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COMMUNICATION OF NURSING RESEARCH FINDINGS

There are two major ways for researchers to communicate the results of their studies. They can talk about
them or write about them. A nurse researcher might begin by presenting study results to peers. Next, this
researcher might attend a research conference at which study results are discussed in an oral presentation
or in a poster session.
Although researchers have the prime responsibility of communicating the findings of their studies, other
nurses and nursing organizations also bear the responsibility of seeing that research findings are
distributed inside the nursing profession, to other health care professionals, and even to the general public.
The communication of research findings provides a valuable opportunity to inform others of a current
investigation and it and can lead to future speaking opportunities at conferences, grants for future research
projects, school and business meetings and offer natural connections to new job opportunities.
Effective communication of research helps in following ways :

Promotion of learning of new knowledge among professional s.

Expansion of the base for the evidence based practices

Improving the health care outcome or client care outcome by refining the existing body of
professional knowledge
CRITERIA FOR COMMUNICATING THE RESEARCH :

i. Selecting proper channel for communication : The researcher has to select suitable and
appropriate channel to disseminate his or her research findings, such as student – related
outlets are theses and dissertations , however, professional academicians generally need
publication of research articles in professional journals, books, or oral research
presentations.

ii. Knowing the consumer: Researchers must know in advance to whom they want to
communicate the research findings such as nursing research findings to clinical
bedside nurses, nurses educators, nurse administrators, health care professionals , or
even the general public.

iii. Developing an effective plan for writing a research report :

Decide an authorship : they have to decide among themselves as : should be

given only to credits who will be leading author and the contributing authors.
The international committee of medical journal editors’ advice that authorship
to those who have made credential contribution to the conceptual design of the
study

Deciding about the content : Researchers also have to decide how many
papers are required to communicate the findings of the research effectively

Preparing outline of the report : It is important that if there are multiple

authors of a report , each one has responsibility for different sections of
manuscript . The advantage of having an outline is that it can be incorporated
into a timeline that sets goals for completing the manuscript .

iv. Careful selection of a journal for publication of a report

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v. Careful review of the author’s manuscript guidelines

Methods of communication of research

Communication of research findings must be carried out through methods that are fast and
have a wide range of coverage to disseminate the research evidence among professionals .

1. Written reports : A written report is considered as the best method for

disseminating research findings because this medium has the potential to reach to the
largest percentage of consumers. In addition , the growth of nursing profession depends
on documented evidences for the expansion and advancement of new professional
knowledge . written reports could be thesis, dissertations , published scientific articles .
Methods of written reports :

I. Publishing a Journal Article : The growth of the nursing profession depends on the
ability of its members to build and share a body of knowledge. Nursing research is the
method of building the knowledge, and publications are the major medium for
sharing this knowledge. Research should always be conducted with the idea of
publication in mind.
Writing an article for a journal is emphasized here because this communication medium has the
potential for reaching the largest percentage of nurses. The preparation of an article for a journal
is a service to the profession as well as a means of obtaining recognition for the author or
authors. A few journals pay authors an honorarium or a per page fee. When the author receives
the galleys (about 2 months before the publication date), these sheets must be proofread for
errors. When an author receives an acceptance letter from a journal, an approximate date or
month of publication is usually included. In an editorial in Research in Nursing & Health,

II. Preparing Theses and Dissertations: Theses and dissertations are an important
means of communication for research studies conducted to fulfill educational
requirements. Because these documents serve a dual purpose of communicating
research findings and providing educators with evidence of the students’ ability to
perform scholarly work, theses and dissertations are usually lengthy documents that
may contain 100 pages or more, divided into several chapters. Dissertations contain
more in-depth investigations than theses and provide new knowledge for the
profession. Theses are usually concerned with testing existing theory, whereas
dissertations focus on refining existing theories or generating new theories.

2. ORAL REPORTS : Oral reports are useful for dissemination of knowledge among
the nurses . The oral reports are generally written and presented to the group of
professionals at conferences , which can be either read out and presented through poster
of computer slide projectors. . The researcher is given 15-30 minutes to present the
finding , with few minutes for discussion .

METHODS OF ORAL REPORTS :

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a. Presenting Research Results at Professional Conferences: Many nurse researchers

give first consideration to nursing journals as a publication medium for their research
results. However, the time delay for publication of a report in a journal may be 2
years or longer. The two ways to disseminate research results at professional
conferences are oral presentations and poster presentations. Traditionally, oral
presentations have been used most frequently, but in the last 15 to 20 years, poster
presentations have increased in popularity.
Nurses have many opportunities to present their study results at research conferences and
seminars. Nursing organizations such as the American Nurses Association and Sigma Theta Tau
sponsor research seminars. Potential participants are contacted through a call for abstracts, a
request for a summary of a study that the researcher wishes to present at a conference. These
requests are published in professional journals and distributed to educational institutions, health
care agencies, and potential participants whose names have been obtained through the mailing
lists of professional organizations. The required length of the abstract varies from 50 to 1,000
words, but many have a 200- to 300-word limit. Abstracts should contain the purpose, research
question(s) or hypothesis(es), design, methodology, major findings, and conclusions. If the
research is still in progress, the last two items are not required. Abstracts will be evaluated, and
participants will be notified about the selection decisions.
b. Presenting a Research Paper : The oral presentation of a research report is usually referred
to as a paper presentation. The word paper is used because the report of the study has been
written out on paper and is referred to or read by the investigator during the presentation.
Guidelines for paper presentations are found in the literature. A written report of the study will
be necessary if the proceedings of the conference are to be published. Presenting research results
at a conference has advantages over publishing the findings in a journal article.

 First, the investigator has the opportunity to present findings that are recent. Because of
the time lag in publishing, research presented in journals may be outdated when it is
printed.

 Second, the researcher will have the opportunity to interact with those people who are
interested in the study and will be able to locate other researchers who are studying the
same or similar phenomena. Although many presentations are read directly from the
research paper, more interest is created when an outline is used and the presenter
communicates with the audience informally.
The use of audiovisual aids, such as slides and PowerPoint displays, greatly enhances a
presentation. Audiences usually appreciate written handouts in the form of abstracts or
summaries of the study. A presenter is usually allotted 15 to 30 minutes. At some conferences,
additional time is allocated for questions. At other conferences, the presenter may have to allow
time for questions if questions are desired. Even when no time remains for questions or certain
members of the audience do not get a chance to ask their questions, presenters are usually willing
to respond to questions during break times or after the conference.
The format of the oral presentation is similar to that of a journal article or other written
presentation of the study, in that the steps of the research process are usually presented in
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chronological order. The main difference lies in the condensation of the material to fit the time
constraints of the conference. Some presenters prefer to attract the attention of the audience by
reporting the findings first, proceeding with the other parts of the study, and then returning to
discuss the findings in more detail later in the presentation. The review of the literature is usually
not discussed in detail, and only pertinent studies are mentioned.

c. Presenting a Research Poster : The visual method of presentation may be seen by a large
number of people in a short time period. At a poster session, the presenters usually remain with
their posters and interact with the viewers. Posters appeal to those who want to get a general
overall view of the many research studies being conducted by nurses. Because of time
constraints, a research conference participant can only attend a few oral presentations in a 1- or
2-day research conference. However, it is possible to view a fairly large number of posters in just
an hour or two. Poster sessions generally are held during research conferences where oral
presentations are also given. Usually, 1 or 2 hours of the conference are devoted to posters.
Occasionally, educational institutions and clinical agencies hold research conferences in which
the only method of presentation is through posters.

Careful consideration should be given to the construction of posters. Technical

help may be sought from a graphic artist, or researchers may design and construct
their own posters. The poster should not appear as if it had been thrown together at
the last minute or constructed by a group of young cub scouts. The initial view of the
poster is important. Attractive color combinations should be used.

WRITING RESEARCH REPORT

Research report is considered as a major component of the research study, the research task
remains incomplete till the research has been presented or written. Writing of report is the last
step in a research study and requires a set of skills somewhat different from those called for in
respect of the earlier stages of research .This task should be accomplished by the researcher
with utmost care. He may seek the assistance and guidelines of experts for the purpose. Any
research report is to be conveyed to end-user or recorded for future use. So, there is a standard
design which is to be followed for presenting report. The format of a research report has three
main divisions.

 Preliminary section.
 Main text.
 Reference section.
Research is a public enterprise . Whenever an individual undertakes a research project ,
commitment includes a responsibility to communicate the completed project to others.
Communicating the findings of the research to others is a usual link in the research process .
dissemination of research serves the scientific , professional and public functions.
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A research report is :
“a written document or oral presentation based on a written document that communicates
the purpose, scope, objective(s),hypotheses, methodology , findings, limitations and finally,
recommendations of a research project to others.”

“ A report is a clearly structured document in which the researcher identifies and examines
issues, events, or findings of a research. It contains findings, analyses of findings,
interpretations, conclusions and recommendations sometimes.”

“Reports are documents which presents specific, focused content-often the result of an
experiment, investigation, or inquiry to a specific audience.”

SIGNIFICANCE OF WRITING RESEARCH REPORT

A major component of the research study.

• Research is incomplete without report.
• It is very essential to communicate valuable research information findings made known to
others.
•It is general opinion is in favour of treating the presentation as an important part of research
writing.
• Writing of report is the last step in research study.
• It requires a separate set of skills to write reports.
• It may seek the assistance and guidance of experts for the purpose.
• Written reports give scope for future references.
• To highlight important details regarding the research process.
• It gives the readers certain insights about the research and its background.
•It helps to improves interpretation skills.

TYPES OF RESEARCH REPORTS: The various types of report are:

 Technical report: A technical report (also: scientific report) is a document that describes
the process, progress, or results of technical or scientific research or the state of a
technical or scientific research problem. It might also include recommendations and
conclusions of the research. Unlike other scientific literature, such as scientific journals
and the proceedings of some academic conferences, technical reports rarely undergo
comprehensive independent peer review before publication. Where there is a review
process, it is often limited to within the originating organization.
Outline of technical report:

❖ Summary of result

❖ Nature of study

❖ Methods employed
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❖ Data

❖ Presentation findings

❖ Conclusion

❖ Bibliography

❖ Technical appendices

❖ Index
 Popular report: The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness. The simplification should be sought through clear writing, minimization of
technical, particularly mathematical, details and liberal use of charts and diagram.
Outline of popular report:

❖ Findings and implications

❖ Recommendations for action

❖ Objective of the study

❖ Methods employed

❖ Results

❖ Appendices
 Oral presentation: Oral presentation of report is essential when the study considered
being more effective particularly in the case of policy recommendation indicated by the
project research. It gives better understanding of the findings and their implications.
 Interim report: A report submitted before expiry of stipulated period of time for the
completion of research study. It contains summary of what has been done so far and what
is outcome.
 Summary Report: A summary report is generally prepared for the consumption of the
lay audience viz the general public. It is written in non technical , simple language with a
liberal use of pictorial charts. It is a short report of two or three pages. It is so limited as
to suitable for publication in daily news paper.

eR esearch abstract: This is a short summary of the technical report. It contains a brief
presentation of the statement of the problem, the objective of the study , methods and techniques
used and an overview of the report. An abstract is a brief summary of a research article, thesis,
review, conference proceeding, or any in-depth analysis of a particular subject and is often used to help
the reader quickly ascertain the paper's purpose. When used, an abstract always appears at the beginning
of a manuscript or typescript, acting as the point-of-entry for any given academic paper or patent
application. Abstracting and indexing services for various academic disciplines are aimed at compiling a
body of literature for that particular subject.
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Research article: This is designed for publication in professional journals. A research article
reports the results of original research, assesses its contribution to the body of knowledge in a given area,
and is published in a peer-reviewed scholarly journal. A given academic field will likely have dozens of
peer-reviewed journals. For university professors, publishing their research plays a key role in
determining whether they are granted tenure. Once, research articles had only a limited audience
consisting mainly of other scholars and graduate students. Today, websites such as Google Scholar and
the proliferation of electronic academic journals have broadened the potential audience for research
articles.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH REPORT:

It should include the following characteristics :

➢ Conciseness : Lack of redundancy conciseness save the reader’s time and force the writer
to refine his ideas.

➢ Clarity : Lucidity of expression and clarity help the reader to understand the points being
made.

➢ Honesty: Honesty is necessary to maintain the respect of the reader and integrity of the
author.

➢ Completeness: Full details i.e. completeness results in a full report, thus, enabling the
reader to evaluate the study.

➢ Accuracy: A good research report should have a quality of being peruses and should be
free of errors. Accuracy is necessary to maintain the integrity of the author in the eyes of
the reader .

ISSUES FOR WRITING A REPORT: Researchers contend with various issues in

developing a dissemination plan, as we discuss in this section.

 Selecting a Communication: Outlet Research results can be presented in various

venues and types of publication. These include student related outlets (term papers,
theses, and dissertations) and professional ones (journal articles, books, reports to
funders, conference presentations). Researchers who want to communicate their
findings to other researchers or clinicians can opt to present research findings orally
or in writing. Oral presentations (typically at professional conferences) can be a
formal talk in front of an audience. Most conferences also give researchers the option
of presenting findings in poster sessions in which results are summarized on a poster.
Major advantages of oral presentations are that they typically can be done soon after
study completion, and offer opportunities for dialogue among people interested in the
same topic. Written reports can take the form of research journal articles published in
traditional professional journals, or in a variety of new outlets on the Internet. Written
journal articles have the major advantage of being available to a worldwide audience
of readers—an important consideration in thinking about how a study can contribute
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to evidence-based nursing practice.

 Knowing the Audience: Good research communication depends on providing

information that can be understood by consumers. Therefore, before researchers
develop a dissemination strategy, they should consider the audience they are hoping
to reach. Here are some questions to consider:

Will the audience include nurses only, or will it include professionals from other
disciplines (e.g., physicians, sociologists, anthropologists)?

Will the audience be primarily researchers, or will it include other professionals

(clinicians, health care administrators, health care policy makers)?

Are clients (lay people) a possible audience for the report?

Will the audience include people whose native language is not English?

Will reviewers, editors, and readers be experts in the field? These questions
underscore an important point, namely, that researchers usually have to write with
multiple audiences in mind.

This, is turn, means writing clearly and avoiding technical jargon to the extent possible. It is
also means that researchers sometimes must develop a multi prong dissemination strategy—
for example, publishing a report aimed at other nurse researchers in a journal such Nursing
Research, and then publishing a short summary of it for clinicians or clients in a hospital
newsletter.

 Developing a Plan: Before beginning to prepare research reports, researchers should

develop a plan. Part of that plan involves decisions about the communication outlet
and the audience for the report. Beyond that, researchers also have to coordinate the
actual tasks of preparing a manuscript (i.e., an unpublished paper or document).

 Deciding on Authorship: When a study has been completed by a team or by several

colleagues, one critical part of the plan involves division of labor and authorship.
Authorship can be a tricky business. The International Committee of Medical Journal
Editors (ICMJE, 1997) advises that authorship credit should be given only to those
who have made a substantial contribution to:

 the conception and design of the study, or to data analysis and interpretation;

 drafting or revising the manuscript; and

 approving the final version of the manuscript.

The lead author, who is usually the first named author, is the person who has overall
responsibility for the report and, usually, for the study. The lead author and co-authors should
plan in advance for the roles and responsibilities of each team member in producing the
manuscript. To avoid the possibility of subsequent conflicts, they should also plan on the
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order of authors’ names in advance. Ethically, it is most appropriate to order names in the
order of authors’ contribution to the work, not according to status. When contributions of co-
authors are comparable, names are usually listed alphabetically. Issues arising when there are
multiple authors are discussed by Erlen, Siminoff, Sereika, and Sutton (1997).

 Deciding on Content: Many studies collect far more data than can be reported on in
a single journal article, poster, or conference presentation, and thus lend themselves
to multiple publications. In such a situation, an early decision involves what aspects
of a study to write about in a given paper. If there are multiple and complex research
questions or hypotheses, perhaps several papers will be required to communicate
important results adequately. Researchers who collect both qualitative and
quantitative data often report on each separately. Sometimes there are substantive,
theoretical, and methodologic findings, each of which is intended for different
audiences and merit separate papers.

Other materials also need to be pulled together and organized for easy retrieval. This includes
notes about the relevant literature and references; instruments used in the study; descriptions
of the study sample; output of computer analyses; relevant analytic memos or reflexive notes;
figures or photographs that illustrate some aspect of the study; and permissions to use
copyrighted materials.

I. Preparing an Outline : Written outlines are extremely useful as an organizing tool.

Outlines provide guidance for the content to be covered in a manuscript, and suggest
ways in which smooth transitions between sections can be made. Research reports
usually follow a fixed flow of content, as we subsequently discuss, but an outline with
major headings and subheadings helps researchers to get an overview of the task
ahead.

A written outline is essential if there are multiple co-authors who each have responsibility for
different sections of the manuscript. The overall outline and individual assignments should
be developed collaboratively.

One final advantage of having an outline is that it can be incorporated into a timeline that sets
goals or deadlines for completing the manuscript. Having a timeline cannot ensure that a
manuscript will be completed in a timely fashion. Without a timeline, the dissemination
phase can drag on for months or, worse yet, never reach completion. Authors can use the
outline to establish goals for small and relatively manageable tasks.

II. Writing Effectively : Writing well is, of course, important, and there are resources
that offer suggestions on how to write compelling sentences, select good words, and
organize your ideas effectively (e.g., Iles, 1997; Browner, 1999). It is equally
important, however, to not get bogged down at the beginning. Writing a first draft is
harder than editing and revising. It is usually better to write a draft in its entirety, and
then go back later to rewrite awkward sentences, correct spelling and grammatical
errors, reorganize sentences or paragraphs, insert more compelling or precise words,
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smooth the transitions, and generally polish it up.

DIFFERENT STEPS IN WRITING REPORT

Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work. The usual
steps involved in writing report are:

I. Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step which is primarily
concerned with the development of a subject. There are two ways in which to develop
a subject

(a) Logically and

(b) Chronologically.
The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections and associations
between the one thing and another by means of analysis. Logical treatment often consists in
developing the material from the simple possible to the most complex structures.
Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence. The
directions for doing or making something usually follow the chronological order.

II. Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing the research report
“Outlines are the framework upon which long written works are constructed. They
are an aid to the logical organization of the material and a reminder of the points to be
stressed in the report.”

III. Preparation of the rough draft: This follows the logical analysis of the subject and
the preparation of the final outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for the
researcher now sits to write down what he has done in the context of his research
study. He will write down the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for
his study along with various limitations faced by him, the technique of analysis
adopted by him, the broad findings and generalizations and the various suggestions he
wants to offer regarding the problem concerned.

IV. Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: This step happens to be most difficult
part of all formal writing. Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the
rough draft. The careful revision makes the difference between a mediocre and a good
piece of writing. While rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for
weaknesses in logical development or presentation. The researcher should also “see
whether or not the material, as it is presented, has unity and cohesion; does the report
stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite pattern, like a marble arch? Or does it
resemble an old wall of moldering cement and loose brick.”4 In addition the
researcher should give due attention to the fact that in his rough draft he has been
consistent or not. He should check the mechanics of writing—grammar, spelling and
usage.

V. Preparation of the final bibliography: Next in order comes the task of the
preparation of the final bibliography. The bibliography, which is generally appended
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to the research report, is a list of books in some way pertinent to the research which
has been done. It should contain all those works which the researcher has consulted.
The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided into two
parts; the first part may contain the names of books and pamphlets, and the second
part may contain the names of magazine and newspaper articles. Generally, this
pattern of bibliography is considered convenient and satisfactory from the point of
view of reader, though it is not the only way of presenting bibliography. The entries
in bibliography should be made adopting the following order:

For books and pamphlets the order may be as under:

1. Name of author, last name first.
2. Title, underlined to indicate italics.
3. Place, publisher, and date of publication.
4. Number of volumes.

Example Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt.
Ltd., 1978.

For magazines and newspapers the order may be as under:

1. Name of the author, last name first.
2. Title of article, in quotation marks.
3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics.
4. The volume or volume and number.
5. The date of the issue.
6. The pagination.

Example Robert V. Roosa, “Coping with Short-term International Money Flows”, The
Banker, London, September, 1971, p. 995.

The above examples are just the samples for bibliography entries and may be used, but one
should also remember that they are not the only acceptable forms. The only thing important
is that, whatever method one selects, it must remain consistent.

VI. Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The final draft should be
written in a concise and objective style and in simple language, avoiding vague
expressions such as “it seems”, “there may be”, and the like ones. While writing the
final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon.
Illustrations and examples based on common experiences must be incorporated in the
final draft as they happen to be most effective in communicating the research findings
to others. A research report should not be dull, but must enthuse people and maintain
interest and must show originality. It must be remembered that every report should be
an attempt to solve some intellectual problem and must contribute to the solution of a
problem and must add to the knowledge of both the researcher and the reader.

LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

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Anybody, who is reading the research report, must necessarily be conveyed enough about the
study so that he can place it in its general scientific context, judge the adequacy of its methods
and thus form an opinion of how seriously the findings are to be taken. For this purpose there is
the need of proper layout of the report. The layout of the report means as to what the research
report should contain. A comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise (A)
preliminary pages; (B) the main text; and (C) the end matter. Let us deal with them separately.

(A) Preliminary Pages

In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by acknowledgements
in the form of ‘Preface’ or ‘Foreword’. Then there should be a table of contents followed by list
of tables and illustrations so that the decision-maker or anybody interested in reading the report
can easily locate the required information in the report.

(B) Main Text

The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all details. Title of
the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text and then follows the
other details on pages numbered consecutively, beginning with the second page. Each main
section of the report should begin on a new page. The main text of the report should have the
following sections: (i) Introduction; (ii) Statement of findings and recommendations; (iii) The
results; (iv) The implications drawn from the results; and (v) The summary.

i. Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to

the readers. It should contain a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e.,
enough background should be given to make clear to the reader why the problem
was considered worth investigating. A brief summary of other relevant research
may also be stated so that the present study can be seen in that context. The
hypotheses of study, if any, and the definitions of the major concepts employed in
the study should be explicitly stated in the introduction of the report. The
methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully explained. The
scientific reader would like to know in detail about such thing:

ii. How was the study carried out?

iii. What was its basic design?

iv. If the study was an experimental one, then what were the experimental
manipulations?

v. If the data were collected by means of questionnaires or interviews, then exactly

what questions were asked (The questionnaire or interview schedule is usually
given in an appendix)?

If measurements were based on observation, then what instructions were given to the
observers?
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Regarding the sample used in the study the reader should be told:

o Who were the subjects?

o How many were there?

o How were they selected?

The statistical analysis adopted must also be clearly stated. In addition to all this, the
scope of the study should be stated and the boundary lines be demarcated. The various
limitations, under which the research project was completed, must also be narrated.

ii. Statement of findings and recommendations: After introduction, the research report must
contain a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language so that it can be
easily understood by all concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive, at this point they
should be put in the summarized form.

iii. Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the
form of tables and charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing the main
text of the report. This generally comprises the main body of the report, extending over several
chapters. The result section of the report should contain statistical summaries and reductions of
the data rather than the raw data. All the results should be presented in logical sequence and
splited into readily identifiable sections. All relevant results must find a place in the report. But
how one is to decide about what is relevant is the basic question. Quite often guidance comes
primarily from the research problem and from the hypotheses, if any, with which the study was
concerned. But ultimately the researcher must rely on his own judgement in deciding the outline
of his report.

iv. Implications of the results: Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again put
down the results of his research clearly and precisely. He should, state the implications that flow
from the results of the study, for the general reader is interested in the implications for
understanding the human behaviour. Such implications may have three aspects as stated
below:

(a) A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be expected to apply
in similar circumstances.
(b) The conditions of the present study which may limit the extent of legitimate generalizations
of the inferences drawn from the study.
(c) Thc relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the study
along with suggestions for the kind of research that would provide answers for them.

(C) End Matter

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At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data such as
questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones. Bibliography of
sources consulted should also be given. Index (an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics
along with the numbers of the pages in a book or report on which they are mentioned or
discussed) should invariably be given at the end of the report. The value of index lies in the fact
that it works as a guide to the reader for the contents in the report.

PRECAUTIONS FOR WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS

Research report is a channel of communicating the research findings to the readers of the report.
A good research report is one which does this task efficiently and effectively. As such it must be
prepared keeping the following precautions in view:

1. While determining the length of the report (since research reports vary greatly in length), one
should keep in view the fact that it should be long enough to cover the subject but short enough
to maintain interest. In fact, report-writing should not be a means to learning more and more
about less and less.
2. A research report should not, if this can be avoided, be dull; it should be such as to sustain
reader’s interest.
3. Abstract terminology and technical jargon should be avoided in a research report. The report
should be able to convey the matter as simply as possible. This, in other words, means that report
should be written in an objective style in simple language, avoiding expressions such as “it
seems,” “there may be” and the like.
4. Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of the main findings and as such
the report must provide a ready availability of the findings. For this purpose, charts,

6 Claire Selltiz and others, Research Methods in Social Relations rev., Methuen & Co. Ltd.,
London, 1959, p. 454. graphs and the statistical tables may be used for the various results in the
main report in addition to the summary of important findings.
5. The layout of the report should be well thought out and must be appropriate and in accordance
with the objective of the research problem.
6. The reports should be free from grammatical mistakes and must be prepared strictly in
accordance with the techniques of composition of report-writing such as the use of quotations,
footnotes, documentation, proper punctuation and use of abbreviations in footnotes and the like.
7. The report must present the logical analysis of the subject matter. It must reflect a structure
wherein the different pieces of analysis relating to the research problem fit well.
8. A research report should show originality and should necessarily be an attempt to solve some
intellectual problem. It must contribute to the solution of a problem and must add to the store of
knowledge.
9. Towards the end, the report must also state the policy implications relating to the problem
under consideration. It is usually considered desirable if the report makes a forecast of the
probable future of the subject concerned and indicates the kinds of research still needs to be done
 15

in that particular field.

10. Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all the technical data in the report.
11. Bibliography of sources consulted is a must for a good report and must necessarily be given.
12. Index is also considered an essential part of a good report and as such must be prepared and
appended at the end.
13. Report must be attractive in appearance, neat and clean, whether typed or printed.
14. Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in
conducting the research study may also be stated in the report.
15. Objective of the study, the nature of the problem, the methods employed and the analysis
techniques adopted must all be clearly stated in the beginning of the report in the form of
introduction.

Writing research report styles :

I. Vancouver style : The Vancouver style or Uniform Requirements Style , is

based on an American National Standards Institute ( ANSI ) adapted by the National
Library of Medicine for databases such as Medline. It was developed in 1978 by
editors’ of medical journals who now meet annually as the International Committee of
Medical Journal Editors. Vancouver is a numbered referencing style commonly used
in medicine and science, and consists of:

• Citations in the text, using numbers

• A numbered reference list at the end of the document

It follows rules established by the International committee of Medical Journal Editors,

now maintained by the U.S. National Library of Medicine. It is also knows as
Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts submitted to Biomedical Journals. In the
Vancouver Style, citations within the text of your essay/paper are identified by Arabic
numbers in round brackets. This applies to references in text, tables and figures. e.g.
(2) – this is the style used by the referencing software Endnote.

CHARACTERISTICS :

The identification of references within the text of your essay/paper may vary according to the
preferred style of the journal or the preferred style of the department or lecturer. For example
superscript may be preferred when referencing.
• The Vancouver System assigns a number to each reference as it is cited. A number must be
used even if the author(s) is named in the sentence/text. Example: Smith (10) has argued
that….
• The original number assigned to the reference is reused each time the reference is cited in the
text, regardless of its previous position in the text.

 When multiple references are cited at a given place in the text, use a hyphen to join the
first and last numbers that are inclusive. Use commas (without spaces) to separate non
inclusive numbers in a multiple citation eg. 2,3,4,5,7,10 is abbreviated to (2-5,7,10) Do
 16

not use a hyphen if there are no citation numbers in between that support your statement
eg.12. •
The placement of citation numbers within text should be carefully considered, for
example a particular reference may be relevant to only part of a sentence.

As a general rule, reference numbers should be placed outside full stops and commas, inside
colons and semicolons; however, this may vary according to the requirements of a particular
journal. Examples: There have been efforts to replace mouse inoculation testing with in vitro
tests, such as enzyme linked immune sorbent assays (57,60) or polymerase chain reaction,
(2022) but these remain experimental. Moir and Jessel maintain “that the sexes are
interchangeable”.

METHODS OF CITING IN VANCOUVER STYLE :

A. CITING A BOOK:

The essential details required are (in order):

1. Name/s of author/s, editor/s, compiler/s or the institution responsible.

• Where there are 6 or less authors you must list all authors.
• Where there are 7 or more authors, only the first 6 are listed and add “et al” (et al means
“and others”).
• Put a comma and 1 space between each name. The last author must have a full-stop
after their initial(s). Format: surname (1 space) initial/s (no spaces or punctuation
between initials) (full-stop OR if further names comma, 1 space)

Example 1.1: Smith AK, Jones BC, editors.

Example1.2: Smith AK, Jones BC, Bloggs TC, Ashe PT, Fauci AS, Wilson JD et al.
Example 1.3: The Cardiac Society of Australia and New Zealand.
Example 1.4: When no author is given “Anonymous” or “Anon” is unnecessary. Us the
title of the article or book.

2. Title of publication and subtitle if any

• Do not use italics or underlining.
• Only the first word of journal articles or book titles (and words that normally begin with
a capital letter) are capitalised. Format: 1: title (full-stop, 1 space)
Example 2.1: Harrison's principles of internal medicine.
Example 2.2: Physical pharmacy: physical chemical principles in the pharmaceutical
sciences.
Example 2.3: Pharmacy in Australia: the national experience

3. Edition, if other than first edition.

• Abbreviate the word edition to:- ed. (Do not confuse with editor.) Format: edition
statement (fullstop, 1 space)
Example 3.1: 3rd ed.
 17

4. Place of publication
• If the publishers are located in more than one city, cite the name of the city that is
printed first.
• Write the place name in full.
• If the place name is not well known, add a comma, 1 space and the state or the country
for clarification. For places in the USA, add after the place name the 2 letter postal code
for the state. This must be in upper case eg. Hartford (CN): (where CN=Connecticut).
For more information see: <http://www.usps.com/ncsc/lookups/usps_abbreviations.htm>.
Format: place of publication (colon, 1 space)

Example 4.1: Hartford (CN):

Example 4.2: Texas (NSW): Example 4.3: Kyoto (Japan):

5. Publisher
• The publisher’s name should be spelt out in full. Format: publisher (semi-colon, 1
space)

Example 5.1: Australian Government Publishing Service;

Example 5.2: Raven Press;
Example 5.3: Williams & Wilkins;

6. Year of publication.
Format: year (full-stop, add 1 space if page numbers follow)
Example 6.1: 1999.
Example 6.2: 2000. p. 12-5.

7. Page numbers (if applicable).

• Abbreviate the word page to “p.”.
• NOTE: do not repeat digits unnecessarily – abbreviate. Format: p (full-stop, 1 space)
page numbers (full-stop).
Example 7.1: p. 122-9.
Example 7.2: p. 1129-57.
Example 7.3: p. 333,338,340-5. (when article not on continuous pages)

8. Series title and individual volume (if any).

• Put in brackets.
• Abbreviate the word volume to “vol”. Format: (Series title (semi-colon, 1 space) vol (1
space) volume number) fullstop outside brackets
Example 8.1: (Annals of the New York academy of sciences; vol 288).

B. CITING A JOURNAL ARTICLE :

The essential details required are (in order):

1. Name/s of author/s of the article.

2. Title of article.
 18

Example 2.1: Validation of an immunoassay for measurement of plasma total

homocysteine.

3. Title of journal (abbreviated).

• Abbreviate title according to the style used in Medline. A list of abbreviations can be
found at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=journals
• Note: no punctuation marks are used in the abbreviated journal name – just spaces.
Format: journal title abbreviation (1 space)
Example 3.1: Bol Soc Dent Guatem
Example 3.2: J Mol Biol

4. Year (and month/day if necessary/available) of publication.

• Abbreviate the month to the first 3 letters.
Format: year (1 space) month (1space) day (semi-colon, no space) OR year (semi-colon,
no space)
Example 4.1: 1996 Jun 1;12(5):127-33.

5. Volume number (and issue/part -).

• *If the journal has continuous page numbering through volume’s issues, the month/day
and issue information may be omitted.
Format: volume number (no space) issue number in brackets (colon, no space) OR
volume number (colon, no space)
Example 5.1: 1996;12(5):127-33. or 1996;12:127-33

6. Page numbers
Do not repeat digits unnecessarily
Format: page numbers (full-stop)
Example 6.1: 531-5

C. CITING CONFERENCES : Treat the proceedings of a conference like a book,

adding pertinent information about the conference and cite a presentation from the
proceedings like a work in a collection of pieces by different authors:

 Conference Papers : Bengtsson S, Solheim BG. Enforcement of data protection,

privacy and security in medical informatics. In: Lun KC, Degoulet P, Piemme TE,
Reinhoff O, editors. MEDINFO 92. Proceedings of the 7th World Congress on Medical
Informatics; 1992 Sep 6-10; Geneva, Switzerland. Amsterdam: North-Holland; 1992. p.
1561-5.

 Conference Proceedings: Kimura J, Shibasaki H, editors. Recent advances in clinical

neurophysiology. Proceedings of the 10th International Congress of EMG and Clinical
Neurophysiology; 1995 Oct 15-19; Kyoto, Japan. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1996.

D. CITING A NEWSPAPER ARTICLE: The details may vary depending on the layout of
the newspaper eg. section may not be relevant.
Format: Author if given (full-stop, 1 space)
Title of article (full-stop, 1 space)
 19

Name of newspaper (1 space)

Date of edition (year Month Day) (semi-colon, no space)
Section if applicable (section abbreviated to Sect.) (colon, no space)
Page/s (1 space)
Column number in round brackets (column abbreviated to col.) (full-stop) Lee G.
Hospitalizations tied to ozone pollution: study estimates 50,000 admissions annually.
The Washington Post 1996 Jun 21;Sect. A:3 (col. 5).

E. CITING MULTIMEDIA MATERIAL: The details required are the same as for a book,
with the form of the item indicated in brackets after the title and edition statement.
Get the facts (and get them organised) [videocassette]. Williamstown (Vic): Appleseed
Productions; 1990.

F. CITING INTERNET and OTHER ELECTRONIC SOURCES : This includes

software and Internet sources such as web sites, electronic journals and databases. These sources
are proliferating and the guidelines for citation are developing and subject to change.

a. Journal on the Internet :

Format: Author/s (full-stop after last author, 1 space) Title of article (full-stop, 1 space)
Abbreviated title of electronic journal (1 space) [serial online] (1 space) Publication year (1
space) month(s) - if available (1 space) [cited year month (abbreviated) day] - in square brackets
(semi colon, 1 space) Volume number (no space) Issue number if applicable in round brackets
(colon) Page numbers or number of screens in square brackets (full-stop, 1 space) Available
from (colon, 1 space) URL:URL address underlined.

Example: Morse SS. Factors in the emergence of infectious disease. Emerg Infect Dis [serial
online] 1995 Jan-Mar [cited 1999 Dec 25]; 1(1):[24 screens]. Available from:URL:
http://www/cdc/gov/ncidoc/EID/eid.htm Garfinkel PE, Lin E, Goering P. Should amenorrhoea
be necessary for the diagnosis of anorexia nervosa? Br J Psych [serial online] 1996 [cited 1999
Aug 17]; 168(4):500-6. Available from: URL:http://biomed.niss.ac.uk
b. WWW site

Format: Author (full-stop after last author, 1 space) Title (full-stop, 1 space) [Online] (full stop,
1 space) Publication Year (1 space) [cited year month (abbreviated) day] (semi colon) Number of
screens in square brackets or pages (full-stop, 1 space) Available from (colon, 1 space) URL: (no
space) URL address underlined

Examples: National Organization for Rare Diseases [Online]. 1999 Aug 16 [cited 1999 Aug 21];
Available from: URL:http://www.rarediseases.org/
G. WEB BASED/ONLINE DATABASES:
 20

Format : Author/editor. (full stop, 1 space) Title (full stop, 1 space) [type of medium = Online]
(full stop, 1 space) Publishing details if available. Available from: (1 space) Title and publishing
details of the database if available. [cited date] (full stop)

Example :Kirkpatrick GL. Viral infections of the respiratory tract. In: Family Medicine. 5th ed.
[Online]. 1998. Available from: Stat!Ref. Jackson (WY): Teton Data Systems; 2001. [cited 2001
Aug 31].

d. Other Software:

Format: Title (1 space) medium in square brackets [eg. computer program, computer file] (full-
stop, 1 space) Version (full-stop, 1 space) Place of production (colon, 1 space) Producer (semi-
colon, 1 space) Year (full-stop)

Example: Epi Info [computer program]. Version 6. Atlanta (GA): Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention; 1994.

II. AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION : The APA style refers to the method
of writing research papers recommended by the American Psychological
Association. The APA style is used in the social sciences and is governed by two
basic ideas. The first is that a scientific paper attempts to show something that has
already been proven true, so it calls for the past or present perfect tense when you
cite the work of others. Second, the year of publication is important, so you need to
feature it immediately after any named source in the text.
CHARACTERISTICS :

 Always double space, including the text of your paper, quotations, notes, and the reference
page.
 Leave margins of at least one-inch at the top, bottom, right, and left of every page.
 Use parenthetical citations to acknowledge direct quotations, indirect quotations, and/or any
ideas you have borrowed from another person.
 Use a reference page for reference to parenthetical citations.
 Within the text of your paper, underline titles of books, plays, pamphlets, periodicals, films,
television programs, and recordings; place in quotation marks titles of articles, essays in
anthologies, book chapters, and lectures.
 Number pages in the upper right hand corner. Include a running head.

Sections of a Research Report

I. Title Page and Abstract

An APA-style research report begins with a title page. The title is centered in the upper half of the

page, with each important word capitalized. The title should clearly and concisely (in about 12 words
 21

or fewer) communicate the primary variables and research questions. This sometimes requires a

main title followed by a subtitle that elaborates on the main title, in which case the main title and

subtitle are separated by a colon. Here are some titles from recent issues of professional journals

published by the American Psychological Association.

 Sex Differences in Coping Styles and Implications for Depressed Mood

 Effects of Aging and Divided Attention on Memory for Items and Their Contexts

 Computer-Assisted Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Child Anxiety: Results of a Randomized

Clinical Trial

 Virtual Driving and Risk Taking: Do Racing Games Increase Risk-Taking Cognitions, Affect,

and Behavior?

Below the title are the authors’ names and, on the next line, their institutional affiliation—the

university or other institution where the authors worked when they conducted the research. The

abstract is a summary of the study. It is the second page of the manuscript and is headed with the

word Abstract. The first line is not indented. The abstract presents the research question, a summary

of the method, the basic results, and the most important conclusions. Because the abstract is usually

limited to about 200 words, it can be a challenge to write a good one.

II. Introduction

The introduction begins on the third page of the manuscript. The heading at the top of this page is

the full title of the manuscript, with each important word capitalized as on the title page. The

introduction includes three distinct subsections, although these are typically not identified by

separate headings. The opening introduces the research question and explains why it is interesting,

the literature review discusses relevant previous research, and the closing restates the research

question and comments on the method used to answer it.

III. The Opening

 22

The opening, which is usually a paragraph or two in length, introduces the research question and

explains why it is interesting. To capture the reader’s attention, researcher Daryl Bem recommends

starting with general observations about the topic under study, expressed in ordinary language (not

technical jargon)—observations that are about people and their behavior (not about researchers or

their research; Bem, 2003).Bem, D. J. (2003). Writing the empirical journal article. In J. M. Darley,

M. P. Zanna, & H. R. Roediger III (Eds.), The compleat academic: A practical guide for the

beginning social scientist (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Concrete

examples are often very useful here.

After capturing the reader’s attention, the opening should go on to introduce the research question

and explain why it is interesting. Will the answer fill a gap in the literature? Will it provide a test of

an important theory? Does it have practical implications? Giving readers a clear sense of what the

research is about and why they should care about it will motivate them to continue reading the

literature review—and will help them make sense of it.

IV. The Literature Review

Immediately after the opening comes the literature review, which describes relevant previous

research on the topic and can be anywhere from several paragraphs to several pages in length.

However, the literature review is not simply a list of past studies. Like any effective argument, the

literature review must have some kind of structure. For example, it might begin by describing a

phenomenon in a general way along with several studies that demonstrate it, then describing two or

more competing theories of the phenomenon, and finally presenting a hypothesis to test one or more

of the theories.

First, it is extremely important to start with an outline of the main points that you want to make,

organized in the order that you want to make them. The basic structure of your argument, then,

should be apparent from the outline itself. Second, it is important to emphasize the structure of your

argument in your writing.

In other words, literature review must be balanced. If want to emphasize the generality of a
 23

phenomenon, then discuss various studies that have demonstrated it. However, if there are other

studies that have failed to demonstrate it, discuss them too.

V . Closing

The closing of the introduction—typically the final paragraph or two—usually includes two important

elements. The first is a clear statement of the main research question or hypothesis. This

statement tends to be more formal and precise than in the opening and is often expressed in terms of

operational definitions of the key variables. The second is a brief overview of the method and

some comment on its appropriateness. Here, for example, is how Darley and Latané

(1968)Darley, J. M., & Latané, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of

responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 377–383. concluded the

introduction to their classic article on the bystander effect:

These considerations lead to the hypothesis that the more bystanders to an emergency, the less

likely, or the more slowly, any one bystander will intervene to provide aid. To test this proposition it

would be necessary to create a situation in which a realistic “emergency” could plausibly occur. Each

subject should also be blocked from communicating with others to prevent his getting information

about their behavior during the emergency. Finally, the experimental situation should allow for the

assessment of the speed and frequency of the subjects’ reaction to the emergency.

Method

The method section is where we describe how we conducted our study. An important principle for

writing a method section is that it should be clear and detailed enough that other researchers could

replicate the study . This means that it must describe all the important elements of the study—basic

demographic characteristics of the participants, how they were recruited, whether they were

randomly assigned, how the variables were manipulated or measured, how counterbalancing was

accomplished, and so on.

The method section begins immediately after the introduction ends with the heading

“Method” (not “Methods”) centered on the page. Immediately after this is the subheading
 24

“Participants,” left justified and in italics. The participants subsection indicates how many

participants there were, the number of women and men, some indication of their age, other

demographics that may be relevant to the study, and how they were recruited, including any

incentives given for participation.

There are three main sections. In the first, the participants section is followed by a design and

procedure subsection, which describes the rest of the method. This works well for methods that are

relatively simple and can be described adequately in a few paragraphs. In the second approach, the

participants section is followed by separate design and procedure subsections. This works well when

both the design and the procedure are relatively complicated and each requires multiple paragraphs.

In the third basic way to organize a method section, the participants subsection is followed by a

materials subsection before the design and procedure subsections. This works well when there are

complicated materials to describe. This might mean multiple questionnaires, written vignettes that

participants read and respond to, perceptual stimuli, and so on. The heading of this subsection can

be modified to reflect its content. Instead of “Materials,” it can be “Questionnaires,” “Stimuli,” and so

on.

V. Results

The results section is where we present the main results of the study, including the results of the

statistical analyses. Although it does not include the raw data—individual participants’ responses or

scores—researchers should save their raw data and make them available to other researchers who

request them. Some journals now make the raw data available online.

Although there are no standard subsections, it is still important for the results section to be logically

organized. Typically it begins with certain preliminary issues. For example, if participants rated the

attractiveness of 20 stimulus people, you might have to explain that you began by computing the

mean attractiveness rating for each participant. Or if they recalled as many items as they could from

study list of 20 words, did you count the number correctly recalled, compute the percentage correctly

recalled, or perhaps compute the number correct minus the number incorrect? A third preliminary
 25

issue is the reliability of the measures. This is where we would present test-retest correlations,

Cronbach’s α, or other statistics to show that the measures are consistent across time and across

items. A final preliminary issue is whether the manipulation was successful.

The results section should then tackle the primary research questions, one at a time. Again, there

should be a clear organization. One approach would be to answer the most general questions and

then proceed to answer more specific ones. Another would be to answer the main question first and

then to answer secondary ones.

Remind the reader of the research question.

1. Give the answer to the research question in words.

2. Present the relevant statistics.

3. Qualify the answer if necessary.

4. Summarize the result.

VI. Discussion

The discussion is the last major section of the research report. Discussions usually consist of some

combination of the following elements:

 Summary of the research

 Theoretical implications

 Practical implications

 Limitations

 Suggestions for future research

The discussion typically begins with a summary of the study that provides a clear answer to the

research question. In a short report with a single study, this might require no more than a sentence.

In a longer report with multiple studies, it might require a paragraph or even two. The summary is

often followed by a discussion of the theoretical implications of the research. Do the results provide

support for any existing theories? If not, how can they be explained? Although you do not have to

provide a definitive explanation or detailed theory for your results, you at least need to outline one or
 26

more possible explanations. In applied research—and often in basic research—there is also some

discussion of the practical implications of the research. How can the results be used, and by whom,

to accomplish some real-world goal?

The theoretical and practical implications are often followed by a discussion of the study’s

limitations. Perhaps there are problems with its internal or external validity. Most discussions end

with some suggestions for future research. If the study did not satisfactorily answer the original

research question, what will it take to do so? What new research questions has the study raised? This

part of the discussion, however, is not just a list of new questions. It is a discussion of two or three of

the most important unresolved issues. This means identifying and clarifying each question,

suggesting some alternative answers, and even suggesting ways they could be studied.

VII. References

The references section begins on a new page with the heading “References” centered at the top of the

page. All references cited in the text are then listed in the format presented earlier. They are listed

alphabetically by the last name of the first author. If two sources have the same first author, they are

listed alphabetically by the last name of the second author. If all the authors are the same, then they

are listed chronologically by the year of publication. Everything in the reference list is double-spaced

both within and between references.

VIII. Appendixes, Tables, and Figures

Appendixes, tables, and figures come after the references. An appendix is appropriate for

supplemental material that would interrupt the flow of the research report if it were presented within

any of the major sections. An appendix could be used to present lists of stimulus words,

questionnaire items, detailed descriptions of special equipment or unusual statistical analyses, or

references to the studies that are included in a meta-analysis. Each appendix begins on a new page. If

there is only one, the heading is “Appendix,” centered at the top of the page. If there is more than

one, the headings are “Appendix A,” “Appendix B,” and so on, and they appear in the order they were

first mentioned in the text of the report.

 27

After any appendixes come tables and then figures. Tables and figures are both used to

present results. Figures can also be used to illustrate theories (e.g., in the form of a flowchart),

display stimuli, outline procedures, and present many other kinds of information. Each table and

figure appears on its own page. Tables are numbered in the order that they are first mentioned in the

text (“Table 1,” “Table 2,” and so on). Figures are numbered the same way (“Figure 1,” “Figure 2,” and

so on). A brief explanatory title, with the important words capitalized, appears above each table.

Each figure is given a brief explanatory caption, where (aside from proper nouns or names) only the

first word of each sentence is capitalized.

III. CAMPBELL STYLE : There are three stages in the production of a Campbell review: (1)
title registration, (2) protocol, and (3) review. You will find a Word template for each of these
three stages, with a 'Campbell template instructions' document in our online library. The
editorial process for your review will be managed by one Campbell’s Coordinating Groups.
General guidance can be found in Campbell’s Policies and Guidelines and Expectations and
guidance for systematic review authors. See the bottom of this page for a list of links to the
resources needed.

1. TITLE REGISTRATION: The first step is to complete the title registration form (TRF). Please read
the document 'Campbell template instructions' before filling in the form. The proposed title for your
systematic review should clearly state the scope of the review. This scope should be determined in
consultation with key stakeholders including intended end users. Guidance on formulating the review title
may be found in the Cochrane Handbook, which is the basis for the suggested title format you will find in
the TRF template. An additional resource to assist at the title stage is The Equity Checklist. The
completed TRF should be sent directly to the Managing Editor of the Coordinating Group with which the
review will be registered. You can expect a response regarding your proposed title within 10 working
days. The approved TRF is published in the Campbell Library.

2. PROTOCOL : The next stage is to develop the review protocol. In addition to following the template,
authors may consult the Protocol guidelines document. Campbell has adopted the Methodological
Expectations of Campbell Collaboration Intervention Reviews (MECCIR) to guide the conduct and
reporting of systematic reviews. It is important that these guidelines are adhered to ensure that your
review can be published in the Campbell Library. Although the list of requirements may seem quite long,
they are the building blocks of a high quality systematic review, and most of the items are very
straightforward to implement. For developing the protocol you should consult the MECCIR conduct
standards. The standards indicate which items are relevant at the protocol stage. We may also find it
useful to consult those the Methods Policy Briefs which are relevant to review.
The protocol we submit will be reviewed though a process managed by one Coordinating Group’s
Editors. It will be sent for external refereeing by both a content expert and a methods specialist. The
Editor will provide with a consolidated set of comments with guidance on required revisions. These
comments are often more detailed than those may be used to from the usual journal refereeing process.
 28

There may be more than one round of refereeing. The approved protocol is published in the Campbell
Library.

Once the protocol is approved, the review team is required to sign an agreement with the Coordinating
Group which lays out the roles and responsibilities of each.

3. REVIEW : After the protocol is accepted, the work of producing the review itself begins. The review
should be prepared using the review template, available from our online library, along with template
instructions. The MECCIR reporting standards give more details on how specifics parts of the review
should be presented. Remember to consult the MECCIR conduct standards also, and to check if any
Methods Policy Briefs are applicable to your review. The review will be sent for external refereeing,
usually by the same referees as commented on the protocol. The Editor will provide you with a
consolidated set of comments with guidance on required revisions. More than one round of refereeing
may be necessary. The completed review should be submitted with an Agreement that you will comply
with the requirement to update the review after three years.

4. PUBLISHING THE REVIEW : After the review is accepted, we will make sure that
the review is presented in the Campbell design and that it includes all the information
necessary for our online library. The final proofs will be sent to the corresponding author
for approval. Once this is done, it will be published officially in the online Campbell
Library and can be freely distributed as per our open access policy. The promotion of the
review is a responsibility shared between the authors, the supporting institutions, the
Coordinating Group and the Campbell Secretariat. Typically, we will write about the
completed review on our website in our newsletters and on social media. We will
produce a plain language summary (PLS) and promote it to policy makers, practitioners
and intermediary organisations who reach these groups.

Writing a scientific article

The method of communicating scientific findings to the broad community of scientists in a uniform
manner. This format allows the paper to be read at several different levels. For example, many people
skim Titles to find out what information is available on a subject. Others may read only titles and
Abstracts. Those wanting to go deeper may look at the Tables and Figures in the Results, and so on. The
take home point here is that the scientific format helps to insure that at whatever level a person reads your
paper (beyond title skimming), they will likely get the key results and conclusions. Most journal-style
scientific papers are subdivided into the following sections: Title, Authors and Affiliation, Abstract,
Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, Acknowledgments, and Literature Cited, which
parallel the experimental process. This is the system we will use. This website describes the style,
content, and format associated with each section.

The sections appear in a journal style paper in the following prescribed order:

Sr. no Experimental process Section of Paper

.
What did I do in a nutshell? Abstract
1)
 29

What is the problem? Introduction

2)
How did I solve the problem? Materials and Methods
3)
What did I find out? Results
4)
What does it mean? Discussion
5)
Who helped me out? Acknowledgments (optional)
6)
Whose work did I refer to? Literature Cited
7)
Extra Information Appendices (optional)
8)

STEPS TO WRITE A SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE :

1. Getting ready with data Getting ready with data :

Gather all important data, analyses, plots and tables . Organize results so that they follow a logical
sequence (this may or may not be in the order of experiments conducted) . Consolidate data plots and
create figures for the manuscript (Limit the number of total figures (6-8 is usually a good number).
Include additional data, multimedia in the Supporting Information.) . Discuss the data with your advisor
and note down important points
2. First draft: Identify two or three important findings emerging from the experiments. Make them the
central theme of the article. Note good and bad writing styles in the literature. Some are simple and easy
to follow, some are just too complex. Note the readership of the journal that you are considering to
publish your work . Prepare figures, schemes and tables in a professional manner (Pay attention to
quantification of data accuracy, significant digits, error bars,)

3. Structure of writing research report

a. Title page : Full title of the paper , which should be concise , informative and
generally not exceeding 10-12 words . Title of the articles is followed by the
name of the authors in the form of the publication should be provided. One of the
authors should be designated to receive correspondence , who must take
responsibility of keeping the other authors informed of the progress of the paper .

b. Abstract : The abstract should be brief , concise, and factual , generally not
exceeding 100-200 words in length. May be written in the form of a paragraph
consisting brief information about the introduction, objective , sample, sampling
technique, main results and conclusion . abstract must be followed by four to five
keywords for indexing purpose

c. Main text : Generally manuscript contains the 2500-3000 words, including the
references . The main text of the article should be divided into sections , with the
headings given below :

Introduction
•Start the section with a general background of the topic.
 30

•Add 2-3 paragraphs that discuss previous work

. •Point out issues that are being addressed in the present work.

Experimental Section
•Divide this section into Objectives, Materials & Methods, Characterization, Measurements and Data
analysis

Results and Discussion (These two sections can be combined or separate)

•Describe the results in detail and include a healthy, detailed discussion
•The order of figures should follow the discussion themes and not the sequence they were conducted
•Discuss how your data compare or contrast with previous results.
•Include schemes, photographs to enhance the scope of discussion

Conclusions: It include major findings followed by brief discussion on future perspectives and/or
application of present work to other disciplines. Acknowledgments Remember to thank the funding
agency and Colleagues/scientists/technicians who might have provided assistance

References : The styles vary for different journals. (Use ENDNOTE, RefWorks) Some journals require
complete titles of the cited references Please check for the accuracy of all citations

Supporting Information Include methods, analysis, blank experiments, additional data

SELECTING A JOURNAL

Each journal specializes in a specific area of research. Hence its readership varies. A proper choice of
journal can make a larger impact of your research. Get to know the focus and readership of the journal
that you are considering. -general vs. specialized area journal Select 2 or 3 journals in the chosen area
with relatively high impact factors. Discuss with your advisor and decide on the journal . Find out the
journal’s submission criteria and format.

SUBMISSION

Read the finalized paper carefully. Check for accuracy of figures and captions. Are the figures correctly
referred to in the text? . Get feedback from advisor and colleagues. Make sure the paper is read by at least
one or two colleagues who is not familiar with the specific work.. Provide a cover letter to the editor
along with a brief paragraph highlighting the importance of this work and names of possible reviewers.

WRITING ARTICLE IN APA STYLE :

APA style specifies guidelines for the order of report sections. Table 1 lists these sections
sequentially. To guide both your reading and writing, it also includes a brief statement of the
information contained in each section. Finally, it indicates which sections should start on a new
page in a manuscript. Supplementary information (e.g., Appendix, tables) follows the References
section, and page numbers continue from the end of the References section. In a typed
manuscript, you would present supplementary information in the following order, with each
 31

section starting on a new page: tables, figures, and then appendices. In a published article, these
sections are integrated within the text rather than appearing in a separate section.

Section Information in Section Page (typed

manuscript)
Title page Identifies topic/variables studied and provides authorship 1
information
Abstract Provides very brief summary of information from major 2
sections of report
Introduction Indicates purpose and importance of research and reviews Start on p. 3
prior research (or Body of empirical literature and theory
report)
• In an empirical report, the introduction typically
concludes with specific hypotheses that follow from
information in the literature review
• In a review article, the literature review and theoretical
information are more extensive than in an empirical report
and constitute the body (main part) of the report
Method In an empirical report, provides sufficient information No new page
about participants, design, materials, and procedures so
that interested readers might replicate (repeat) the
research
Results In an empirical report, provides detailed information about No new page
the findings and includes results of statistical analysis for
quantitative research
Discussion Offers interpretation of results, their theoretical No new page
implications, limitations (or Conclusion) of the research,
potential applications of the findings, and ideas for further
research
• In an empirical report, the discussion typically includes a
focus on whether results supported specific hypotheses
presented in the introduction and an explanation of why
hypotheses were (or were not) supported
References Lists authorship and source information for all items cited Start on new page
in report or article Start on new page to enable readers to
locate original sources

Things to avoid in an article :

1.Avoid Focus
2.Avoid originality and personality
3.Make the article really really long
4.Do not indicate any potential implications
5.Leave out illustrations (…too much effort to draw a sensible drawing)
6.Omit necessary steps of reasoning
7.Use abbreviations and technical terms that only specialists in the field can understand 8.Make
it sound too serious with no significant discussion
 32

9.Focus only on statistics

10.Support every statement with a reference.

REFERENCES :

Sharma SK , “ Nursing research and statistics” , Elsevier publishers , 2012 edition pp: 279-303

Kothari CR , “ Research methodology – methods and techniques” New age international

publishers, 2nd revised edition pp : 346-358

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