not used due to the high fuel burn associated
with it.
What is the 'Landing Runway Weight Limit'?
Landing Runway Weight Limit - Turbojets must land within 60% of the effective runway length at
both the destination and at the alternate if the runway is dry and braking action is good or better.
Landing distance is a function of weight, temperature, pressure, wind, runway slope and approach
speed as well as runway braking action.
Speed not less than 1.3 Vso at 50' height above runway.
Flaps, speed brakes and wheel brakes used [reverse thrust not considered].
The landing distance increased 15% if landing runway on wet or slippery

Typically a weight penalty is taken when the runway is wet or when the visibility is low.

Maximum Structural Landing Weight - The aircraft maximum certified landing gross weight is set by
the manufacturer based on structural considerations.

Structural Limit -The aircraft maximum certified take-off gross weight is set by the manufacturer
based on structural considerations.
What is the 'Landing Climb Weight Limit'?
Landing Climb Weight Limit - [Go-around in approach configuration with all engines] - Typically not
limiting. - In the landing configuration a go-around can accomplished with:

 Three engines operating.

 Thrust that is available 8 seconds after throttle movement from idle to take-off position.
 Climb gradient not less than 3.2%. Climb speed not to exceed 1.3 VS.

What is the 'Climb Weight Limit'?

Climb Weight Limit [or Landing Performance Weight Limit] - ability to perform a missed approach with
loss of the most critical engine and:
Go-around thrust on remaining engines, gear up, flaps at go-around setting.
Go-around speed:

 < 1.5 VS [go-around flap setting

 < 1.1 VS [approach flap setting]
 Minimum climb gradient of 2.1% for 2-engine, 2.4% for 3-engine, and 2.7% for 4-engine
aircraft
 This is a function of weight, temperature, pressure, and engine bleeds as well as approach flap
position

What is the 'Landing Distance'?

Landing distance - begins at 50' over where the effective runway length begins, and continues to the
point where the aircraft touches down and then continues on to the point at which the aircraft comes
to a complete stop using maximum braking and speed brakes only. No credit was taken for reverse
thrust, which can be used for an additional margin of stopping ability.
Approach Climb Weight Limit [or Landing Performance Weight Limit] - ability to perform a missed
approach with loss of the most critical engine and:
Go-around thrust on remaining engines, gear up, flaps at go-around setting
Go-around speed:

 < 1.5 VS [go-around flap setting]

 < 1.1 VS [approach flap setting]

Minimum climb gradient of 2.1% for 2-engine, 2.4% for 3-engine, and 2.7% for 4-engine aircraft
This is a function of weight, temperature, pressure, and engine bleeds as well as approach flap
position.
Landing Climb Weight Limit [Go-around in approach configuration with all engines] - Typically not
limiting. - In the landing configuration a go-around can accomplished with:

 Three engines operating.

 Thrust that is available 8 seconds after throttle movement from idle to take-off position.
 Climb gradient not less than 3.2%. Climb speed not to exceed 1.3 VS.

Describe the Maximum Landing Weight...

Maximum Landing Weight - at the Destination and Alternate Airports. The allowable weight for take-off
from the departure point must be limited so as to comply with the following approach climb limit, the
landing performance limit and the structural limit at the destination airport assuming a normal rate of
burn of fuel to destination without dumping fuel.
What is the Enroute Performance Limit?
To establish the maximum allowable gross weight for any given flight, the performance of the airplane
must be related to the terrain over which it is to be flown. Consideration must be taken of the
possibility of engine failure en route and the resulting performance deterioration, to effect a safe
landing after either one or two engine failures. The aircraft in the event of a loss of an engine at any
point enroute over mountainous terrain should be able to achieve a landing at an enroute or drift
down alternate. Basically, the route over the mountainous area must be segmented so that each
segment, in the event of an engine failure, offers an adequate airport as an alternate such that
descent can be made with 2000' obstacle clearance within 5 miles either side until arrival at the
alternate with a positive climb capability 1500' above the airport [all at METO power and assuming
100 kts headwinds no matter which direction to the alternate airport].

Method 1 Dispatch - at that weight, the aircraft has adequate engine out capability to clear all
obstacles within 5 nm by 1000' with a 300 fpm climb rate at that clearing altitude.
Method 2 Dispatch - at that weight, the aircraft with engine out cannot clear all obstacles, but by
dividing the route up into several segments, on each segment there is an adequate airport with
alternate weather minimums to use in case of engine loss during that segment.
Please explain 'Gross Take-Off Flight Path'...
From 400' height to the end of the final segment must have a climb gradient of not less than 1.5%.
The Net Take-Off Flight Path - Is a profile starting at reference zero, having a gradient 0.9% below the
actual take-off flight path. The net flight path must clear all obstacles by 35' vertically or 200'
horizontally within the airport boundary and 300' horizontally outside the airport boundary. Since
there is no means for a pilot to determine his gradient of climb while in flight, it is important that he
observe quite closely the prescribed techniques and airspeeds, particularly during the early stages of
flight, to assure obstacle and terrain clearance in the event of engine failure.
Clutter and Take-Off Performance. What do you know about it?
Most 121 operations allow take-off with certain depths of standing water, slush [1/8"], or snow [wet
1/4" or dry 1"]. These are referred to as clutter and affect both V1 as well as maximum weight you
may take-off with. Clutter has greater and greater effect as the aircraft builds up speed. Clutter will
make it harder to stop during an abort due to the slippery runway and will slow acceleration for the
take-off due to the drag of the bow wave and the tires. It may also affect the climb limit on some
aircraft where cycling of the gear is required after take-off. To compensate for clutter, both a weight
reduction and a V1 reduction are required.
How does Obstacle Clearance affect the Performance Calculation?
The effective length of a runway may also be reduced by the presence of obstacles in the takeoff flight
path. The takeoff gross weight of the airplane must be limited so that all obstacles not cleared by at
least 300 feet horizontally will be cleared vertically by at least 35' by the "net" flight path. The "net"
flight path for takeoff is derived by subtracting 0.9% gradient from the actual climb out path the
airplane is capable of flying, thus producing conservative data.
What is the effect of wind when calculating T/O performance?
The effect of a headwind in shortening the takeoff distance may be considered, but in doing so, only
one-half of the wind component parallel to the runway may be used. For a downwind takeoff, 150% of
the reported tailwind must be taken into account. Additional conservatism is provided in that wind
data is measured 33ft resp. 10m above the runway, whereas the effective wind at runway level will be
somewhat less due to ground friction, obstacles and so on. Since this is automatically built into Airport
Analyses and performance charts, crews need use only the reported wind.
The runway gradient (slope), how does it affect the a/c perf.?
Account must be taken for the effect of runway slope on acceleration, stopping distance and climb out
to 35'. Uphill grades increase the ground run to reach takeoff speed, but improve stopping distance;
overall, more distance is required to reach the 35' elevation. The reverse is true of down grades.
What is the 'Effective Takeoff Length'?
Effective Takeoff Length - In determining the effective length for takeoff of any particular runway,
many factors require consideration: Runway Length - Normally, the length available will be limited to
the paved area of the runway. In some cases, however, an area at the far end of a given runway may
be designated as a "stopway" which can be used for rollout in the event a takeoff is aborted. Also,
some runways may have areas beyond the far end designated as a "clearway plane" which will provide
obstacle clearance while accelerating to a safe climb speed while achieving 35'.
What is the Take-Off Runway Limit?
Takeoff Runway Limit - In determining the maximum allowable gross weight for takeoff for any given
runway, the performance of the airplane must be related to the dimensions of the airport; that is, the
required takeoff distance for the gross weight must not exceed the effective takeoff length available.
= f [p, T, engine bleeds, wind, runway slope, clutter, with aircraft components in correct working
order according to the MEL except that the most critical engine is lost at V1]
The maximum Take-Off Weight, with what does it have to comply?
Maximum Take-Off Weight - the lowest of 5 possibilities In order to achieve compliance with the
regulation, the take-off gross weight for any given flight must not exceed the lowest of the maximum
weights allowed for:
  Compliance with takeoff runway requirements

Compliance with takeoff climb requirements

 Compliance with en route performance requirements [drift-down in mountainous areas]
 Compliance with maximum landing weight taking into account normal fuel burnout enroute
and figuring the most restrictive of the Landing Runway Limit, the Approach Climb Limit,
the Landing Climb, and the Maximum Structural Design Landing Limit
 Maximum Structural Design Take-off Limit of the airplane

What is a clearway, what is a stopway?

Clearway - is an area beyond the runway no narrower than 500' wide. The clearway is expressed in
terms of a clearway extending from the end of the runway with an upward slope not exceeding
1.25%, above which no object nor any portion of the terrain protrudes, except that threshold lights
may protrude above the plane if their height above the end of the runway is not greater than 26" and
if they are located to each side of the runway.
Note: For the purposes of establishing takeoff distances and takeoff runs, the clearway plane is
considered to be the takeoff surface.
Clearway Plane - is the clearway beyond the end of the runway, up to 1/2 the length of the runway,
that can be used in the accelerate-go part of the take-off during which time the aircraft [after losing
the most critical engine] accelerates to V2 and reaches 35'. Therefore, the take-off distance is
considered to be 1 1/2 times the length of the runway. Of course, the ground roll portion of the take-
off must not exceed the length of the runway.
Stopway - is an area beyond the runway, not less in width than the width of the runway, centrally
located about the extended centreline of the runway, and designated by the airport authorities for use
in decelerating the airplane during an aborted takeoff. To be considered as such, a stopway must be
capable of supporting the airplane during an aborted take-off without inducing structural damage to
the airplane.
Note: The use of clearways and stop ways [where existing] are allowed by the regulations, but used
only in special cases by the airlines.
Tell me about net/gross climb gradients.
Gross Gradient is the demonstrated ratio expressed as a percentage of [Change of Height] /
[Horizontal Distance Travelled]
For Instance: A climb gradient of 3.0% means an increase in altitude of 3' for every 100' forward
travel.
Net Gradient is the demonstrated gross climb gradient reduced by the decrement required by
regulation.
What is balanced/unbalanced field length?
Balanced Field Length - The condition where the take-off distance or accelerate-go distance is equal
to the accelerate-stop distance. This distance must not exceed the length of the runway. It is
determined by the selection of V1 speed. For a given set of ambient conditions and aircraft weight,
only one value of V1 would cause these distances to be equal and also less than or equal to the
associated runway length. This is called the balanced field length and is the minimum required for
take-off. Selecting a lower value for V1 reduces the accelerate-stop distance, but increases the
accelerate-go distance, whereas the selection of a higher V1 would have the exact opposite effect.
Most operations calculate take-off performance based on balanced field length [i.e. stop-ways and
clearway planes are not utilized in most cases].
Unbalanced Field Length - The condition where the take-off distance and accelerate-stop distance are
not equal. Perhaps we are using a stopway in the calculation of the accelerate-stop distance and a
clearway plane in the calculation of the accelerate-go distance. Unbalanced field calculations are use in
2 cases where the stopping ability is degraded due to clutter or anti-skid inoperative. In these cases,
the maximum runway limit weight is first decreased to give a balanced field distance that is much
shorter than the runway length. Therefore, both the accelerate-stop and accelerate-go distance will be
shorter. Next, the V1 is reduced to make the accelerate-stop shorter than the accelerate-go distance,
thus unbalancing the field to the side of safety for stopping.
Tell me about the anti-skid operation
Anti-skid brakes give maximum stopping capability in the case of an aborted take-off. If they are
inoperative, V1 as well as the maximum take-off weight will be affected. Also, operation in clutter is
prohibited. Anti-skid braking action provides two protective features:

Anti-skid Protection - Tacho generators are used on each main wheel to sense wheel rotation speed at
any given moment. A computer is used to analyse the rotational speed data from moment to moment
and knows when the maximum rate of deceleration that would send that wheel into a skid is
exceeded. Before this rate is exceeded, the correct amount of the hydraulic brake pressure is released
to the hydraulic return line to prevent the deceleration of the wheel rotation to be too great. This
occurs despite the fact that the pilot is pressing the master brake pistons with the toe brakes as hard
as he can. This protection engages at about the rotational speed that gives 10-12 kts of forward
motion of the aircraft.

Locked Wheel Protection - Each tacho generator for a wheel on the right side is paired with a tacho
generator for a wheel on the left side of the aircraft. The computer compares these two tacho
generator outputs continuously. If the wheel on one side goes through a puddle, the braking will easily
bring that wheel to a complete stop causing hydroplaning despite the first protective feature. The
locked wheel protection will remove all hydraulic pressure from the locked wheel that is stopped so
that it is not "locked" by braking action when it reaches the other side of the puddle, protecting
against tire damage.
What is the Take-off Climb Limit?
The maximum weight for take-off from any given runway may be limited to allow airplane
performance equal to certain minimum climb gradients on two engines, assuming the critical engine to
have failed at V1 speed and the take-off continued. For the climb it is assumed the aircraft will not be
banked before reaching 50' and thereafter no more than 15 degrees AOB until completion of climb
segments.
Definition: The Take-Off Path
The Take-Off Path - is the accelerate-go path to 35' plus the flight path climb profile on a take-off
with the most critical engine failure occurring at V1 speed. The path extends from the standing start to
a point in the take-off where a height of 1,500' above the take-off surface is reached [jet airport traffic
pattern altitude], or to where transition from take-off to en route configuration is complete, whichever
is higher. For performance specifications, the FAA divides the climb into only 3 segments, gear down
climb, gear up climb and final segment. However, the manufacturers divide the take-off flight path
further into 5 segments for the certification process:

1st Segment - Starts at 35' height [reference zero] and ends when gear retraction is complete. The
weight may not be in excess of that which will allow 0.3% climb gradient.

2nd Segment - Starts when gear retraction is completed and ends at height of not less than 400'
above the take-off surface [most operations use 800' however]. The weight may not be in excess of
that which will allow a climb 2.4% for 2 engine, 2.7% for 3 engine and 3% for 4 engine gradient with
the remaining engines at take-off thrust, the flaps at the take-off setting and the airplane flown at
V2airspeed

3rd Segment - Starts at not less than 400' height [most operations use 800' however] and continues
until flaps are retracted. The climb gradient must be at least 1.2% for 2 engine, 1.5% for 3 engine
and 1.7% for 4 engine.

4th Segment - Starts at end of flap retraction and continues until acceleration to V2 + 50 knots where
the thrust is reduced after the 5 minute maximum time limit at take-off thrust is reached. The climb
gradient must be at least 1.5%.

Final Segment - Extends to a gross height of 1500' AFE [above field elevation] or more, at a constant
speed of V2 + 50 knots, flaps up, with maximum continuous thrust. Most use 3000' or 2500' the
typical top of class D airspace.
Definition: Required Take-Off Distance
Required Take-Off Distance - is the longer of the following distances:

3 Engine Take-Off Distance: The total of the distance required to:

- Accelerate with all engines at take-off thrust to 35' height above the runway at V2 +10
- Plus a 15% margin.

Accelerate-Stop Distance: The total of the distance required to:

 Accelerate, with all engines at take-off thrust from a standing start to Take-off Decision
Speed, V1
 Make a transition from take-off to idle thrust, decelerate, and;
 Bring the airplane to a full stop within the length of the runway [or runway plus stopway]
remaining.

Note: In the certification tests that were conducted to determine the accelerate-stop distance,
stopping distance was based on the drag from the take-off wing flap setting, speed brakes, and
maximum wheel braking. No credit was taken for reverse thrust, which can be used for an additional
margin of stopping ability. Certification does not take into effect the runway composition or
contamination with reverted rubber, or crosswind considerations.

2 Engine Take-Off Distance: The total of the distance required to:

  Accelerate to V1, as above;
 Continue with one engine inoperative to a rotation speed VR at which time the nose wheel is
raised off the ground, then;
 the aircraft must leave the runway by the end of the runway, and:
 Climb out through 35' height achieving the take-off safety speed V2.

It can be seen from the above that, except for an aborted take-off, the Take-off Distance consists of
two parts, a ground run and an air distance. The ground run is the distance from the start of take-off
to lift-off. The air distance may be either:

 The distance required to reach a height of 35' after lifting off with one engine inoperative
Or
 115% of the distance required to reach a height of 35' from the lift-off point with all three
engines operating.
Overview Thrust Definitions
T - Thrust. Thrust actually decreases as airspeed increases. You may add thrust with throttle
advancement to reset the maximum allowed as you accelerate down the runway.

Maximum Take-off Thrust - Maximum set by the manufacturer the crew calculates this before each
take-off - it has a 5-minute limit that is mandatory.

EPR - Engine Pressure Ratio - PT7 / PT2 [total pressure in the exhaust / total pressure in the intake] -
used by some engine manufacturers to set thrust

N1 - The rotational speed [in % of maximum designed] of the low-pressure compressor of the jet
engine - these engines idle at approximately 50% N1. - Used by other engine manufacturers to set
thrust since near the high RPM range, the thrust vs. N1 curve is approximately a straight line.

Flat Rating of jet engines - jet engine thrust has a relationship with temperature that is not strictly
linear. Therefore, they are certified to guarantee delivery of the maximum thrust up to a certain
temperature specified in the aircraft limits section.

Reduced Thrust Take-off - On cold days, with a light load, and when using a long runway, the
maximum thrust will give more than sufficient acceleration and climb out capability for the weight of
the aircraft. The take-off thrust setting may be reduced to save on engine wear by selecting a higher
temperature by which to calculate the thrust setting. This higher temperature is called the assumed
temperature and would serve to increase the balanced field length to the length of the runway.
Analysis shows that using reduced thrust for take-off has the effect of increasing the time for the take-
off and therefore slightly increases fuel usage. However, the advantage of reduction in engine failures
and reduction in overall engine operating costs are far more significant. A 1% average thrust
reduction yields a 5% reduction in engine operating cost as well as failure rate! Remember for safety
sake, that beyond V1, if the engine fails, you should increase thrust to maximum for best performance.

Note: Reduced thrust is never used when the antiskid or any other component required for stopping
ability is inoperative or if clutter exists that would decrease acceleration or create a slippery runway
for stopping.

METO Thrust - maximum except for take-off thrust also known as MCT or maximum continuous
thrust. This is the thrust that the engine is reduced to after flaps are raised at the first power
reduction. It is a mandatory maximum developed by the engineers.
Maximum Climb Thrust - below METO thrust and intended to provide required climb performance
while maximalising engine life - Climb thrust is usually set at 1500 - 3000' AGL on the climb out after
the final segment. - A recommended setting by the manufacturer.

Maximum Cruise Thrust - below Maximum Climb Thrust and intended to provide required cruise
performance while maximalising engine life - a recommended setting by the manufacturer.
Rejected Take-off Brake Cooling Chart...
For any aborted take-off, the wheel tire assembly will be heated up. This chart provides for a cooling
time to allow heat to dissipate before another take-off is attempted so that the faceable plugs will not
reach their activation temperature or tires will explode. Faceable plugs are several channels arranged
circumferentially around the wheel and filled with a solder-like material that is normally hard, but
which turns to liquid at it's peak temperature and flows out of the channel allowing the nitrogen to exit
the tire.
Overview Speed Definitions
CAS - Calibrated Air Speed is the indicated airspeed of an aircraft, corrected for position and
instrument error. Calibrated airspeed is equal to true airspeed in standard atmosphere at sea level.

EAS - Equivalent Air Speed is the calibrated airspeed of an aircraft corrected for adiabatic
compressible flow for the particular altitude. Equivalent airspeed is equal to calibrated airspeed in
standard atmosphere at sea level. The closer to the Transonic Region of airflow [0.75 - 1.25 Mach],
the less the air around the aircraft acts like an incompressible fluid as in subsonic flow.

IAS - Indicated Air Speed is the speed of an aircraft as shown on its Pitot static airspeed indicator
calibrated to reflect standard atmosphere adiabatic compressible flow at sea level, uncorrected for
airspeed system errors.

VLOF - Lift Off Speed is the airspeed at which the airplane first becomes airborne.

VMBE - Maximum Brake Energy Speed is the highest speed from which the airplane [at maximum
certified take-off gross weight and unfavourable conditions of temperature, pressure & winds] can be
brought to a stop without exceeding the maximum energy absorption capability of the brakes.
Maximum brake energy speed is compared in take-off planning to V1 speed. The certification process
consists of long taxi with numerous stops to warm up the brakes and then an aborted take-off when
reaching the proposed VMBE. The brakes catching fire is OK as long as the fire is contained in the wheel
wells for the first 5 minutes. Presumably, the fire trucks can be used to put it out after that.
Remember that the wheels are made of a magnesium alloy with the brakes recessed in one of the
wheel halves and the flexing of the tire sidewalls during wheel rotation also builds up heat.

VMCA - Minimum Control Speed, Air is the minimum airspeed at which, when the critical engine
[with a jet like the DC-10 or B-727, this would be either wing mounted engine] is suddenly made
inoperative, it is possible to recover control of the airplane with that engine still inoperative, and
maintain straight f1ight, either with zero yaw, or with an angle of bank of not more than 5 degrees
with the remaining engines at take-off thrust. VMCA may not exceed 1.2VS.

VMCG - Minimum Control Speed, Ground is the minimum airspeed on the ground at which the take-
off can be continued using aerodynamic controls alone with the critical engine failed and the remaining
engines at take-off thrust. Nose wheel steering [NWS] is not allowed in the determining of VMCG.

VMU - Minimum Unstick Speed is the airspeed at and above which the airplane can safely lift off the
ground and continue the take-off and not display any hazardous characteristics. This speed is below
VR.

VS - Stalling Speed is the stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed at which the airplane is
controllable.
VS0 - Stalling Speed in Landing Configuration is the stalling speed or the minimum steady flight
speed in the landing configuration.

V1 - Take-Off Decision Speed is the speed at which when an engine failure is recognized, the
distance to continue the take-off to a height of 35' will not exceed the usable take-off distance, or the
distance to bring the airplane to a full stop will not exceed the accelerate-stop distance available.

 V1 will not be less than VMCG or

 Greater than VR
Or
 Greater than maximum brake energy speed [VMBE]

Note: this is based on only average piloting skills and the call-out by the pilot not flying is usually
made 2-3 kts early to account for reaction time of the average pilot.

VR - Rotation Speed is the speed at which rotation of the airplane is initiated by lifting the nose
wheel off the ground. VR occurs before lift-off, but is selected to provide lift-off and climb speeds with
safe margins above the minimum control and stall speeds and will allow reaching V2 before reaching a
height of 35' above the take-off surface. By definition VR cannot be less than:

 V1 speed, or
 105% of minimum control speed in the air [VMCA], or
 A margin above the minimum speed at which the airplane can be made to lift off the ground
and continue the take-off without displaying any hazardous characteristics. This speed is
referred to as minimum up-stick speed, [VMU].

V2 - Take-off Safety Speed is the speed at which the airplane should be flown after lift-off in the
event an engine fails at or subsequent to reaching V1 speed during the takeoff run. This speed
provides the necessary climb gradient for obstacle clearance with an engine failed. V2 must be
attained at or prior to the 35' height. By definition it must not be less than:

 110% of the minimum control speed in the air [VMCA], or

 120% of the idle thrust stall speed with flaps at the take-off setting.

In the case of the four-engine take-off, the speed resulting at the 35' height will be higher than V2 due
to the greater acceleration available from the same rotation speed used to establish the three-engine
take-off distance. Thus, if an engine fails during the take-off run, and the take-off is continued, the
pilot is assumed to fly as close to V2 speed [never below] as possible. If no engine failure occurs, he
may allow the airplane to climb out at higher speeds.

V2+10 - the target speed for a normal takeoff [without the loss of an engine]

VREF - Landing Reference Speed is the minimum CAS at the 50' height in a normal landing. This
speed is equal to 1.3 times the stall speed in the landing configuration [VSO].
Volcanic ash encounters...
Despite ongoing avoidance efforts, operators can still experience volcanic ash encounters. Guidance on
the operational issues surrounding volcanic ash is divided into three aspects: avoidance, recognition,
and procedures. The following information is general; flight crews should refer to their respective
company's operating manuals for details.
Avoidance
Preventing flight into potential ash environments requires planning in these areas: Dispatch needs to
provide flight crews with information about volcanic events, such as potentially eruptive volcanoes and
known ash sightings, that could affect a particular route.
Dispatch also needs to identify alternate routes to help flight crews avoid airspace containing volcanic
ash. Flight crews should stay upwind of volcanic ash and dust. Flight crews should note that airborne
weather radar is ineffective for distinguishing ash and small dust particles.

Recognition
Indicators that an airplane is penetrating volcanic ash are related to odour, haze, changing engine
conditions, airspeed, pressurization, and static discharges.

Odour
When encountering a volcanic ash cloud, flight crews usually notice a smoky or acrid odour that can
smell like electrical smoke, burned dust, or sulphur.
Haze
Most flight crews, as well as cabin crew or passengers, see a haze develop within the airplane. Dust
can settle on surfaces.
Changing engine conditions
Surging, torching from the tailpipe, and flameouts can occur. Engine temperatures can change
unexpectedly, and a white glow can appear at the engine inlet.
Airspeed
If volcanic ash fouls the Pitot tube, the indicated airspeed can decrease or fluctuate erratically.
Pressurization
Cabin pressure can change, including possible loss of cabin pressurization.
Static discharges
A phenomenon similar to St. Elmo's fire or glow can occur. In these instances, blue-coloured sparks
can appear to flow up the outside of the windshield or a white glow can appear at the leading edges of
the wings or at the front of the engine inlets.

Procedures
The following nine procedures are general recommendations. Each operator's flight operations
manuals will include more specific directions.
Reduce thrust to idle immediately By reducing thrust, engines may suffer less build-up of molten
debris on turbine blades and hot-section components. Idle thrust allows engines to continue producing
electrical power, bleed air for pressurization, and hydraulic power for airplane control.
Turn the auto throttles off
This prevents the engines from increasing thrust above idle. Ash debris in the engine can result in
reduced surge margins, and limiting the number of thrust adjustments improves the chances of
engine recovery.
Exit the ash cloud as quickly as possible
A 180-deg turn out of the ash cloud using a descending turn is the quickest exit strategy. Many ash
clouds extend for hundreds of miles, so assuming that the encounter will end shortly can be false.
Climbing out of the ash could result in increased engine debris build-up as the result of increased
temperatures. The increased engine build-up can cause total thrust loss.
Turn on engine and wing anti-ice devices and all air-conditioning packs
These actions improve the engine stall margins by increasing the flow of bleed air.
If possible, start the auxiliary power unit [APU]
The APU can power systems in the event of a multiple-engine power loss. It can also be used to
restart engines through the use of APU bleed air.
If volcanic dust fills the flight deck, the crew may need to use oxygen
Use flight deck oxygen at the 100 percent setting. Manual deployment of the passenger oxygen
system is not required because it will deploy automatically if the cabin altitude exceeds 14,000 ft.
Turn on the continuous ignition
Confirm that auto start is on, if available. In the event that the engines flame out or stall, use
appropriate procedures to restart the engines. During restart, the engines may take longer than
normal to reach idle thrust due to the combined effects of high altitude and volcanic ash ingestion. If
an engine fails to start, try restarting it again immediately. Flight crews should remember that the
airplane may be out of the air start envelope if the encounter occurs during cruise.
Monitor engine exhaust gas temperature (EGT)
Because of potential engine debris build-up, the EGT can climb excessively. The flight crew should
prevent EGT accedences. Shut down the engine and restart it if the EGT is approaching limits similar
to a hung start.
Fly the airplane by monitoring airspeed and pitch attitude
If necessary, follow the procedure for flight with unreliable airspeed.
What is the biggest hazard in heavy rain on final approach?
Reduced visibility
Possible windshear
What causes saturation?

 Cooling temp to dew point

 Evaporations brings dew point to temp [adds moisture to air]

Visibility Definitions....
Visibility: the ability to see prominent unlighted objects by day and prominent lighted objects by night,
expressed in nm.
Flight visibility: average forward horizontal distance measured in nm from the cockpit in flight
Prevailing visibility: greatest forward horizontal visibility, SM, equal or exceeded throughout at least
half of the horizon circle, which need not be continuous
Runway Visual Range: horizontal distance a pilot will see by looking down the runway from the
approach end
Slant Range visibility: distance on final approach when you can see the runway Obscuring
Phenomena: any collection of particles, which will reduce horizontal visibility
Ceiling: height AGL to the lowest broken or overcast layer, or the vertical visibility into obscuring
phenomena
Vertical visibility: distance seen directly upward from the ground level into obscuring phenomena
What causes greatest change in Altimeter, Air Speed, and Rate of Climb?
Icing is greater than pressure
Affects are due to Pitot-Static clogs
What kind of ice does freezing rain cause?
Clear ice...
At what temp does structural icing occur?
Below 0ºC
What weather conditions form frost?

 Little or no wind
 Lack of clouds
 OAT below freezing
 Dew point within 5ºC of air temp

Define wind shear...

Sudden change in wind direction and or speed over a short distance.
What is mechanical turbulence?
Any irregular terrain. Mountains, buildings, trees
What is convective instability?
Dry air over Moist - Moist air over Dry
What weather conditions form tornadoes?

 Marked convective instability

 Pronounced horizontal wind shear
 Rapid moving cold fronts or squall lines
  Strong convergence

Order of precedence when flying around thunderstorm

 Go around
 Fly over the top
 Fly below
 Fly through the lower 1/3

Know requirements for thunderstorm development...

Lifting [most likely convergence]
Unstable air
Moisture content in the air
Building clouds through the freezing level
What are the worst hazards of squall lines or thunderstorms?
Primary: Turbulence
Secondary: Hail
What are the general conditions of occlusions?
Combination of warm and cold fronts
Describe the two types of occlusions
Occlusions have three air masses and two fronts.
Left side is behind, right side is ahead.
Three parts of air mass classification
First is source region. [Arctic, Polar, Tropical, Equatorial]
Second is surface of their source region. [Maritime or Continental]
Third is temp [cold or warm]
Temp relationship with air and land
Air temp is relative to surface below it
Summer time, air masses are cold
Winter air masses are warm
Define air mass
A large body of air that has essentially uniform temperature and moisture conditions, in a horizontal
plan.
What are the three types of stability?
Stable: Air is pushed up until lifting action is removed, air is colder than the surrounding air, so it falls
to its original position

Unstable: Air is pushed up until lifting action is removed, air is warmer than the surrounding air, so it
is pushed up and continues to rise

Neutral: Air is pushed up until lifting action is removed, air is the same temp as the surrounding air
and therefore it remains in place

Flight Conditions Stable Atmosphere Unstable Atmosphere

Cloud type Stratus Cumulus
Turbulence Smooth Rough
Visibility Poor Good (outside cloud)
Winds Steady Gusty
Precipitation Steady Showery
Icing Rime Clear
Flight Conditions Stable Atmosphere Unstable Atmosphere
Air Mass Warm Cold
Front Warm Cold

What are the 4 lifting actions and their differences?

 Convergence: winds meet, cause air to move vertically

 Orographic: wind runs into terrain, so it is lifted
 Frontal: front moves in, air is pushed up
 Thermal: sun heats land, land gives off heat, warm air rises

Two types of weather conditions that cause icing

Supercooled water [freezing rain]
Wet snow
Difference between relative humidity and specific humidity
Relative Humidity measures the percent of saturated air or what percentage of the bucket is filled with
water.
Specific Humidity measures how much water vapour is contained per unit mass of air or how much
water is in the bucket.
Humidity definitions...
Relative Humidity: percentage of saturated air
Specific Humidity: Ratio of water vapour per unit mass of air. The higher the dew point the higher the
specific humidity.
What two forces cause winds to travel parallel to isobars?

 Coriolis Force: bends gradient winds to the right, do not affect surface wind because of friction
 Pressure Gradient Force: initiating force for all winds

What kinds of drifts are associated with a high-pressure area?

High-pressure area, winds flow clockwise. Fly into a high, you get right cross wind and left drift.
What 3 elements are associated with moisture?
Clouds
Humidity
Precipitation
Define the tropopause...

 Transition zone between the troposphere and the stratosphere

 Temperature is isothermal with altitude
 An abrupt change in rate of temperature decrease with increasing altitude marks this
boundary
 It’s a region not a layer

Where can Rime Ice occur?

Rime ice can be expected in stratiform clouds since vertical currents are not strong enough to support
large droplets.
What is Rime Ice?
Rime ice is a milky white, opaque, and granular deposit of ice formed through the rapid freezing of
small super-cooled water droplets. Rime ice is most likely to occur at temperatures of –10 to –20.
Where does clear ice occur?
Clear ice occurs in cumuliform clouds with appropriate temperatures where vertical currents can
support large drops.
When will clear ice normally occur at?
Clear ice normally occurs at temperatures between 0C and –10C in, but may occur with
temperatures as cold as –25. Clear icing is the most severe form of icing.
What happens to ice formation with an increase in airspeed?
As airspeed is increased more water is encountered over a given period of time and therefore the rate
of deposit is increased.
What factors affect the rate of ice accumulation on an aircraft?
The following items affect the rate of ice accumulation on an aircraft:
The size and number of water drops in a given volume of air, airfoil thickness, and airspeed.
Since thick airfoils have a larger deflective force they collect ice more slowly than thin airfoils, which
have a smaller deflective force. Droplet size also is a factor. Smaller drops have a greater tendency to
follow the air stream and larger droplets resist this deflecting force.
When may freezing rain be encountered?
Freezing rain or drizzle may be encountered in the clear air below a cloud layer.
When may structural ice form?
Structural Ice may form when the free-air temperature is 0C or colder.
What are the three requirements for the formation of icing?
There three requirements for the formation of structural icing are as follows: Outside air temperature
below freezing, aircraft skin temperature below freezing, and visible moisture.
How does Wet Snow Form?
Wet Snow occurs at temperatures just below freezing and can come about as the result of turbulence
in the air and the resulting mixture of super cooled moisture.
What is super cooled water?
Super Cooled water is liquid water found at air temperatures below freezing. Super cooled water
droplets are numerous in clouds at temperatures between 0C and –15C with decreasing amounts at
colder temperatures.
What are the cumulative effects of icing?
Lift decreases, weight increases, Drag increases, Thrust Decreases, Fuel consumption increases, and
stall speed increases.
One rule for Turbulent Flight:
Trim the aircraft for level flight at the recommended turbulent air penetration airspeed. Severe
turbulence may cause large and rapid variations in indicated airspeed. Don’t chase airspeed.
Discuss Wind Shear Turbulence.
Wind Shear Turbulence is defined as a sudden change in wind direction and or speed over a short
distance. The greater the change in wind speed and/or direction in a given direction, the more severe
the turbulence. These turbulent wind shear flight conditions are frequently encountered in the vicinity
of the jet stream where large shears in both the horizontal and vertical planes are found as well as I
association with land and sea breezes, fronts, inversions, and thunderstorms.
What are the rules that should be applied when mountain wave turbulence has been
forecasted?

 Avoid the turbulence if possible by flying around the areas where wave conditions exist. If this
is not feasible, fly at a level that is at least 50% higher than the height of the highest
mountain range along your flight path. This procedure will now keep the aircraft out of
turbulence, but provides a margin of safety if a strong downdraft is encountered.
 Avoid the rotor, lenticular, and cap clouds since they contain intense turbulence and strong
updrafts and down drafts.
 Approach the mountain range at a 45-degree angle, so that a quick turn can be made away
from the ridge if a severe downdraft is encountered.
 Do not place too much confidence in your pressure altimeter reading near mountain peaks.
They may indicate altitudes, which are more than 2500 feet higher than your true altitude.
 Penetrate turbulent areas at air speeds recommended for your aircraft.

Where is the extreme turbulence found when near mountains?

Severe turbulence can be frequently found from the surface to the tropopause and 150 miles
downwind when the winds are greater than 50 knots at the mountaintop. Extreme turbulence is
usually found at low levels on the leeward side of the mountain in or near the rotor and cap clouds
when the winds are 50 knots or greater at the mountaintop. Moderate turbulence often can be
experienced out to 300 miles under the previously stated conditions.
What are rotor clouds, cap clods, and Lenticular Clouds?
The rotor clouds forms at a lower level and is generally found at about the same height as the
mountain ridge. The cap cloud usually obscures both sides of the mountain peak. The lenticular clouds
like the rotor and cap clouds are stationary in position.
What does the strength and magnitude of Mechanical Turbulence Depend on?
The strength and magnitude of mechanical turbulence depends on the speed of the wind, the
roughness of the terrain, and the stability of the air.
How does Mechanical turbulence Work?
When the air near the surface of the earth flows over obstructions, such as irregular terrain, or
buildings, the normal horizontal wind flow is disturbed and transformed into a complicated pattern of
eddies and other irregular air movements.
What is the worst thermal?
A ploughed field
How does Thermal Turbulence Work?
Vertical air movements resulting from convective currents develop in air, which is heated by contact
with a warm surface. This heating from below occurs when either cold air is moved over a warmer
surface, or the ground is strongly heated by solar radiation.
How can Turbulence be divided up?
Types of Turbulence can be divided according to causative factors: Thermal, mechanical, frontal,
large-scale wind shear.
What are the reporting term definitions?
Occasional: Less then 1/3 of the time.
Intermittent: 1/3 to 2/3rds of the time.
Continuous: More than 2/3rds of the time.
What are the four intensities of turbulence?
Light, Moderate, Severe, Extreme
Discuss actions within a storm
Once inside the storm, the pilot should let the plane ride out the updrafts and downdrafts and
concentrate on maintaining a level attitude. With power set to maintain the proper airspeed,
maintaining the same attitude will result in only minor airspeed variations. However, the aircraft’s
altitude may vary by thousands of feet. The rapidly changing pressure conditions within the storm will
result in unreliable indications and erratic variations in altitude, airspeed, and rate of climb
instruments. Since the attitude gyro is independent of the Pitot-static system, its indications should be
considered reliable.
How should Thunderstorms be avoided?
Fly around them
Fly over the top of the storm
Fly below the storm
If not possible to avoid the storm, fly through the lower 1/3 of the storm
What are some good cues about microbursts coming from departure and arrival reports?
Departure or arrival weather reports calling for gusty winds, heavy rain, or thunderstorms should be a
clue that a high potential for microburst activity exists.
What are the best sources of information?
PIREPS [Pilot Reports] and Weather Alerts are one of the best sources of information.
How does a LLWAS work?
For example, the Low Level Winds Shear Alert System [LLWAS] Measures the winds speed and
direction at several points on the ground and compares them with a reference sensor located near the
centre of the airfield.
What are the four methods of detection, and the three wind shear alert systems used?
4 methods of detection:

 Visual PIREPS, and weather reports

 Wind shear alert systems
 Doppler radar
 and LLWAS

What are the visual cues for a microburst?

Visual clues include virga, localized blowing dust, rain shafts with rain diverging away from the core of
the cell, roll clouds, and of course and indication of vivid lightning or tornado-like activity.
How long does a microburst last?
A microburst normally lasts from five to ten minutes after its diverging wind flow first hits the
earth’s surface.
What are the hazards associated with Thunderstorms?
Thunderstorms are accompanies by some or all of the following hazards: extreme turbulence, hail,
microburst, icing, lighting, and tornadoes. Turbulence and hail are the greatest hazards and are found
in the upper 2/3rds of a mature stage cell.
What happens to pressure when a storm approaches?
Large pressure changes can accompany thunderstorm formation.
What are the basic requirements for a formation of a thunderstorm?
The basic requirements for the formation of a thunderstorm [Cumulonimbus cloud] are as follows:
lifting action, unstable air, high moisture content, and a cloud building through the freezing level.
What sort of weather is associated with occluded fronts?
Since the occluded front is the result of meeting of a cold front and a warm front, the weather
associated with the occlusion will be a combination of both types of frontal weather. If an occlusion is
approaching from the east, you would first encounter warm front type weather which may extend for
several hundred miles to the east of the surface front. On the other hand, if it were approached from
the wet you would first encounter cold front type weather.
What does the widespread precipitation area ahead of a warm front often result in?
The widespread precipitation area ahead of a typical warm front often results in low stratus and the
formation of fog.
What is some extreme weather conditions associated with squall lines?
Squall lines contain severe weather conditions including the following: extreme turbulence, heavy rain,
lightning, icing, and frequently hail, and/or tornadoes.
What does the extent of cloudiness in cold air depend on?
The extent of the cloudiness in the cold air depends on the degree of stability and moisture content of
the cold air mass.
Discuss pressures with relation to fronts.
All fronts are located in troughs of low pressure and the lowest pressure will extend from the low
centre along this trough. Therefore, when a front approaches a station, or a pilot flies toward a front,
the pressure decreases. Pressure normally rises immediately following frontal passage. Because of this
pressure change, it is extremely important to obtain a new altimeter setting the vicinity of a front.
How do you locate and classify fronts?
Differences in the various properties of adjacent air masses, such as temperature, moisture, wind, and
pressure are used to locate and classify fronts.
Describe Maritime Tropical Cold Air as they move over the ground.
By the afternoon, these often build into towering cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds resulting in
scattered rain showers and thunderstorms.
What happens with air with high moisture content?
Due to the high moisture content of the air (Tropical Warm), condensation may result in fog, low
stratus, steady precipitation, or any combination of these.
Describe air masses flowing over ground, with heating and cooling.
If the air mass is warmer than the surface, it is cooled by contact with the cold ground, becomes more
stable, and is called a warm air mass. If the air mass is colder than the surface over which it is
moving, it is heated from below, resulting in convective currents and instability, and is called a cold air
mass.
Describe Maritime and Continental fronts.
Maritime has high moisture content, Continental has Low.
What is an adiabatic process?
An adiabatic process occurs when the temperature of a body of air changes without heat being added
or taken away. When a parcel of air is lifted in the atmosphere, it expands due to decreasing pressure.
Describe Lifted Air...
Lifted air that is colder than the surrounding air settles when the lifting action is removed since it is
denser. This indicates a stable condition. Lifted air that is warmer than the surround air continues to
rise when the lifting action is removed because it is less dense indicates an unstable condition.
Nimbostratus....
Nimbostratus clouds are dark massive cloud layers having a wet appearance and accompanied by
heavy steady precipitation such as rain or snow. This cloud is classified as a middle cloud.
Stratus
Form in layers with smooth bases and tops. They are grey in appearance when viewed from the
surface, and often cover the entire sky. The stable air that gives stratus clouds their layered
characteristics also inhibits the vertical spread of smoke, dust and haze particles and thus tends to
lower visibility. Precipitation, when occurring, is generally light steady rain or drizzle. Stratus clouds
are generally associated with smooth flight conditions.
Cumulonimbus
Large, dense towering clouds with cauliflower-like tops. The top portion of the cloud is often flattened
into an anvil shape or consists of cirrus formation resulting from ice crystals. Water droplets form the
major portion of the cloud, but ice crystals appear in the upper portions. Cumulonimbus and
thunderstorm are synonymous terms; they result in strong winds, lightning, and intermittent heavy
showery precipitation. The well-developed cumulonimbus may be the parent of the hailstorm.
What are the types of precipitation?
Drizzle, freezing drizzle, rain, freezing rain, hail, ice pellets, snow grains, snow.
What is Dew Point Depression?
Dew Point depression is the difference, in degrees, between the air temperature and the dew point
temperature. [When air temp equals dew point temp, saturation occurs].
What is Dew Point Temperature?
The temperature at which saturation occurs. It is also the temperature where moisture first starts to
condense on exposed surfaces forming dew. Dew point is an indication of, and is directly related to,
specific humidity.
What is Specific Humidity?
Specific humidity is the ratio of water vapour per unit mass of air, and is expressed as grams of water
per kilogram of air. For a particular temperature, there is a maximum specific humidity, or maximum
amount of water vapour that the air can hold. The higher the temperature, the more water vapour the
air can hold.
Explain Land Breeze.
At night, the circulation is reversed so that the air movement is from land to sea, producing an
offshore wind called the land breeze.
Explain Sea Breeze.
During the day, the pressure over the warm land becomes lower than that over the colder water. The
cool air over the water moves toward the lower pressure, forcing the warm air over land upward. The
resulting onshore wind is called a sea breeze. Sea breezes of 15 to 20 knots are not uncommon.
How does something get classified as a Jet Stream?
To be classified as a jet, it is generally accepted that the winds must be 50 knots or greater and the
core, area of maximum wind, must possess considerable length.
What is Buys Ballot’s Law?
This law states that if the wind is at your back, the area of lower pressure will be to your left.
Given a gradient wind calculate a surface wind.
Subtract 45 degrees.
What does surface friction do to the wind speed? How does this affect the Coriolis force?
Surface friction reduces the speed of the wind. Since magnitude of Coriolis force varies with the speed
of wind, a reduction in the wind speed by friction causes a reduction in the Coriolis force.
What direction and altitude do gradient winds flow?
Gradient winds flow parallel to the isobars and above 2000 AGL. Note: PGF and Coriolis force cause
gradient winds to travel parallel to the isobars.
Define Pressure Gradient
The rate of change in pressure with horizontal distance between a high and low-pressure area is called
pressure gradient. Large differences in pressure between horizontal points result in stronger pressure
gradient forces. This Pressure gradient force is the initiating force for all winds. Close spacing of
isobars indicates greater pressure gradients and higher wind speeds.
What are the factors that influence actual circulation?
This circulation is modified considerably by:

 The irregular distribution of oceans and continents

 The relative effectiveness of differing surfaces in transferring heat to the atmosphere Irregular
terrain
 Daily variations in temperature
 The changes of seasons
 And many other factors

What is circulation, and how is it created?

Circulation is the recurring movement of air relative to the earth’s surface. It is created primarily
by the large temperature difference between the tropics and the Polar Regions, and complicated by
uneven heating of the land and water areas by the sun.
How does air temperature relate to indicated altimeter reading?
If the air is colder than the standard atmosphere, the aircraft will be lower than the altimeter
indicates. If the air is warmer than standard, the aircraft will be higher than the altimeter indicates.
What are the pressure rules?
High to low, look out below
Low to high, plenty of sky
What is Density Altitude, and how is it found?
Density altitude is the altitude in the standard atmosphere what has the same density as the local air.
It is found by correcting the pressure altitude for non-standard temperature deviations.
What is pressure altitude?
Pressure altitude is the height above the standard datum plane of 1013Hpa when above 10,000 ft in
Australia.
What happens when in between isobars, especially when they are close together?
The rate of pressure change in a direction perpendicular to the isobars (horizontal distance) is called
the pressure gradient. The gradient is steep, or strong, when the isobars are close together, and is
shallow, or weak, when the isobars are far apart. Pressure gradient is the initiating force for all winds.
What is Sea Level Pressure?
Sea Level Pressure (SLP) is the pressure at mean sea level (MSL), measured directly at sea level or
calculated if the station is not at sea level. Station pressure is the atmospheric pressure at an airfield
or station.
What does pressure do with an increase in altitude?
Pressure, unlike temperature, always decreases with altitude.
Define an inversion.
An Inversion [inverted lapse rate] occurs when the temperature increases with an increase in altitude.
Define Lapse Rate. What is a steep, shallow, and isothermal lapse rate?
The change in atmospheric temperature with increasing altitude is called a lapse rate. The average or
standard lapse rate is 2ºC per 1000'. If the temperature decreases very rapidly with altitude [greater
than 3 Celsius], it is called a steep lapse rate. When the temperature decreases very gradually
[Between 1.5 and 3] it is called a shallow lapse rate, while no change with altitude is called an
isothermal lapse rate.
What is the horizontal transfer of heat? How is this normally accomplished?
Advection is the horizontal transfer of heat, normally by wind.
What is Convection?
Convection is the vertical transfer of heat.
What is Conduction?
Conduction is the transfer of heat from molecule to molecule by contact and it accounts for the
transfer of heat between the earth’s surface and the adjacent air.
What is the process by which energy is transferred through space in the form of
electromagnetic waves?
Radiation is the process by which energy is transferred through space in the form of electromagnetic
waves.
Define insolation.
Insolation is the total radiation reaching the earth’s surface and it is the primary source for all
weather phenomena on the earth.
What are the six primary flight hazards?
The six primary flight hazards are turbulence, thunderstorms, wind shear, icing, low ceilings, and low
visibility.
What are the six weather elements?
Weather, as a broad subject, is often classified as being composed of six weather elements:
Temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity, clouds, and precipitation. The last three are all
associated with moisture.
What is the percentage by volume of water vapour in the atmosphere?
The atmosphere also contains water vapour amounting to 0% to 5% by volume.
What Is the Stratosphere?
The stratosphere is characterized by increasing temperature with increasing altitude.
What is the tropopause? Why is this “boundary― significant?
An abrupt change in the rate of temperature decrease with increasing altitude marks the boundary,
called the tropopause.
What happens to the atmosphere with altitude? Where does most of the weight of the
atmosphere reside?
The atmosphere becomes less dense with altitude, and roughly 50% of it, by weight, lies below
18,000 ft, and 90 % within 53,000 feet. Within the troposphere, the temperature normally decreases
with increasing altitude.
The definitions of the alerts and the order in which
Fog forms when the relative humidity reaches 100%, and the air temperature tries to drop below the
dewpoint, causing the water vapour to condense. Fog is cloud in contact with the ground. It can form
in a number of ways, depending on how the cooling that caused the condensation occurred:

Radiation fog is formed by the cooling of land after sunset by thermal [infrared] radiation in calm
conditions with clear sky. The cool ground then produces condensation in the nearby air by
conduction. In perfect calm the fog layer can be less than a metre deep but turbulence can promote a
thicker layer [wind of 2-8kts will deepen the fog]. Radiation fog is generally associated with a high-
pressure system and will usually not persist long past sunrise.

Advection fog occurs when moist air passes over cool ground by advection [wind] and is cooled. This
form is most common at sea when tropical air encounters cooler higher-latitude waters. It is also
extremely common as a warm front passes over an area with significant snow pack.
Micro burst alerts and severe turbulence alerts
The definitions of the alerts and the order in which they are prioritised is as follows:
TDWR Microburst Alert (MBA*) [Loss of 30 knots or greater]
Terrain-Induced (TIWT*) [Windshear-loss of 30 knots or greater]
Terrain-Induced (TIWT) [Windshear-gain of 30 knots or greater]
Terrain-Induced (TIWT) [Severe Turbulence]
TDWR Windshear Alert (WSA*) [loss or gain of 15 to 30 kts]
Terrain-Induced (TIWT) [Windshear-loss or gain of 15 to 30kts]
Terrain-Induced (TIWT)

Moderate Turbulence:
No Alert

* MBA [Microburst Alert]

* TIWT [Terrain induced Windshear and turbulence]
* WSA [Windshear Alert]
Windshear and Turbulence Warning System [WTWS]
Hong Kong’s Chek Lap Kok Airport [VHHH] is located on partly reclaimed land adjacent to Lantau
Island, whose rugged terrain has a maximum elevation of nearly 3,280’. Consequently, aircraft
operating at the new airport may be affected by significant terrain-induced windshear and turbulence
under certain meteorological conditions.

In order to enhance safety and operational efficiency at the airport, an operational Windshear and
Turbulence Warning System [WTWS] developed by a company called Weather Information
Technologies Inc. [WITI] was introduced. This system provides alerts for terrain- and convective-
induced windshear and turbulence and has been utilized by air traffic controllers and pilots since the
airport’s opening day, 6 July 1998.

In addition to providing real-time windshear and turbulence alerts to controllers and pilots, the system
provides up to 12-hour forecasts of terminal area turbulence to aviation meteorologists. The WTWS
was previously known as the OWWS - the Operational Windshear Warning System. To utilize this
system efficiently, it is important that pilots understand how this system was developed, what it can
do and what its limitations are.

Prior to the development of the windshear warning system, several studies were conducted in Hong
Kong to gain an insight into the meteorological conditions near the location of the new airport. These
studies included analysis of routine weather observations, special observing programs and
meteorological modelling of the differences between the old Kai Tak Airport and at Chek Lap Kok.
Variables analysed included wind direction and speed, temperature, clouds, visibility, rainfall,
thunderstorms and fog. Methods used to conduct these studies included investigative flights by light
aircraft and water tank and wind tunnel experiments. The 44-month project was under the
sponsorship of the Hong Kong Observatory. The WTWS development team included WITI, the National
Centre for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), Hong Kong University of Science and Technology [HKUST],
and the University of Wyoming.

Components include basic and applied research on wind flow over Hong Kong’s terrain; a scientific
field study, warning system concept and feasibility studies, system design, development, testing,
implementation and training. The WTWS provides real-time hazardous weather information to air
traffic controllers and pilots to enhance safety in the terminal area and improve predictions of
hazardous weather to support strategic decision making by air traffic managers. The WTWS is the first
system worldwide to provide real-time alerts of terrain-induced turbulence and alerts for both
convective and terrain-induced windshear, The WTWS also provides predictions of turbulence caused
by terrain and airport surface wind as well as numerical weather prediction guidance. For detection of
convective windshear, the WTWS relies partly on the output from a Raytheon developed Terminal
Doppler Weather Radar [TDWR] at Tai Lam Chung, about 12 kilometres from Chek Lap Kok. The
windshear warning system analyses TDWR signatures including gust front, precipitation intensity, and
storm motion, providing an integrated alert system. It generates graphics and text designed for easy
interpretation by pilots, controllers, traffic managers and aviation forecasters.

Terminal Doppler Weather Radar [TDWR]

The Terminal Doppler Weather Radar [TDWR] is proven technology and uses Doppler shift to detect
convective windshear. It is already in operational use at Denver, USA, and other airports, but this will
be the first time it is being used in a coastal environment with busy marine traffic.

The design criterion is for a probability of detection [POD] of 90% and a false alarm rate [FAR] of
10%. [In the USA, PODs of 95% and FARs of 3% have been achieved]. The output products are
shown on a geographical situation display [GSD] and on the alphanumeric alert displays [AAD] at the
air traffic controllers’ stations.

The primary WTWS product suite includes detection of terrain-induced turbulence, terrain-induced
windshear, convective microburst and windshear, gust fronts, precipitation intensity and storm
motion. It also predicts terrain-induced turbulence and airport surface wind and numerical weather
prediction guidance. Pilots, controllers, air traffic managers and aviation forecasters easily interpret
the graphical and text formats. The alerts use commonly accepted aeronautical navigation
terminology. The WTWS graphic display delivers hazardous weather warning information and other
meteorological products. It shows the horizontal profile of various hazardous weather areas, vertical
wind profiles near the approach and departure corridors, and textual warning messages. Video replay
of the recent product history is possible. The meteorological situation is displayed in several user-
selectable ranges and levels of detail. Critical products and important situation changes are
highlighted visually on the display and/or announced by audible signals.

User needs were established over a two-year period culminating in a prototype demonstration in
October 1995. As a result of comments by users, the system was designed to provide high
performance, distinguish between the phenomena of windshear and turbulence, use existing
aeronautical terminology and provide spatial extent of the phenomena as well as up to 12-hour
forecasts of surface wind and turbulence at a 30-minute resolution.

Alerts had to be reserved for significant events and assigned a priority. They also had to be concise
but informative and provided within three nautical miles of runways. Products had to support both
tactical and strategic decision-making and be updated fast enough to cover operations that occur
every two minutes. The alphanumeric alarm display is designed to alert controllers to time-critical
weather hazards and to provide textual warnings for communication to pilots. Alerts are given as
microburst, windshear or turbulence, with associated intensity and location. For windshear and
microburst alerts, intensity is given as headwind "loss" or "gain" in knots; for turbulence, intensity is
specified as "moderate" or "severe". The intensity is the maximum expected along the alert corridor
and the alert location is where the event is first expected to be encountered.

Event locations for windshear alerts are given as one, two or three nautical miles on approach or
departure - or on the runway. Event locations for turbulence alerts are identified as departure or
approach. It was originally planned that the easterly runways [07R/L] would be the preferred
runways, but it has now been suggested that it may be better to use the westerly runways whenever
possible. The main reason for this change is to minimise traffic confliction with the Macau and
Shenzhen airports and to overcome the problems of vectoring aircraft within Hong Kong airspace. It is
too early to assess whether this may also alleviate the effects of the terrain-induced turbulence, but
this is being studied at this time. It should be noted that the prevailing wind in Hong Kong is easterly.

In the summer, strong southerly winds, sometimes associated with typhoons, are present on
occasions, but otherwise light winds flow from that direction. In autumn and winter, the north-easterly
monsoon affects the area. It follows that during normal conditions, when operating from runways
25L/R, there will be a slight tailwind and a crosswind. The runways are approximately 3800m long and
there are lesser obstacle problems to the west, so the tailwind should not be a critical factor. [The
rapid exits have also been located to cater for the various different landing weights, including those
specifically for fully laden cargo aircraft.]

Aircraft are positioned at approximately 15nm for 25R, which is the preferential landing runway. Pilots
are able to listen to alerts being given to proceeding aircraft, which help to build up a picture of the
conditions on short finals. The situation on 07R/L is not so straightforward because of the proximity of
Macau and the airspace boundary. This means that aircraft are not transferred to tower control until
about 7nm and so pilots will only normally hear their own specific warning.
If encountering windshear, what is the recovery technique?

 Disconnect the autopilot

 Aggressively apply max power/thrust Roll wings level, unless terrain is a factor, to maximize
aircraft performance
 Pitch up, rotating at a normal takeoff rotation rate [2-3°/sec] to max body angle [15-17º]
or until stick-shaker
 Verify speed brakes are retracted
 Do not alter gear/flap configuration until terrain clearance is assured [adverse effects to stall]
Issue Pilot report [PIREP]

Explain windshear in a microburst.

↑ Airspeed
↓ Airspeed [rapid]
↑ Rate of descent
What do you know about windshear?
Windshear may be caused by a number of meteorological phenomenon including temperature
inversions, sea breezes, frontal systems, strong surface winds and thunderstorms. Windshear is any
rapid change in wind direction or velocity. Severe windshear is a rapid change in wind direction or
velocity causing airspeed changes greater than 15 knots or vertical speed changes greater than 500
feet per minute.
Light: Minor excursions from flight path or speed
Moderate: Significant effect on control of the aircraft
Strong: Difficulty in keeping aircraft on desired flight path and or speed
Severe: Hazardous effects to aircraft controllability
What causes a microburst?
A microburst will usually be associated with strong updrafts. If there is virga associated with a CB, it
occurs due to the preceding convective action raising the air to the saturation level, that is, the parcel
of air cooled as it ascended, could no longer hold the moisture in it, it then condensed to form cloud,
then coalesced to form precipitation, and started to descend in the from of rain. If there is a wind
aloft, the descending air will be adjacent to the rising air. When the air below the rain is dry, the water
evaporates, and forms virga. When evaporation takes place, cooling takes place through the release of
latent heat. Resulting in a parcel of cool air, which already descending, begins to descend even faster.

A microburst may be dry - or wet. Those below virga are considered dry, and those in a rain shaft are
considered wet microbursts. Depending on the winds aloft, a dry microburst could be in the clouds just
above you and to the side of your flight path, especially if you are flying adjacent to a thunderstorm,
and you will never even see it develop.

Observations suggest that approximately five percent of all thunderstorms produce a microburst.
What do you know about Microbursts?
A microburst is a strong downdraft of air, up to 6,000 ft/min [60kts], which seldom lasts more than
15-20 minutes and is typically less than one mile wide. To put it into perspective, lift at 1,000 FPM is
actually 10 kts of wind in the vertical axis. As the parcel nears the ground at around 1,000 to 3,000 ft,
it begins to change to a horizontal flow, creating a wind near the surface as high as 45 kts.

Microbursts occur near developing thunderstorms, or CB clouds. Some visual cues to watch for include
- abnormally strong lift, unusual rain patterns, virga, blowing dust on the surface, a localized heavy
rain shaft, with light winds reported on the surface, high temperature and low dew point.
What action would you take if you encountered CAT?
Adjust speed to turbulence penetration speed encountering the first moderate bumps or before if CAT
has been forecast or known to exist on track. Doing so will avoid structural damage to the airplane
through overstressing the airframe.
Where are you most likely to encounter Clear Air Turbulence [CAT]?
The most likely place to expect Clear Air Turbulence [CAT] is just above the central core of the jet
stream near the polar tropopause and just below the core. Clear air turbulence does not occur in the
core. CAT is encountered more frequently in winter when the jet stream winds are strongest.
Nevertheless, CAT is not always present in the jet stream and, because it is random and transient in
nature, it is almost impossible to forecast.

Clear air turbulence may be associated with other weather patterns, especially in wind shear
associated with the sharply curved contours of strong lows, troughs and ridges aloft, at or below the
tropopause, and in areas of strong cold or warm air advection. Mountain waves create severe CAT that
may extend from the mountain crests to as high as 5000 feet above the tropopause. Curving jet
streams are likely to have turbulent edges, especially those that curve around a deep pressure trough.
What is Clear Air Turbulence [CAT]?
Turbulence not associated with visible moisture. It is most commonly associated with jet streams
[tropopause] or with mountain wave activity. It is more often encountered over land than over water.
What do you know about Jet streams?
Jet streams are narrow bands of exceedingly high-speed winds are known to exist in the higher levels
of the atmosphere at altitudes ranging from 20,000 to 40,000 feet or more. The jet stream appears to
be closely associated with the tropopause and with the polar front. It typically forms in the break
between the polar and the tropical tropopause where the temperature gradients are intensified. The
mean position of the jet stream, shears south in winter and north in summer, with the seasonal
migration of the polar front. Because the troposphere is deeper in summer than in winter, the
tropopause and the jets will nominally be at higher altitudes in the summer. Long, strong jet streams
are usually also associated with well-developed surface lows beneath deep upper troughs and lows. A
low developing in the wave along the frontal surface lies south of the jet. As it deepens, the low
moves near the jet. As it occludes, the low moves north of the jet, which crosses the frontal system,
near the point of occlusion. The jet flows roughly parallel to the front. The subtropical jet stream is not
associated with fronts but forms because of strong solar heating in the equatorial regions. The
ascending air turns pole ward at very high levels but is deflected by the Coriolis force into a strong
westerly jet. The subtropical jet predominates in winter.

The jet streams flow from west to east and may encircle the entire hemisphere. More often, because
they are stronger in some places than in others, they break up into segments some 1000 to 3000
nautical miles long. They are usually about 300 nautical miles wide and may be 3000 to 7000 feet
thick. These jet stream segments move in an easterly direction following the movement of pressure
ridges and troughs in the upper atmosphere.

Winds in the central core of the jet stream are the strongest and may reach speeds as great as 250
knots, although they are generally between 100 and 150 knots. Wind speeds decrease toward the
outer edges of the jet stream and may be blowing at only 25 knots there. The rate of decrease of wind
speed is considerably greater on the northern edge than on the southern edge. Wind speeds in the jet
stream are, on average, considerably stronger in winter than in summer.
Which way does the earth turn about its axis? [Draw on whiteboard]
Draw a picture of the earth on a white board.
What does windshear do, what is your procedure if you
....Hmmm....
There is a thunderstorm on final, what do you think about?
Possible windshear and turbulence
Possible reduction in visibility
Possibility of lightning strike
Consider holding until the storm passes
What are the standard, the dry and the saturated adiabatic lapse rates?
Environmental Lapse Rate [ELR]: 1.98º C / 1000’
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate [DALR]: 3.0º C / 1000’
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate [SALR]: 1.7º C / 1000’
SALR varies depending on the original temperature of the rising air, and averages about 1.7º C /
1000’.
Unstable air occurs when the actual lapse rate is greater than the DALR, conditionally unstable air,
when the actual lapse rate is between the DALR and the SALR, and stable air, when the actual lapse
rate is less than the SALR.
Saturation: The state where the air reaches 100% humidity.
What is the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone?
On or near the equator, where average solar radiation is greatest, air is warmed at the surface and
rises. This creates a band of low air pressure, centred on the equator. This rising air comprises one
segment of a circulation pattern called the Hadley Cell. The rising air is replaced by the Trade winds
approaching the equator from north and south. As the trade winds meet near the equator, surface
convergence and uplift take place. For this reason the equatorial band of low pressure is called the
Equatorial Trough, Intertropical Convergence Zone, or the ITCZ. The ITCZ is a region of light winds,
which lends it the name the doldrums. The convergence of the Southeast and Northeast Trade Winds,
within the doldrums, creates a zone of Cumulus clouds and attendant shower activity. Cumulus clouds
often build up to great heights. Aircraft reports have estimated tops of Cumulonimbus to be as high as
12,000m. The ITCZ varies from 20 miles to as much as 300 miles in width, and typically has an
undulating conformation.

We are interested in the ITCZ because, under certain circumstances, tropical depressions on the ITCZ
intensify to hurricanes. It may seem puzzling that the ITCZ can produce cyclones, when the Coriolis
force is at its weakest near the equator. The answer to this puzzle lies in the fact that the ITCZ is not
stationary on the equator, but migrates north and south with the seasons. The ITCZ moves north
during the high-sun season of the Northern Hemisphere, and south during the high-sun season in the
Southern Hemisphere. These movements are not perfectly symmetrical above and below the equator,
because of the influence of landmasses, among other factors. When the ITCZ is near the equator, the
convergence of surface winds along the ITCZ is likely to take the form of parallel flow, with easterly
wind approaching the doldrums from both north and south. When the Trade Winds converging at the
ITCZ are weak and nearly parallel to it, the ITCZ tends to narrow in width, and show little shower
activity. When the ITCZ lies south of the Geographic Equator, as it does in the Western Pacific and
Indian Oceans, the Northeast Trade Winds acquire a northwesterly direction after crossing the equator
(because the Coriolis force changes direction below the equator!) In this situation the convergence is
strong and favours the formation of a Tropical Depression When the ITCZ lies north of the Geographic
Equator, the Southeast Trade Winds acquire a southwesterly direction after crossing the equator and
again the convergence pattern favours the formation of a Tropical Depression. Tropical depressions
tend to move from east to west at a rate of about 10 to12 knots. In most cases these disturbances are
short-lived. Surface winds attending a tropical depression usually do not exceed 25 knots. The
enclosing isobar has an elongated oval shape, the width of the ITCZ is greater in the region enclosed
by the isobar[s], and the ITCZ exhibits a deflection away from the Geographic Equator.

There is a definite connection between the seasonal position of the Equatorial Trough and zones of
hurricane formation, which is borne out by the fact that no hurricanes occur in the South Atlantic
[where the trough never lies south of 5 deg S [or in the southeast Pacific [where the trough remains
north of the equator]. On the other hand, satellite photographs over the northeast Pacific show an
unexpected number of cyclonic vortices in summer, many of which move westwards near the trough
line about 10 deg -1 deg N.
Tell me about the Monsoon.
Monsoons are cyclical wave-like air masses that occur in the sub-tropics, moving onto land from the
sea during the summer and returning over water in winter. The word monsoon comes from the Arabic
mausim, meaning, 'season,' because these storms return year after year. The term monsoon refers to
large-scale seasonal reversals of the wind regime. Such seasonal wind shifts at the surface are quite
widespread and occur in many regions. The Asiatic seasonal wind reversal is notable for it’s
immense extent and the penetration of its influence beyond tropical latitudes. Monsoons develop as a
result of changing patterns of atmospheric pressure caused by the varied heating and cooling rates of
continental landmasses and oceans. The strongest and most well known monsoons are those, which
affect India and Southeast Asia. The summer monsoon, which blows south-westerly across the Indian
Ocean, is extremely wet. The winter monsoon, in contrast, blows northeasterly and is generally dry.
India and Southeast Asia lie in between the centres of the tropical and subtropical climate zones. For
much of the year, and particularly during winter, northeast trade winds blow across the region, from
subtropical high pressure to equatorial low pressure. These winds originate from the continental
interiors and are generally dry. During the summer months however, the large landmasses of Asia and
the Indian subcontinent heat up, generating a seasonal continental region of low pressure. Airflow
reverses and wind blows southwesterly across the Indian Ocean, accumulating considerable moisture,
which is deposited as heavy rainfall during the wet season from May to September. Scientists have
linked the development of the monsoonal wind phenomenon over India during Earth History to the
uplift of the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau, which occurred about 20 million years ago, when
India collided into the Asian continent. The cycle continues as the cooling air creates precipitation and
releases more energy. This energy then heats the air, which rises and flows back to the sea, cools,
descends, and rushes back to land to replace more warm, rising air. This monsoon is centred over
continental Asia.
Tell me about a cold front.
The cold front represents the leading edge of a cold air mass. The frontal zone has a steeper slope
[2Ëš] and means the poor weather associated with a cold front is of shorter duration than a warm
front. There may be frontal thunderstorm activity and associated precipitation. At the passage of a
cold front the wind veers sharply, pressure begins to rise and temperature falls.
Tell me about a warm front.
The warm front represents the leading edge of a warm air mass. The frontal zone has a very gentle
slope [0.5-1Ëš], so cloud systems associated with a warm front [cirrus, cirrostratus and altostratus]
indicate its approach 12 hours or more before it’s arrival. At the passage of a warm front, the wind
veers, temperature rises and the fall of pressure is checked. The rain then becomes intermittent or
ceases in the warm air and the thin stratocumulus cloud sheet may break up.
Can a typhoon/cyclone cross the equator?
Yes. Once established, it can cross about 5Ëš latitude into the opposite hemisphere. In so doing it will
encounter opposing Coriolis force and rapidly decrease in strength.
Which direction do they travel?
Northern hemisphere: North/northwest
Southern hemisphere: South/southwest
Which way do they turn?
Depends on the hemisphere
Where do Typhoons form?
Formation usually occurs between 5Ëš and 15Ëš north/south latitude, over a warm ocean.
What do you know about tropical cyclones/hurricanes (typhoons)?
Most typhoon activity occurs during late summer and autumn [both hemispheres], during times of
maximum northward and southward displacement of the equatorial trough. Begins life as a tropical
depression and develops with favourable conditions into a tropical storm. Main energy source is latent
heat from condensed water vapour. A cold-cored tropical storm is transformed into a warm-cored
hurricane in association with the release of latent heat in CB towers [approximately 100-200 CB
towers]. The warm core is vital to hurricane growth as it intensifies the upper anticyclone, leading to a
feedback effect by stimulating the low level influx of heat and moisture, which further intensifies
convective activity, latent heat release and therefore upper level high pressure. Formation of an eye is
an essential part of the life cycle of a hurricane. The diameter of the eye is around 30-50km and
within it, the wind is virtually calm and the cloud cover may be broken. Once developed a hurricane
will usually move at 16-24km/hr in a north to north-westerly direction and a cyclone will move in a
south to south-westerly direction.
Conditions for formation:

 Ocean surface temperature of 26.5Ëšc or greater (enhances evaporation)

 Ocean depth of 50m or more [unknown why]
 A Low-pressure system [initial disturbance]
 Sufficient Coriolis force [between 5Ëš and 15Ëš n/s]
 Low values [less than about 20 kts] of vertical wind shear, between the surface and the upper
troposphere.
A supply of heat and moisture combined with low frictional drag at the sea surface, the release of
latent heat through condensation and removal of air aloft are essential conditions for the maintenance
of a typhoon.

Tropical Classification
Tropical Disturbance: [weak area of low pressure]
Tropical Depression: [20-34 kts and a "closed" Circulation] [Storm number]
Tropical Storm [35-64 kts] [storm name]
Hurricane [65+ kts or 74+ mph]

Saffir-Simpson Scale
Maximum Winds and Central Pressure

Category 1 65- 82 kts; > 979 Hpa

Category 2 83- 95 kts; 965-979 Hpa
Category 3 96-113 kts; 945-964 Hpa
Category 4 114-135 kts; 920-944 Hpa
Category 5 > 135 kts; < 920 Hpa
Tropical Disturbance
A discrete tropical weather system of apparently organized convection - generally 200 to 600 km [100
to 300 nm] in diameter - originating in the tropics or subtropics, having a no-frontal migratory
character, and maintaining its identity for 24 hours or more. It may or may not be associated with a
detectable perturbation of the wind field. Disturbances associated with perturbations in the wind field
and progressing through the tropics from east to west are also known as easterly waves.

Tropical Depression
A tropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained wind speed [using the U.S. 1 minute average
standard] is 33 kts or less. Depressions have a closed circulation.

Tropical Storm
A tropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained surface wind speed [using the U.S. 1 minute
average standard] ranges from 34 kts to 63 kts. The convection in tropical storms is usually more
concentrated near the centre with outer rainfall organizing into distinct bands.

Typhoon
When winds in a tropical storm, equal or exceed 64 kts it is called a Typhoon. Typhoons designated
categories 3, 4 or 5 on the Saffir-Simpson scale are known as major or intense.
What is the value of the Coriolis parameter, at the equator?
Zero
What is Coriolis parameter?
The Coriolis force is a deflecting force, which is maximum at the poles and reduces to zero at the
equator. The Coriolis force always acts at right angles to the direction of the air motion to the right in
the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. The formula for Æ’ [Coriolis
parameter] is

-2ωV sin Φ

ω = angular velocity [earths rotational velocity 15º/hr]

V = velocity of the mass
Φ = latitude [sin 0º = 0,sin 90º = 1]
What is the ICAO standard atmosphere?
+15ºc
1013.2 Hpa
2ºc /1000’ lapse rate until 36 000’ [tropopause] Isothermic at -57ºc
1 Hpa = 30’
Volcanic ash encounters. What do you know about it?
Volcanic ash encounters
Despite ongoing avoidance efforts, operators can still experience volcanic ash encounters. Guidance on
the operational issues surrounding volcanic ash is divided into three aspects: avoidance, recognition,
and procedures. The following information is general; flight crews should refer to their respective
company's operating manuals for details.
Avoidance
Preventing flight into potential ash environments requires planning in these areas: Dispatch needs to
provide flight crews with information about volcanic events, such as potentially eruptive volcanoes and
known ash sightings, that could affect a particular route.
Dispatch also needs to identify alternate routes to help flight crews avoid airspace containing volcanic
ash. Flight crews should stay upwind of volcanic ash and dust. Flight crews should note that airborne
weather radar is ineffective for distinguishing ash and small dust particles.
Recognition
Indicators that an airplane is penetrating volcanic ash are related to odour, haze, changing engine
conditions, airspeed, pressurization, and static discharges.
Odour
When encountering a volcanic ash cloud, flight crews usually notice a smoky or acrid odour that can
smell like electrical smoke, burned dust, or sulphur.
Haze
Most flight crews, as well as cabin crew or passengers, see a haze develop within the airplane. Dust
can settle on surfaces.
Changing engine conditions
Surging, torching from the tailpipe, and flameouts can occur. Engine temperatures can change
unexpectedly, and a white glow can appear at the engine inlet.
Airspeed
If volcanic ash fouls the Pitot tube, the indicated airspeed can decrease or fluctuate erratically.
Pressurization
Cabin pressure can change, including possible loss of cabin pressurization.
Static discharges
A phenomenon similar to St. Elmo's fire or glow can occur. In these instances, blue-coloured sparks
can appear to flow up the outside of the windshield or a white glow can appear at the leading edges of
the wings or at the front of the engine inlets.
Procedures
The following nine procedures are general recommendations. Each operator's flight operations
manuals will include more specific directions.
Reduce thrust to idle immediately
By reducing thrust, engines may suffer less build-up of molten debris on turbine blades and hot-
section components. Idle thrust allows engines to continue producing electrical power, bleed air for
pressurization, and hydraulic power for airplane control.
Turn the auto throttles off
This prevents the engines from increasing thrust above idle. Ash debris in the engine can result in
reduced surge margins, and limiting the number of thrust adjustments improves the chances of
engine recovery.
Exit the ash cloud as quickly as possible
A 180-deg turn out of the ash cloud using a descending turn is the quickest exit strategy. Many ash
clouds extend for hundreds of miles, so assuming that the encounter will end shortly can be false.
Climbing out of the ash could result in increased engine debris build-up as the result of increased
temperatures. The increased engine build-up can cause total thrust loss.
Turn on engine and wing anti-ice devices and all air-conditioning packs
These actions improve the engine stall margins by increasing the flow of bleed air.
If possible, start the auxiliary power unit [APU]
The APU can power systems in the event of a multiple-engine power loss. It can also be used to
restart engines through the use of APU bleed air.
If volcanic dust fills the flight deck, the crew may need to use oxygen Use flight deck oxygen at the
100 percent setting.
Manual deployment of the passenger oxygen system is not required because it will deploy
automatically if the cabin altitude exceeds 14,000 ft.
Turn on the continuous ignition
Confirm that auto start is on, if available. In the event that the engines flame out or stall, use
appropriate procedures to restart the engines. During restart, the engines may take longer than
normal to reach idle thrust due to the combined effects of high altitude and volcanic ash ingestion. If
an engine fails to start, try restarting it again immediately. Flight crews should remember that the
airplane may be out of the air start envelope if the encounter occurs during cruise.
Monitor engine exhaust gas temperature (EGT)
Because of potential engine debris build-up, the EGT can climb excessively. The flight crew should
prevent EGT accedences. Shut down the engine and restart it if the EGT is approaching limits similar
to a hung start.
Fly the airplane by monitoring airspeed and pitch attitude
If necessary, follow the procedure for flight with unreliable airspeed.
What is the biggest hazard in heavy rain on final approach?

 Reduced visibility
 Possible windshear

What causes saturation?

Cooling temp to dew point
Evaporations brings dew point to temp [adds moisture to air]
Here are some visibility definitions...
Visibility: the ability to see prominent unlighted objects by day and prominent lighted objects by
night, expressed in nm.
Flight visibility: average forward horizontal distance measured in nm from the cockpit in flight
Prevailing visibility: greatest forward horizontal visibility, SM, equal or exceeded throughout at least
half of the horizon circle, which need not be continuous
Runway Visual Range: horizontal distance a pilot will see by looking down the runway from the
approach end
Slant Range visibility: distance on final approach when you can see the runway
Obscuring Phenomena: any collection of particles, which will reduce horizontal visibility
Ceiling: height AGL to the lowest broken or overcast layer, or the vertical visibility into obscuring
phenomena
Vertical visibility: distance seen directly upward from the ground level into obscuring phenomena
What causes greatest change in Altimeter, Air Speed, and Rate of Climb?
Icing is greater than pressure.
Affects are due to Pitot-Static clogs.
What kind of ice does freezing rain cause?
Clear ice.
At what temp does structural icing occur?
Below 0ºC.
What weather conditions form frost?
Little or no wind
Lack of clouds
OAT below freezing
Dew point within 5ºC of air temp
Define wind shear...
Sudden change in wind direction and or speed over a short distance.
What is mechanical turbulence?
Any irregular terrain. Mountains, buildings, trees...
What is convective instability?
Dry air over moist air
Moist air over dry air
What weather conditions form tornadoes?
Marked convective instability
Pronounced horizontal wind shear
Rapid moving cold fronts or squall lines
Strong convergence
What is the order of precedence when flying around thunderstorm
Go around
Fly over the top
Fly below
Fly through the lower 1/3
What does it require for a thunderstorm to develop?
Lifting [most likely convergence]
Unstable air
Moisture content in the air
Building clouds through the freezing level
What are the worst hazards of squall lines or thunderstorms?
Primary: turbulence
Secondary: hail
What are the general conditions of occlusions?
A combination of warm and cold fronts.
Describe the two types of occlusions...
Occlusions have three air masses and two fronts.
Left side is behind, right side is ahead.
Describe the three parts of air mass classification...
First is source region. [Arctic, Polar, Tropical, Equatorial]
Second is surface of their source region. [Maritime or Continental]
Third is temp [cold or warm]
What is the temp. relationship between air and land?
Air temp is relative to surface below it.
Summer time, air masses are cold,
Winter air masses are warm.
Define air mass...
A large body of air that has essentially uniform temperature and moisture conditions, in a horizontal
plan.
What are the three types of stability?
Stable: Air is pushed up until lifting action is removed, air is colder than the surrounding air, so it falls
to its original position
Unstable: Air is pushed up until lifting action is removed, air is warmer than the surrounding air, so it
is pushed up and continues to rise
Neutral: Air is pushed up until lifting action is removed, air is the same temp as the surrounding air
and therefore it remains in place
Flight Conditions Stable Atmosphere Unstable Atmosphere
Cloud type Stratus Cumulus
Turbulence Smooth Rough
Visibility Poor Good (outside cloud)
Winds Steady Gusty
Precipitation Steady Showery
Icing Rime Clear
Air Mass Warm Cold
Front Warm Cold
What are the 4 lifting actions and their differences?

 Convergence: winds meet, cause air to move vertically

 Orographic: wind runs into terrain, so it is lifted
 Frontal: front moves in, air is pushed up
  Thermal: sun heats land, land gives off heat, warm air rises

The two types of weather conditions that cause icing are...

 Supercooled water [freezing rain]

 Wet snow

What is the difference between relative humidity and specific humidity?

Relative Humidity measures the percent of saturated air or what percentage of the bucket is filled
with water.
Specific humidity measures how much water vapour is contained per unit mass of air or how much
water is in the bucket.
Humidity definitions...
Relative Humidity: percentage of saturated air
Specific Humidity: Ratio of water vapour per unit mass of air. The higher the dew point the higher the
specific humidity.
What two forces cause winds to travel parallel to isobars?
Coriolis Force: bends gradient winds to the right, do not affect surface wind because of friction.
Pressure Gradient Force: initiating force for all winds.
What kinds of drifts are associated with a high-pressure area?
High-pressure area, winds flow clockwise.
Fly into a high, you get right cross wind and left drift
What 3 elements are associated with moisture?
Clouds
Humidity
Precipitation
Define the tropopause...
Transition zone between the troposphere and the stratosphere Temperature is isothermal with altitude
An abrupt change in rate of temperature decrease with increasing altitude marks this boundary It’s
a region not a layer
Where can Rime Ice occur?
Rime ice can be expected in stratiform clouds since vertical currents are not strong enough to support
large droplets.
What is Rime Ice?
Rime ice is a milky white, opaque, and granular deposit of ice formed through the rapid freezing of
small super-cooled water droplets. Rime ice is most likely to occur at temperatures of –10 to –20.
Where does clear ice occur?
Clear ice occurs in cumuliform clouds with appropriate temperatures where vertical currents can
support large drops.
When will clear ice normally occur at?
Clear ice normally occurs at temperatures between 0C and –10C in, but may occur with
temperatures as cold as –25. Clear icing is the most severe form of icing.
What happens to ice formation with an increase in airspeed?
As airspeed is increased more water is encountered over a given period of time and therefore the rate
of deposit is increased.
What factors affect the rate of ice accumulation on an aircraft?
The following items affect the rate of ice accumulation on an aircraft:
The size and number of water drops in a given volume of air, airfoil thickness, and airspeed.
Since thick airfoils have a larger deflective force they collect ice more slowly than thin airfoils, which
have a smaller deflective force. Droplet size also is a factor. Smaller drops have a greater tendency to
follow the air stream and larger droplets resist this deflecting force.
When may freezing rain be encountered?
Freezing rain or drizzle may be encountered in the clear air below a cloud layer.
When may structural ice form?
Structural Ice may form when the free-air temperature is 0C or colder.
What are the three requirements for the formation of icing?
There three requirements for the formation of structural icing are as follows: Outside air temperature
below freezing, aircraft skin temperature below freezing, and visible moisture.
How does Wet Snow Form?
Wet Snow occurs at temperatures just below freezing and can come about as the result of turbulence
in the air and the resulting mixture of super cooled moisture.
What is super cooled water?
Super Cooled water is liquid water found at air temperatures below freezing. Super cooled water
droplets are numerous in clouds at temperatures between 0C and –15C with decreasing amounts at
colder temperatures.
What are the cumulative effects of icing?
Lift decreases, weight increases, Drag increases, Thrust Decreases, Fuel consumption increases, and
stall speed increases.
How do you fly the aircraft in turbulent weather?
One rule for Turbulent Flight: Trim the aircraft for level flight at the recommended turbulent air
penetration airspeed. Severe turbulence may cause large and rapid variations in indicated airspeed.
Don’t chase airspeed.
Discuss Wind Shear Turbulence.
Wind Shear Turbulence is defined as a sudden change in wind direction and or speed over a short
distance. The greater the change in wind speed and/or direction in a given direction, the more severe
the turbulence. These turbulent wind shear flight conditions are frequently encountered in the vicinity
of the jet stream where large shears in both the horizontal and vertical planes are found as well as I
association with land and sea breezes, fronts, inversions, and thunderstorms.
What are the rules that should be applied when mountain wave turbulence has been
forecasted?
Avoid the turbulence if possible by flying around the areas where wave conditions exist. If this is not
feasible, fly at a level that is at least 50% higher than the height of the highest mountain range along
your flight path. This procedure will now keep the aircraft out of turbulence, but provides a margin of
safety if a strong downdraft is encountered.
Avoid the rotor, lenticular, and cap clouds since they contain intense turbulence and strong updrafts
and down drafts.
Approach the mountain range at a 45-degree angle, so that a quick turn can be made away from the
ridge if a severe downdraft is encountered.
Do not place too much confidence in your pressure altimeter reading near mountain peaks. They may
indicate altitudes, which are more than 2500 feet higher than your true altitude.
Penetrate turbulent areas at air speeds recommended for your aircraft.
Where is the extreme turbulence found when near mountains?
Severe turbulence can be frequently found from the surface to the tropopause and 150 miles
downwind when the winds are greater than 50 knots at the mountaintop. Extreme turbulence is
usually found at low levels on the leeward side of the mountain in or near the rotor and cap clouds
when the winds are 50 knots or greater at the mountaintop. Moderate turbulence often can be
experienced out to 300 miles under the previously stated conditions.
What are rotor clouds, cap clods, and Lenticular Clouds?
The rotor clouds forms at a lower level and is generally found at about the same height as the
mountain ridge. The cap cloud usually obscures both sides of the mountain peak. The lenticular clouds
like the rotor and cap clouds are stationary in position.
What does the strength and magnitude of Mechanical Turbulence Depend on?
The strength and magnitude of mechanical turbulence depends on the speed of the wind, the
roughness of the terrain, and the stability of the air.
How does Mechanical turbulence Work?
When the air near the surface of the earth flows over obstructions, such as irregular terrain, or
buildings, the normal horizontal wind flow is disturbed and transformed into a complicated pattern of
eddies and other irregular air movements.
What is the worst thermal?
A ploughed field.
How does Thermal Turbulence Work?
Vertical air movements resulting from convective currents develop in air, which is heated by contact
with a warm surface. This heating from below occurs when either cold air is moved over a warmer
surface, or the ground is strongly heated by solar radiation.
How can Turbulence be divided up?
Types of Turbulence can be divided according to causative factors: Thermal, mechanical, frontal,
large-scale wind shear.
What are the reporting term definitions?
Occasional: Less then 1/3 of the time. I
ntermittent: 1/3 to 2/3rds of the time.
Continuous: More than 2/3rds of the time.
What are the four intensities of turbulence?
Light, Moderate, Severe, Extreme
Discuss actions within a storm.
Once inside the storm, the pilot should let the plane ride out the updrafts and downdrafts and
concentrate on maintaining a level attitude. With power set to maintain the proper airspeed,
maintaining the same attitude will result in only minor airspeed variations. However, the aircraft’s
altitude may vary by thousands of feet. The rapidly changing pressure conditions within the storm will
result in unreliable indications and erratic variations in altitude, airspeed, and rate of climb
instruments. Since the attitude gyro is independent of the Pitot-static system, its indications should be
considered reliable.
How should Thunderstorms be avoided?
Fly around them
Fly over the top of the storm
Fly below the storm
If not possible to avoid the storm, fly through the lower 1/3 of the storm
What are some good cues about microbursts coming from departure and arrival reports?
Departure or arrival weather reports calling for gusty winds, heavy rain, or thunderstorms should be a
clue that a high potential for microburst activity exists.
What are the best sources of information?
PIREPS [Pilot Reports] and Weather Alerts are one of the best sources of information.
How does a LLWAS work?
For example, the Low Level Winds Shear Alert System [LLWAS] Measures the winds speed and
direction at several points on the ground and compares them with a reference sensor located near the
centre of the airfield.
What are the four methods of detection, and the three wind shear alert systems used?
4 methods of detection:
Visual
PIREPS, and weather reports
Wind shear alert systems
Doppler radar, and LLWAS
What are the visual cues for a microburst?
Visual clues include virga, localized blowing dust, rain shafts with rain diverging away from the core of
the cell, roll clouds, and of course and indication of vivid lightning or tornado-like activity.
How long does a microburst last?
A microburst normally lasts from five to ten minutes after its diverging wind flow first hits the
earth’s surface.
What are the hazards associated with Thunderstorms?
Thunderstorms are accompanies by some or all of the following hazards: extreme turbulence, hail,
microburst, icing, lighting, and tornadoes. Turbulence and hail are the greatest hazards and are found
in the upper 2/3rds of a mature stage cell.
What happens to pressure when a storm approaches?
Large pressure changes can accompany thunderstorm formation.
What are the basic requirements for a formation of a thunderstorm?
The basic requirements for the formation of a thunderstorm [Cumulonimbus cloud] are as follows:
lifting action, unstable air, high moisture content, and a cloud building through the freezing level.
What sort of weather is associated with occluded fronts?
Since the occluded front is the result of meeting of a cold front and a warm front, the weather
associated with the occlusion will be a combination of both types of frontal weather. If an occlusion is
approaching from the east, you would first encounter warm front type weather which may extend for
several hundred miles to the east of the surface front. On the other hand, if it were approached from
the wet you would first encounter cold front type weather.
What does the widespread precipitation area ahead of a warm front often result in?
The widespread precipitation area ahead of a typical warm front often results in low stratus and the
formation of fog. The widespread precipitation area ahead of a typical warm front often results in low
stratus and the formation of fog.
What is some extreme weather conditions associated with squall lines?
Squall lines contain severe weather conditions including the following: extreme turbulence, heavy rain,
lightning, icing, and frequently hail, and/or tornadoes.
What does the extent of cloudiness in cold air depend on?
The extent of the cloudiness in the cold air depends on the degree of stability and moisture content of
the cold air mass.
Discuss pressures with relation to fronts.
All fronts are located in troughs of low pressure and the lowest pressure will extend from the low
centre along this trough. Therefore, when a front approaches a station, or a pilot flies toward a front,
the pressure decreases. Pressure normally rises immediately following frontal passage. Because of this
pressure change, it is extremely important to obtain a new altimeter setting the vicinity of a front.
How do you locate and classify fronts?
Differences in the various properties of adjacent air masses, such as temperature, moisture, wind, and
pressure are used to locate and classify fronts.
Describe Maritime Tropical Cold Air as they move over the ground.
By the afternoon, these often build into towering cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds resulting in
scattered rain showers and thunderstorms.
What happens with air with high moisture content?
Due to the high moisture content of the air (Tropical Warm), condensation may result in fog, low
stratus, steady precipitation, or any combination of these.
Describe air masses flowing over ground, with heating and cooling.
If the air mass is warmer than the surface, it is cooled by contact with the cold ground, becomes more
stable, and is called a warm air mass. If the air mass is colder than the surface over which it is
moving, it is heated from below, resulting in convective currents and instability, and is called a cold air
mass.
Describe Maritime and Continental fronts.
Maritime has high moisture content, Continental has Low.
What is an adiabatic process?
An adiabatic process occurs when the temperature of a body of air changes without heat being added
or taken away. When a parcel of air is lifted in the atmosphere, it expands due to decreasing pressure.
Describe Lifted Air....
Lifted air that is colder than the surrounding air settles when the lifting action is removed since it is
denser. This indicates a stable condition. Lifted air that is warmer than the surround air continues to
rise when the lifting action is removed because it is less dense indicates an unstable condition.
What is a nimbostratus cloud?
Dark massive cloud layers having a wet appearance and accompanied by heavy steady precipitation
such as rain or snow. This cloud is classified as a middle cloud.
What can you tell us about stratus clouds
Form in layers with smooth bases and tops. They are grey in appearance when viewed from the
surface, and often cover the entire sky. The stable air that gives stratus clouds their layered
characteristics also inhibits the vertical spread of smoke, dust and haze particles and thus tends to
lower visibility. Precipitation, when occurring, is generally light steady rain or drizzle. Stratus clouds
are generally associated with smooth flight conditions.
What can you tell us about CB's?
Large, dense towering clouds with cauliflower-like tops. The top portion of the cloud is often flattened
into an anvil shape or consists of cirrus formation resulting from ice crystals. Water droplets form the
major portion of the cloud, but ice crystals appear in the upper portions. Cumulonimbus and
thunderstorm are synonymous terms; they result in strong winds, lightning, and intermittent heavy
showery precipitation. The well-developed cumulonimbus may be the parent of the hailstorm.
What are the types of precipitation?
Drizzle, freezing drizzle, rain, freezing rain, hail, ice pellets, snow grains, snow.
What is Dew Point Depression?
Dew Point depression is the difference, in degrees, between the air temperature and the dew point
temperature. [When air temp equals dew point temp, saturation occurs].
What is Dew Point Temperature?
The temperature at which saturation occurs. It is also the temperature where moisture first starts to
condense on exposed surfaces forming dew. Dew point is an indication of, and is directly related to,
specific humidity.
What is Specific Humidity?
Specific humidity is the ratio of water vapour per unit mass of air, and is expressed as grams of water
per kilogram of air. For a particular temperature, there is a maximum specific humidity, or maximum
amount of water vapour that the air can hold. The higher the temperature, the more water vapour the
air can hold.
Explain Land Breeze.
At night, the circulation is reversed so that the air movement is from land to sea, producing an
offshore wind called the land breeze.
Explain Sea Breeze.
During the day, the pressure over the warm land becomes lower than that over the colder water. The
cool air over the water moves toward the lower pressure, forcing the warm air over land upward. The
resulting onshore wind is called a sea breeze. Sea breezes of 15 to 20 knots are not uncommon.
How does something get classified as a Jet Stream?
To be classified as a jet, it is generally accepted that the winds must be 50 knots or greater and the
core, area of maximum wind, must possess considerable length.
What is Buys Ballot’s Law?
This law states that if the wind is at your back, the area of lower pressure will be to your left.
Given a gradient wind, calculate a surface wind.
Subtract 45 degrees.
What does surface friction do to the wind speed?
How does this affect the Coriolis force? Surface friction reduces the speed of the wind. Since
magnitude of Coriolis force varies with the speed of wind, a reduction in the wind speed by friction
causes a reduction in the Coriolis force.
What direction and altitude do gradient winds flow?
Gradient winds flow parallel to the isobars and above 2000 AGL. Note: PGF and Coriolis force cause
gradient winds to travel parallel to the isobars.
Define Pressure Gradient
e rate of change in pressure with horizontal distance between a high and low-pressure area is called
pressure gradient. Large differences in pressure between horizontal points result in stronger pressure
gradient forces. This Pressure gradient force is the initiating force for all winds. Close spacing of
isobars indicates greater pressure gradients and higher wind speeds.
What are the factors that influence actual circulation?
This circulation is modified considerably by:
The irregular distribution of oceans and continents
The relative effectiveness of differing surfaces in transferring heat to the atmosphere Irregular terrain
Daily variations in temperature
The changes of seasons
And many other factors
What is circulation, and how is it created?
Circulation is the recurring movement of air relative to the earth’s surface. It is created primarily
by the large temperature difference between the tropics and the Polar Regions, and complicated by
uneven heating of the land and water areas by the sun.
How does air temperature relate to indicated altimeter reading?
If the air is colder than the standard atmosphere, the aircraft will be lower than the altimeter
indicates. If the air is warmer than standard, the aircraft will be higher than the altimeter indicates.
What are the pressure rules?
High to low, look out below Low to high, plenty of sky
What is Density Altitude, and how is it found?
Density altitude is the altitude in the standard atmosphere what has the same density as the local air.
It is found by correcting the pressure altitude for non-standard temperature deviations.
What is pressure altitude?
Pressure altitude is the height above the standard datum plane of 1013Hpa when above 10,000 ft in
Australia
What happens when in between isobars, especially when they are close together?
The rate of pressure change in a direction perpendicular to the isobars (horizontal distance) is called
the pressure gradient. The gradient is steep, or strong, when the isobars are close together, and is
shallow, or weak, when the isobars are far apart. Pressure gradient is the initiating force for all winds.
What is Sea Level Pressure?
Sea Level Pressure (SLP) is the pressure at mean sea level (MSL), measured directly at sea level or
calculated if the station is not at sea level. Station pressure is the atmospheric pressure at an airfield
or station.
What does pressure do with an increase in altitude?
Pressure, unlike temperature, always decreases with altitude.
Define an inversion.
An Inversion [inverted lapse rate] occurs when the temperature increases with an increase in altitude.
Define Lapse Rate. What is a steep, shallow, and isothermal lapse rate?
The change in atmospheric temperature with increasing altitude is called a lapse rate. The average or
standard lapse rate is 2ºC per 1000'. If the temperature decreases very rapidly with altitude [greater
than 3 Celsius], it is called a steep lapse rate. When the temperature decreases very gradually
[Between 1.5 and 3] it is called a shallow lapse rate, while no change with altitude is called an
isothermal lapse rate.
What is the horizontal transfer of heat? How is this normally accomplished?
Advection is the horizontal transfer of heat, normally by wind.
What is Convection?
Convection is the vertical transfer of heat.
What is Conduction?
Conduction is the transfer of heat from molecule to molecule by contact and it accounts for the
transfer of heat between the earth’s surface and the adjacent air.
What is the process by which energy is transferred through space in the form of
electromagnetic waves?
Radiation is the process by which energy is transferred through space in the form of electromagnetic
waves.
Define insolation.
Insolation is the total radiation reaching the earth’s surface and it is the primary source for all
weather phenomena on the earth.
What are the six primary flight hazards?
The six primary flight hazards are turbulence, thunderstorms, wind shear, icing, low ceilings, and low
visibility.
What are the six weather elements?
Weather, as a broad subject, is often classified as being composed of six weather elements:
Temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity, clouds, and precipitation. The last three are all
associated with moisture.
What is the percentage by volume of water vapour in the atmosphere?
The atmosphere also contains water vapour amounting to 0% to 5% by volume.
What Is the Stratosphere?
The stratosphere is characterized by increasing temperature with increasing altitude.
What is the tropopause? Why is this “boundary― significant?
An abrupt change in the rate of temperature decrease with increasing altitude marks the boundary,
called the tropopause.
What happens to the atmosphere with altitude? Where does most of the weight of the
atmosphere reside?
The atmosphere becomes less dense with altitude, and roughly 50% of it, by weight, lies below
18,000 ft, and 90 % within 53,000 feet. Within the troposphere, the temperature normally decreases
with increasing altitude.
What causes fog?
Fog forms when the relative humidity reaches 100%, and the air temperature tries to drop below the
dewpoint, causing the water vapour to condense. Fog is cloud in contact with the ground. It can form
in a number of ways, depending on how the cooling that caused the condensation occurred:
Radiation fog is formed by the cooling of land after sunset by thermal [infrared] radiation in calm
conditions with clear sky. The cool ground then produces condensation in the nearby air by
conduction. In perfect calm the fog layer can be less than a metre deep but turbulence can promote a
thicker layer [wind of 2-8kts will deepen the fog]. Radiation fog is generally associated with a high-
pressure system and will usually not persist long past sunrise.
Advection fog occurs when moist air passes over cool ground by advection [wind] and is cooled. This
form is most common at sea when tropical air encounters cooler higher-latitude waters. It is also
extremely common as a warm front passes over an area with significant snow pack.
Micro burst alerts and severe turbulence alerts. What do you know about it?
The definitions of the alerts and the order in which they are prioritised is as follows:
TDWR Microburst Alert (MBA*) [Loss of 30 knots or greater]
Terrain-Induced (TIWT*) [Windshear-loss of 30 knots or greater]
Terrain-Induced (TIWT) [Windshear-gain of 30 knots or greater]
Terrain-Induced (TIWT) [Severe Turbulence] TDWR Windshear Alert (WSA*) [loss or gain of 15 to 30
kts]
Terrain-Induced (TIWT) [Windshear-loss or gain of 15 to 30kts]
Terrain-Induced (TIWT)
Moderate Turbulence
No Alert
* MBA [Microburst Alert]
* TIWT [Terrain induced Windshear and turbulence]
* WSA [Windshear Alert]
Ever heard about a Windshear and Turbulence Warning System [WTWS]
Hong Kong’s Chek Lap Kok Airport [VHHH] is located on partly reclaimed land adjacent to Lantau
Island, whose rugged terrain has a maximum elevation of nearly 3,280’. Consequently, aircraft
operating at the new airport may be affected by significant terrain-induced windshear and turbulence
under certain meteorological conditions.
In order to enhance safety and operational efficiency at the airport, an operational Windshear and
Turbulence Warning System [WTWS] developed by a company called Weather Information
Technologies Inc. [WITI] was introduced. This system provides alerts for terrain- and convective-
induced windshear and turbulence and has been utilized by air traffic controllers and pilots since the
airport’s opening day, 6 July 1998.
In addition to providing real-time windshear and turbulence alerts to controllers and pilots, the system
provides up to 12-hour forecasts of terminal area turbulence to aviation meteorologists. The WTWS
was previously known as the OWWS - the Operational Windshear Warning System. To utilize this
system efficiently, it is important that pilots understand how this system was developed, what it can
do and what its limitations are.
Prior to the development of the windshear warning system, several studies were conducted in Hong
Kong to gain an insight into the meteorological conditions near the location of the new airport. These
studies included analysis of routine weather observations, special observing programs and
meteorological modelling of the differences between the old Kai Tak Airport and at Chek Lap Kok.
Variables analysed included wind direction and speed, temperature, clouds, visibility, rainfall,
thunderstorms and fog. Methods used to conduct these studies included investigative flights by light
aircraft and water tank and wind tunnel experiments. The 44-month project was under the
sponsorship of the Hong Kong Observatory. The WTWS development team included WITI, the National
Centre for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), Hong Kong University of Science and Technology [HKUST],
and the University of Wyoming.
Components include basic and applied research on wind flow over Hong Kong’s terrain; a scientific
field study, warning system concept and feasibility studies, system design, development, testing,
implementation and training. The WTWS provides real-time hazardous weather information to air
traffic controllers and pilots to enhance safety in the terminal area and improve predictions of
hazardous weather to support strategic decision making by air traffic managers. The WTWS is the first
system worldwide to provide real-time alerts of terrain-induced turbulence and alerts for both
convective and terrain-induced windshear, The WTWS also provides predictions of turbulence caused
by terrain and airport surface wind as well as numerical weather prediction guidance. For detection of
convective windshear, the WTWS relies partly on the output from a Raytheon developed Terminal
Doppler Weather Radar [TDWR] at Tai Lam Chung, about 12 kilometres from Chek Lap Kok. The
windshear warning system analyses TDWR signatures including gust front, precipitation intensity, and
storm motion, providing an integrated alert system. It generates graphics and text designed for easy
interpretation by pilots, controllers, traffic managers and aviation forecasters.
Terminal Doppler Weather Radar [TDWR]
The Terminal Doppler Weather Radar [TDWR] is proven technology and uses Doppler shift to detect
convective windshear. It is already in operational use at Denver, USA, and other airports, but this will
be the first time it is being used in a coastal environment with busy marine traffic.
The design criterion is for a probability of detection [POD] of 90% and a false alarm rate [FAR] of
10%. [In the USA, PODs of 95% and FARs of 3% have been achieved]. The output products are
shown on a geographical situation display [GSD] and on the alphanumeric alert displays [AAD] at the
air traffic controllers’ stations.
The primary WTWS product suite includes detection of terrain-induced turbulence, terrain-induced
windshear, convective microburst and windshear, gust fronts, precipitation intensity and storm
motion. It also predicts terrain-induced turbulence and airport surface wind and numerical weather
prediction guidance. Pilots, controllers, air traffic managers and aviation forecasters easily interpret
the graphical and text formats. The alerts use commonly accepted aeronautical navigation
terminology. The WTWS graphic display delivers hazardous weather warning information and other
meteorological products. It shows the horizontal profile of various hazardous weather areas, vertical
wind profiles near the approach and departure corridors, and textual warning messages. Video replay
of the recent product history is possible. The meteorological situation is displayed in several user-
selectable ranges and levels of detail. Critical products and important situation changes are
highlighted visually on the display and/or announced by audible signals.
User needs were established over a two-year period culminating in a prototype demonstration in
October 1995. As a result of comments by users, the system was designed to provide high
performance, distinguish between the phenomena of windshear and turbulence, use existing
aeronautical terminology and provide spatial extent of the phenomena as well as up to 12-hour
forecasts of surface wind and turbulence at a 30-minute resolution.
Alerts had to be reserved for significant events and assigned a priority. They also had to be concise
but informative and provided within three nautical miles of runways. Products had to support both
tactical and strategic decision-making and be updated fast enough to cover operations that occur
every two minutes. The alphanumeric alarm display is designed to alert controllers to time-critical
weather hazards and to provide textual warnings for communication to pilots. Alerts are given as
microburst, windshear or turbulence, with associated intensity and location. For windshear and
microburst alerts, intensity is given as headwind "loss" or "gain" in knots; for turbulence, intensity is
specified as "moderate" or "severe". The intensity is the maximum expected along the alert corridor
and the alert location is where the event is first expected to be encountered.
Event locations for windshear alerts are given as one, two or three nautical miles on approach or
departure - or on the runway. Event locations for turbulence alerts are identified as departure or
approach. It was originally planned that the easterly runways [07R/L] would be the preferred
runways, but it has now been suggested that it may be better to use the westerly runways whenever
possible. The main reason for this change is to minimise traffic confliction with the Macau and
Shenzhen airports and to overcome the problems of vectoring aircraft within Hong Kong airspace. It is
too early to assess whether this may also alleviate the effects of the terrain-induced turbulence, but
this is being studied at this time. It should be noted that the prevailing wind in Hong Kong is easterly.
In the summer, strong southerly winds, sometimes associated with typhoons, are present on
occasions, but otherwise light winds flow from that direction. In autumn and winter, the north-easterly
monsoon affects the area. It follows that during normal conditions, when operating from runways
25L/R, there will be a slight tailwind and a crosswind. The runways are approximately 3800m long and
there are lesser obstacle problems to the west, so the tailwind should not be a critical factor. [The
rapid exits have also been located to cater for the various different landing weights, including those
specifically for fully laden cargo aircraft.]
Aircraft are positioned at approximately 15nm for 25R, which is the preferential landing runway. Pilots
are able to listen to alerts being given to proceeding aircraft, which help to build up a picture of the
conditions on short finals. The situation on 07R/L is not so straightforward because of the proximity of
Macau and the airspace boundary. This means that aircraft are not transferred to tower control until
about 7nm and so pilots will only normally hear their own specific warning.
If encountering windshear, what is the recovery technique?
Disconnect the autopilot
Aggressively apply max power/thrust
Roll wings level, unless terrain is a factor, to maximize aircraft performance
Pitch up, rotating at a normal takeoff rotation rate [2-3°/sec] to max body angle [15-17º] or until
stick-shaker
Verify speed brakes are retracted
Do not alter gear/flap configuration until terrain clearance is assured [adverse effects to stall] Issue
Pilot report [PIREP]
Explain windshear in a microburst.
↑ Airspeed
↓ Airspeed [rapid]
↑ Rate of descent
What do you know about windshear?
Windshear may be caused by a number of meteorological phenomenon including temperature
inversions, sea breezes, frontal systems, strong surface winds and thunderstorms. Windshear is any
rapid change in wind direction or velocity. Severe windshear is a rapid change in wind direction or
velocity causing airspeed changes greater than 15 knots or vertical speed changes greater than 500
feet per minute.
Light: Minor excursions from flight path or speed
Moderate: Significant effect on control of the aircraft
Strong: Difficulty in keeping aircraft on desired flight path and or speed
Severe: Hazardous effects to aircraft controllability
What causes a microburst?
A microburst will usually be associated with strong updrafts. If there is virga associated with a CB, it
occurs due to the preceding convective action raising the air to the saturation level, that is, the parcel
of air cooled as it ascended, could no longer hold the moisture in it, it then condensed to form cloud,
then coalesced to form precipitation, and started to descend in the from of rain. If there is a wind
aloft, the descending air will be adjacent to the rising air. When the air below the rain is dry, the water
evaporates, and forms virga. When evaporation takes place, cooling takes place through the release of
latent heat. Resulting in a parcel of cool air, which already descending, begins to descend even faster.
A microburst may be dry - or wet. Those below virga are considered dry, and those in a rain shaft are
considered wet microbursts. Depending on the winds aloft, a dry microburst could be in the clouds just
above you and to the side of your flight path, especially if you are flying adjacent to a thunderstorm,
and you will never even see it develop.
Observations suggest that approximately five percent of all thunderstorms produce a microburst.
What do you know about Microbursts?
A microburst is a strong downdraft of air, up to 6,000 ft/min [60kts], which seldom lasts more than
15-20 minutes and is typically less than one mile wide. To put it into perspective, lift at 1,000 FPM is
actually 10 kts of wind in the vertical axis. As the parcel nears the ground at around 1,000 to 3,000 ft,
it begins to change to a horizontal flow, creating a wind near the surface as high as 45 kts.
Microbursts occur near developing thunderstorms, or CB clouds. Some visual cues to watch for include
- abnormally strong lift, unusual rain patterns, virga, blowing dust on the surface, a localized heavy
rain shaft, with light winds reported on the surface, high temperature and low dew point.
What action would you take if you encountered CAT?
Adjust speed to turbulence penetration speed encountering the first moderate bumps or before if CAT
has been forecast or known to exist on track. Doing so will avoid structural damage to the airplane
through overstressing the airframe.
Where are you most likely to encounter Clear Air Turbulence [CAT]?
The most likely place to expect Clear Air Turbulence [CAT] is just above the central core of the jet
stream near the polar tropopause and just below the core. Clear air turbulence does not occur in the
core. CAT is encountered more frequently in winter when the jet stream winds are strongest.
Nevertheless, CAT is not always present in the jet stream and, because it is random and transient in
nature, it is almost impossible to forecast.
Clear air turbulence may be associated with other weather patterns, especially in wind shear
associated with the sharply curved contours of strong lows, troughs and ridges aloft, at or below the
tropopause, and in areas of strong cold or warm air advection. Mountain waves create severe CAT that
may extend from the mountain crests to as high as 5000 feet above the tropopause. Curving jet
streams are likely to have turbulent edges, especially those that curve around a deep pressure trough.
What is Clear Air Turbulence [CAT]?
Turbulence not associated with visible moisture. It is most commonly associated with jet streams
[tropopause] or with mountain wave activity. It is more often encountered over land than over water.
What do you know about Jet streams?
Jet streams are narrow bands of exceedingly high-speed winds are known to exist in the higher levels
of the atmosphere at altitudes ranging from 20,000 to 40,000 feet or more. The jet stream appears to
be closely associated with the tropopause and with the polar front. It typically forms in the break
between the polar and the tropical tropopause where the temperature gradients are intensified. The
mean position of the jet stream, shears south in winter and north in summer, with the seasonal
migration of the polar front. Because the troposphere is deeper in summer than in winter, the
tropopause and the jets will nominally be at higher altitudes in the summer. Long, strong jet streams
are usually also associated with well-developed surface lows beneath deep upper troughs and lows. A
low developing in the wave along the frontal surface lies south of the jet. As it deepens, the low
moves near the jet. As it occludes, the low moves north of the jet, which crosses the frontal system,
near the point of occlusion. The jet flows roughly parallel to the front. The subtropical jet stream is not
associated with fronts but forms because of strong solar heating in the equatorial regions. The
ascending air turns pole ward at very high levels but is deflected by the Coriolis force into a strong
westerly jet. The subtropical jet predominates in winter.
The jet streams flow from west to east and may encircle the entire hemisphere. More often, because
they are stronger in some places than in others, they break up into segments some 1000 to 3000
nautical miles long. They are usually about 300 nautical miles wide and may be 3000 to 7000 feet
thick. These jet stream segments move in an easterly direction following the movement of pressure
ridges and troughs in the upper atmosphere.
Winds in the central core of the jet stream are the strongest and may reach speeds as great as 250
knots, although they are generally between 100 and 150 knots. Wind speeds decrease toward the
outer edges of the jet stream and may be blowing at only 25 knots there. The rate of decrease of wind
speed is considerably greater on the northern edge than on the southern edge. Wind speeds in the jet
stream are, on average, considerably stronger in winter than in summer.
Which way does the earth turn about its axis?
[Draw on whiteboard]
What does windshear do, what is your procedure if you encounter one?
....hmmm
There is a thunderstorm on final, what do you think about?
Possible windshear and turbulence
Possible reduction in visibility
Possibility of lightning strike
Consider holding until the storm passes
What are the standard, the dry and the saturated adiabatic lapse rates?
Environmental Lapse Rate [ELR]: 1.98º C / 1000’
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate [DALR]: 3.0º C / 1000’ Saturated
Adiabatic Lapse Rate [SALR]: 1.7º C / 1000’
SALR varies depending on the original temperature of the rising air, and averages about 1.7º C /
1000’.
Unstable air occurs when the actual lapse rate is greater than the DALR, conditionally unstable air,
when the actual lapse rate is between the DALR and the SALR, and stable air, when the actual lapse
rate is less than the SALR.
Saturation: The state where the air reaches 100% humidity.
What is the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone?
On or near the equator, where average solar radiation is greatest, air is warmed at the surface and
rises. This creates a band of low air pressure, centred on the equator. This rising air comprises one
segment of a circulation pattern called the Hadley Cell. The rising air is replaced by the Trade winds
approaching the equator from north and south. As the trade winds meet near the equator, surface
convergence and uplift take place. For this reason the equatorial band of low pressure is called the
Equatorial Trough, Intertropical Convergence Zone, or the ITCZ. The ITCZ is a region of light winds,
which lends it the name the doldrums. The convergence of the Southeast and Northeast Trade Winds,
within the doldrums, creates a zone of Cumulus clouds and attendant shower activity. Cumulus clouds
often build up to great heights. Aircraft reports have estimated tops of Cumulonimbus to be as high as
12,000m. The ITCZ varies from 20 miles to as much as 300 miles in width, and typically has an
undulating conformation.
We are interested in the ITCZ because, under certain circumstances, tropical depressions on the ITCZ
intensify to hurricanes. It may seem puzzling that the ITCZ can produce cyclones, when the Coriolis
force is at its weakest near the equator. The answer to this puzzle lies in the fact that the ITCZ is not
stationary on the equator, but migrates north and south with the seasons. The ITCZ moves north
during the high-sun season of the Northern Hemisphere, and south during the high-sun season in the
Southern Hemisphere. These movements are not perfectly symmetrical above and below the equator,
because of the influence of landmasses, among other factors. When the ITCZ is near the equator, the
convergence of surface winds along the ITCZ is likely to take the form of parallel flow, with easterly
wind approaching the doldrums from both north and south. When the Trade Winds converging at the
ITCZ are weak and nearly parallel to it, the ITCZ tends to narrow in width, and show little shower
activity. When the ITCZ lies south of the Geographic Equator, as it does in the Western Pacific and
Indian Oceans, the Northeast Trade Winds acquire a northwesterly direction after crossing the equator
(because the Coriolis force changes direction below the equator!) In this situation the convergence is
strong and favours the formation of a Tropical Depression When the ITCZ lies north of the Geographic
Equator, the Southeast Trade Winds acquire a southwesterly direction after crossing the equator and
again the convergence pattern favours the formation of a Tropical Depression. Tropical depressions
tend to move from east to west at a rate of about 10 to12 knots. In most cases these disturbances are
short-lived. Surface winds attending a tropical depression usually do not exceed 25 knots. The
enclosing isobar has an elongated oval shape, the width of the ITCZ is greater in the region enclosed
by the isobar[s], and the ITCZ exhibits a deflection away from the Geographic Equator.
There is a definite connection between the seasonal position of the Equatorial Trough and zones of
hurricane formation, which is borne out by the fact that no hurricanes occur in the South Atlantic
[where the trough never lies south of 5 deg S [or in the southeast Pacific [where the trough remains
north of the equator]. On the other hand, satellite photographs over the northeast Pacific show an
unexpected number of cyclonic vortices in summer, many of which move westwards near the trough
line about 10 deg -1 deg N.
Tell me about the Monsoon.
Monsoons are cyclical wave-like air masses that occur in the sub-tropics, moving onto land from the
sea during the summer and returning over water in winter. The word monsoon comes from the Arabic
mausim, meaning, 'season,' because these storms return year after year. The term monsoon refers to
large-scale seasonal reversals of the wind regime. Such seasonal wind shifts at the surface are quite
widespread and occur in many regions. The Asiatic seasonal wind reversal is notable for it’s
immense extent and the penetration of its influence beyond tropical latitudes. Monsoons develop as a
result of changing patterns of atmospheric pressure caused by the varied heating and cooling rates of
continental landmasses and oceans. The strongest and most well known monsoons are those, which
affect India and Southeast Asia. The summer monsoon, which blows south-westerly across the Indian
Ocean, is extremely wet. The winter monsoon, in contrast, blows northeasterly and is generally dry.
India and Southeast Asia lie in between the centres of the tropical and subtropical climate zones. For
much of the year, and particularly during winter, northeast trade winds blow across the region, from
subtropical high pressure to equatorial low pressure. These winds originate from the continental
interiors and are generally dry. During the summer months however, the large landmasses of Asia and
the Indian subcontinent heat up, generating a seasonal continental region of low pressure. Airflow
reverses and wind blows southwesterly across the Indian Ocean, accumulating considerable moisture,
which is deposited as heavy rainfall during the wet season from May to September. Scientists have
linked the development of the monsoonal wind phenomenon over India during Earth History to the
uplift of the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau, which occurred about 20 million years ago, when
India collided into the Asian continent. The cycle continues as the cooling air creates precipitation and
releases more energy. This energy then heats the air, which rises and flows back to the sea, cools,
descends, and rushes back to land to replace more warm, rising air. This monsoon is centred over
continental Asia.
Tell me about a cold front.
The cold front represents the leading edge of a cold air mass. The frontal zone has a steeper slope
[2Ëš] and means the poor weather associated with a cold front is of shorter duration than a warm
front. There may be frontal thunderstorm activity and associated precipitation. At the passage of a
cold front the wind veers sharply, pressure begins to rise and temperature falls
Tell me about a warm front.
The warm front represents the leading edge of a warm air mass. The frontal zone has a very gentle
slope [0.5-1Ëš], so cloud systems associated with a warm front [cirrus, cirrostratus and altostratus]
indicate its approach 12 hours or more before it’s arrival. At the passage of a warm front, the wind
veers, temperature rises and the fall of pressure is checked. The rain then becomes intermittent or
ceases in the warm air and the thin stratocumulus cloud sheet may break up
Can a typhoon/cyclone cross the equator?
Yes. Once established, it can cross about 5Ëš latitude into the opposite hemisphere. In so doing it will
encounter opposing Coriolis force and rapidly decrease in strength.
Which direction do they travel?
Northern hemisphere: North/northwest
Southern hemisphere: South/southwest
Which way do they turn?
That depends on the hemisphere...
Where do Typhoons form?
Formation usually occurs between 5Ëš and 15Ëš north/south latitude, over a warm ocean.
What do you know about tropical cyclones/hurricanes (typhoons)?
Most typhoon activity occurs during late summer and autumn [both hemispheres], during times of
maximum northward and southward displacement of the equatorial trough. Begins life as a tropical
depression and develops with favourable conditions into a tropical storm. Main energy source is latent
heat from condensed water vapour. A cold-cored tropical storm is transformed into a warm-cored
hurricane in association with the release of latent heat in CB towers [approximately 100-200 CB
towers]. The warm core is vital to hurricane growth as it intensifies the upper anticyclone, leading to a
feedback effect by stimulating the low level influx of heat and moisture, which further intensifies
convective activity, latent heat release and therefore upper level high pressure. Formation of an eye is
an essential part of the life cycle of a hurricane. The diameter of the eye is around 30-50km and
within it, the wind is virtually calm and the cloud cover may be broken. Once developed a hurricane
will usually move at 16-24km/hr in a north to north-westerly direction and a cyclone will move in a
south to south-westerly direction.
Conditions for formation:

 Ocean surface temperature of 26.5Ëšc or greater (enhances evaporation)

 Ocean depth of 50m or more [unknown why]
 A Low-pressure system [initial disturbance]
 Sufficient Coriolis force [between 5Ëš and 15Ëš n/s]
 Low values [less than about 20 kts] of vertical wind shear, between the surface and the upper
troposphere.

A supply of heat and moisture combined with low frictional drag at the sea surface, the release of
latent heat through condensation and removal of air aloft are essential conditions for the maintenance
of a typhoon.

Tropical Classification
Tropical Disturbance: [weak area of low pressure]
Tropical Depression: [20-34 kts and a "closed" Circulation] [Storm number]
Tropical Storm [35-64 kts] [storm name]
Hurricane [65+ kts or 74+ mph]
Saffir-Simpson Scale

Maximum Winds Central Pressure

Category 1 65- 82 kts; > 979 Hpa
Category 2 83- 95 kts; 965-979 Hpa
Category 3 96-113 kts; 945-964 Hpa
Category 4 114-135 kts; 920-944 Hpa
Category 5 > 135 kts; < 920 Hpa

Tropical Disturbance
A discrete tropical weather system of apparently organized convection - generally 200 to 600 km [100
to 300 nm] in diameter - originating in the tropics or subtropics, having a no-frontal migratory
character, and maintaining its identity for 24 hours or more. It may or may not be associated with a
detectable perturbation of the wind field. Disturbances associated with perturbations in the wind field
and progressing through the tropics from east to west are also known as easterly waves.
Tropical Depression A tropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained wind speed [using the U.S. 1
minute average standard] is 33 kts or less. Depressions have a closed circulation.
Tropical Storm
A tropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained surface wind speed [using the U.S. 1 minute
average standard] ranges from 34 kts to 63 kts. The convection in tropical storms is usually more
concentrated near the centre with outer rainfall organizing into distinct bands.
Typhoon
When winds in a tropical storm, equal or exceed 64 kts it is called a Typhoon. Typhoons designated
categories 3, 4 or 5 on the Saffir-Simpson scale are known as major or intense.
What is the value of the Coriolis parameter, at the equator?
Zero
What is Coriolis parameter?
The Coriolis force is a deflecting force, which is maximum at the poles and reduces to zero at the
equator. The Coriolis force always acts at right angles to the direction of the air motion to the right in
the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. The formula for Æ’ [Coriolis
parameter] is
-2ωV sin Φ
ω = angular velocity [earths rotational velocity 15º/hr]
V = velocity of the mass
Φ = latitude [sin 0º = 0,sin 90º = 1]
What is the ICAO standard atmosphere?
+15ºc
1013.2 Hpa
2ºc /1000’ lapse rate until 36 000’ [tropopause] Isothermic at -57ºc
1 Hpa = 30’