Coaching Swimming 2nd Edition

COACHING SWIMMING
AN INTRODUCTORY MANUAL
Second Edition
TEXTBOOK FOR ‘BRONZE COACHING LICENCE’

NATIONAL COACHING ACCREDIATION COURSE
Dr Ralph J. Richards
Copyright © 2004 by the Australian Swimming Coaches and Teachers Association (ASCTA)
All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced in any form
without written permission from the publisher.
ISBN 0 000 00000 0
Front Cover photos taken by Ralph Richards
ii
Acknowledgement
Coaching education in Australia has come a long way during the past 25 years. The
Australian system of educating, training, and accrediting coaches is now highly
regarded worldwide. Two key factors have made the Australian system successful.
First, developing new coaches is done within a practical framework, the emphasis is
clearly on applied principles. Second, coaches are stakeholders in the accreditation
process; Australian Swimming Inc. in cooperation with the Australian Swimming
Coaches and Teachers Association work closely to deliver training and continuing
education. Both organisations encourage swimming coaches to become more
professional in their approach. Good coaching provides the day-to-day drive that
keeps our sport moving forward. Successful coaches must exercise many skills;
including a sharp eye for good swimming technique, an inquiring mind that applies
scientific principles, and great interpersonal skills to work effectively with athletes.
This textbook will assist beginning coaches in taking one more step along the
pathway of personal improvement. It offers another look at some of the basic
concepts introduced during the entry-level coach qualification course. The emphasis
at the Bronze Licence level begins to take the coach in the pursuit of more advanced
swimming performance. This text is not a comprehensive collection of coaching
information, there is still much more to learn and apply. Most coaches will continue
to refine their coaching knowledge and skills through ongoing study and practical
learning experiences once their accreditation status has been confirmed. One
fundamental way to supplement the information gathered during a course is to
observe other coaches and then discuss their coaching methods and ideas. I have
worked with many coaches during my career and each has contributed something to
my style and understanding of coaching.
It would be impossible to list everyone having an influence on my professional

development as a coach, yet remiss of me not to mention at least two coaches. First,
the legendary swimming coach, James ‘Doc’ Councilman, has been the greatest
influence on my thinking and inspiration for me to pursue an understanding of science
in swimming. I had the pleasure of working under Doc for several years and his
influence remains with me to this day. The second significant coach is a
contemporary of mine, Bill Sweetenham. His passionate pursuit of excellence has
served as an example to me, as well as a generation of his peers. In addition, there are
many past and current Australian coaches, sports scientists, and administrators who
have helped me to develop my coaching skills; I offer a sincere ‘thank you’ for your
contribution.
Australian Swimming Inc. and the Australian Swimming Coaches and Teachers
Association are united in their belief that well prepared, educated, ethical, and
motivated coaches are the cornerstone of Australia’s swimming success. More
importantly, dedicated coaches will continue to encourage and inspire athletes to
become great persons in their own right, regardless of their swimming prowess.
Every coach can take great satisfaction in their work as they strive to be the best they
can be. I encourage you to embrace your coaching experience and pursue it with
enthusiasm. Good Luck. Dr Ralph J. Richards
iii
Foreword
It has been said that there are three ‘T’s to successful swimming: Technique –
Technique – Technique. However, successful swimming coaching is about five key
‘I’s: Information – Inspiration – Intuition – Instinct – and Imagination.
In this book, Dr Richards presents the information relevant to the coaching of

swimming better than almost anyone else can. Ralph’s vast knowledge of the sport of
swimming, his understanding of swimming technique and the skills of successful
swimmers, his experience, and his passion for swimming has made him one of
Australia’s finest swimming coaches and a world leading educator of swimming
coaches. The information presented is the best there is: current, logical, accurate,
comprehensive, detailed – it is outstanding.
As a coach you should be inspired to take this information and use it to help
swimmers achieve their goals to the extent of their talents and to the limits of their
dreams.
You should use your instincts and intuition to apply this knowledge effectively to
each individual (the sixth ‘I’) swimmer. Coaching is a people game; it’s about
working with people and for people. Coaching is part intellect, but mostly feeling;
it’s about living the dream of the swimmers working with you.
And coaching is about imagination – imagination is the element that will drive our
sport forward and take it to places we have only dreamed of.
Many people will read this book. Most will take away something that will make them
more knowledgeable about swimming, about coaching, about sports science, or some
other aspect of aquatics. Some will use the knowledge gained from this book;
together with their own inspiration, intuition, instinct and imagination; to achieve
remarkable things as a coach. Which one will you be?
Ralph’s expertise is recognised internationally and his impact on the sport of

swimming in Australia; through his coaching, teaching, mentoring, writing and
lecturing; has been considerable. As a Club coach, an Elite coach, a National Team
coach, a Teacher, and a Leader he has achieved remarkable success over the past
thirty years. However, I’m certain his most lasting impact is yet to come – not the
least being the coaching outcomes achieved by those implementing the five ‘I’s.
Wayne Goldsmith
iv
Contents
Acknowledgment iii
Forward iv
1 Improving Coaching Skills 1

Key Concepts
Transition from Teaching to Coaching
Phases of Swimmer Development
Adaptation
Coaching Junior Squads
Developmental Considerations
Age-Group Training Model
Summary of Key Points
2 Mechanics of Swimming 10
General Terminology
Buoyancy and Weight
Inertia and Momentum
Levers and the Kinetic Chain
Velocity and Acceleration
Continuity of Momentum
Propulsive Forces
Resistance Forces
Explaining Swimming Movements
3 Freestyle and Backstroke 18

Freestyle:
Overview
Kick
Armstroke – Propulsive Phase
Armstroke – Recovery Phase
Breathing
Timing and Rhythm
Backstroke:
Overview
Kick
Breathing
4 Breaststroke and Butterfly 26

Breaststroke:
Overview
Streamlining
v
Arm Recovery and Breathing
Kick
Timing
Butterfly:
Overview
Streamlining
Kick
Breathing
Timing
5 Starts, Turns, and Finishes 34

Dive Start
Dive Start Checklist
Backstroke Start
Backstroke Start Checklist
Racing Turns (Overview)
Freestyle Tumble Turn
Freestyle Turn Checklist
Backstroke Tumble Turn
Backstroke Turn Checklist
Breaststroke Turn
Breaststroke Turn Checklist
Butterfly Turn
Butterfly Turn Checklist
Individual Medley Turns
Race Finishes
Finishing Checklist
6 Physiological Considerations 46
Energy Supply for Swimming
Interaction of the Energy Systems
Energy System Capacities
Cardiovascular Considerations
Measuring Exercise Intensity
Fatigue
7 Training Methods 56
Aerobic Base Training
Aerobic Endurance Training
Critical Velocity Training
Maximum Aerobic Training
Lactate Tolerance Training
Peak Lactate Training
Sprint Training
Maximum Speed Training
vi
8 Drills and Stroke-Rate 71
Stroke Development Drills
Stroke Correction Drills
Linking Drills
Speed Drills
Adding Value and Variety to Drills
Stroke-Rate
9 Long Term Swimmer Development 80

Identifying Talented Swimmers
Break Point Volume Concept
Multi-Year Age-Group Swimmer Development Model
10 Strength and Flexibility 85

Considerations for Young Swimmers
Strength Training Outcomes
Male and Female Differences
Muscle Loading Relationships
Periodisation of Strength Training
Exercise Selection
Stretching
11 Planning Training 94
Season Outline
Training Phases
Weekly Training Cycles
Individual Training Sessions
Training Objectives
Examples of Session Plans
Early Season Considerations
Mid-Season Considerations
Late Season Considerations
Transition Between Seasons
Summary
The Integrated Training Model
12 Mental Skills 111

Coaching Style
Communication
Applied Approach
Psychological Skills
Strategies
13 Health and Injury Prevention 116

The Overtrained State
Recovery Process
vii
Health Considerations
Injury Considerations
14 Nutrition 123
Objectives
Everyday Diet
Tips on Food Selection
Fluid and Glycogen Replenishment
Tips on Maintaining Body Weight
Vitamins and Minerals
Competition Day
Alcohol
15 Drugs in Sport 128

Overview
Banned Substances and Methods
Drug Testing
Why are Substances Banned?
Drugs Education
References 132
viii
1
CHAPTER 1
IMPROVING COACHING SKILLS
The roles and responsibilities of a swimming coach today are certainly different from
10, 20 or 30 years ago. Coaching, whether as a vocation or on a volunteer basis, has
become much more "professional" in terms of our application of knowledge and
skills. Although many factors contribute to swimming performance, coaching
effectiveness is certainly a major influence. Today’s club level swimmer probably
exceeds the performance standard of state level swimmers from a generation ago.
Environmental, social, and genetic factors alone could never account for the sustained
rate of improvement within our sport. Therefore, the influence of the coach, since
he/she has direct control over training design and implementation, must be a key
factor.
There are many challenges facing the coach, first and foremost is the ability to
communicate ideas so that efficient swimming skills are developed at a young age.
The Green Licence coach will demonstrate skills that allow him/her to effectively
communicate with swimmers to teach skills and organise basic training activities.
This is sometimes called the “art” of coaching. A Bronze Licence coach must
demonstrate greater depth of knowledge across a wider range of factors that influence
swimming performance. This will require a theoretical base that embraces scientific
principles and builds upon practical experience.
Key Concepts
This textbook will reinforce four key concepts that impact upon coaching junior
swimmers: (1) the principle of adaptation, (2) mechanical principles that shape
propulsive movement in the water, (3) mental skills that may enhance performance,
and (4) maturational considerations. Experienced coaches know that the best training
facilities, the best training plans, and the greatest natural physical ability do not
guarantee success; they only improve the chances of being successful. Human
behaviour patterns influence everything the swimmer and the coach do or plan to do.
This is why the Green Licence course placed such a heavy emphasis on understanding
an athlete’s behaviour and developing good communication skills to shape that
behaviour. Above everything else the swimmer and coach must have a shared
understanding of what they are trying to achieve.
Transition from Teaching to Coaching
The initial focus of aquatic instruction must always be safety and learning to enjoy
water activities. Aquatic instruction then progresses through various stages where the
swimmer gains confidence and independence of movement in the water. Consistent
skill in performing the basic swimming strokes, usually backstroke and freestyle,
begins to emerge. The swimmer then acquires greater diversity in movement skill by
mastering breaststroke and then butterfly. An accomplished swimmer usually
emerges from this learning progression between the ages of 8 and 11 years of age.
Chapter 1 Improving Coaching Skills

Coaching Swimming: An Introductory Manual (second edition)
2
During the advanced stages of this learn-to-swim progression the departure point from
a purely learning activity to a performance-based activity is reached. This defining
point is not a discrete event, but a gradual process of introducing greater emphasis on
massed-practice and performance outcomes. The question of ‘how much’ swimming
can and should be done at each stage of development is central to good planning.
Learning new skills and consolidating these skills into established motor patterns
requires repeated practice. During a lesson (or training session) of 30 – 45 – or 60
minutes duration there is a gradual increase in the total swimming distance completed.
Sessions are also defined by the number of skills utilized and the quality of their
execution. There are also purely ‘fun’ activities that must be included in the mix. In
this context ‘work’ is defined by the physiological requirements of energy production
that produces movement and is generally quantified in terms of the number of metres
swum and the relative intensity at which that swimming is performed.
Phases of Swimmer Development
When a swimmer completes lean-to-swim lessons he/she should have the basic
technical skill to swim competitively. Development as a swimming athlete is
determined by the combination of training and competition opportunities presented
and one’s individual talent. We might view a swimmer’s career progress in terms of
three phases of development.
First, the swimmer must learn to train; this is called the ‘training phase’. This phase
will last several years and will take the swimmer through the pubertal growth spurt
and biological maturation. Competition is also an important part of the swimmer’s
overall development, but training progressions are the key element at this stage of a
swimmer’s career. Many talented swimmers do not distinguish themselves in
competition during this phase because they may be late maturing. The ideal training
background includes a good work ethic, positive attitude, love of the sport, and
determination to succeed.
Second, the swimmer goes through a phase where competitive results begin to
identify those individuals having the potential to rise to elite level. This does not
mean that a swimmer who is not winning age-group medals will never reach the top
of the sport. However, the likelihood that well preformed age-group swimmers will
advance to senior swimming is established during this phase.
Third, the final phase of a swimmer’s career is the ‘performance phase’. Only a
small percentage of competitive swimmers advance to this phase of mature sporting
development. Most swimmers remain at the second phase, even those who advance
through age-group ranks and compete at open level. Competitive swimmers can
realise all the benefits (i.e. social, skill development, and fitness) from sport without
progressing to the final stage of elite development.

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Three Phases of Swimmer Development – Training Outcomes
TRAINING 1. TRAINING 2. COMPETITION 3. PERFORMANCE

COMPONENTS: PHASE PHASE PHASE
Overall Training Learning the Basic Progressive Build-up Systematic High Level
Objective Training Fundamentals (volume then intensity) Training
Associated Stage of Prepubescent and Early Pubescent and Post- Physically Mature Athlete
Physical Maturity Puberty Pubescent
Movement Skill Refine Fundamental Master All Skills Consistent Skill App-
Development Movement Skills At Race Pace/Pressure lication at All Times
Technical Model Acquire Basic Skills in Advanced Skill Level in Maintain General Skills
all Four Strokes all Four Strokes and Specialise
Knowledge “How To” Swim Strokes, Race Tactics & Pacing Performance Analysis
Starts, Turns Strategies Strengths & Weakness
Sportsmanship Respect for Team-mates Respect for other Com- Interaction with Sport
and Coaches petitors & Officials (media, public, etc.)
Personal Interactions Work with Coach and Support Club & Team Demonstrate Leadership
Team-mates Goals
Nutrition Understand Principles of Use Best Practice and Maintain Body Weight
Good Nutrition Monitor Eating Habits and Health
Aerobic Conditioning Acquire Training Back- Increase Volume and Maintain Aerobic Fitness
ground Intensity of Training
Anaerobic Conditioning Maintain Stroke Tech- Increase Volume of Increase Quality of
nique during Sprints Intense Training Intense Training
Muscular Strength Core Body Strength and Increase Strength -- Develop Specific Strength
Muscle Control Balanced Development & Power
Flexibility and Learn Swim Technique Maintain/Increase Joint Maintain all Elements of
Range of Movement with Range of Motion Flexibility & Stability Muscle/Joint Action
Recovery and Understand the Role of Apply a Variety of Develop Individual
Regeneration Recovery Recovery Methods Recovery Routine
Emotional & Psycho- Enjoy Swimming Control Mental State Develop Mental Skills to
logical Development Experiences during Competition Meet any Situation
Medical Control Check Growth, Posture & Apply Injury Prevention Monitor Health Status &
(monitoring) Body Structure Strategies Use Rehab Techniques
[adapted from “A Plan Behind the Dream”, Vern Gambetta, ASCTA Journal, Vol. 15, No. 1]
Adaptation
Adaptation is a process of change which seeks to meet the demands placed upon an
individual from both physical and psychological sources. The process begins when a
stimulus is introduced which forces the individual to counter with a response. In the
simplest of circumstances if the response is sufficient there is no need for adaptation.
However, in real situations even the smallest task is a collection of thousands of
stimuli that must be interpreted and acted upon. Repeated exposure to stimuli
produces a net result that strengthens with time; this is the process of adaptation.
Coaches use this broad concept to manipulate stimuli so that some of them will be
beyond the immediate response capability of the individual. If the loading (i.e. the
volume and rate of introduced stimuli) is progressively increased, over time the
individual will change or adapt so that a greater number of suitable responses are
possible. A key element of this process is the recovery or ‘unloading’ period which
follows the stimulus-response to complete the sequence. It's during the recovery
period that adaptation actually takes place.
When coaches deal with complete tasks, such as training a swimmer for a specific
event, the progressive overload concept is applied. For example, if a swimmer has a
current capability of swimming 50m in 40sec, but wants to swim that distance in
35sec, what must be done? The swimmer performs a number of repeated swims,

4
which may or may not be at the target distance, the total stimulus will be greater than
the requirement for a single 40sec 50m effort. During the recovery period the body
changes in many ways as a direct result of the total stimulus and, provided the body
can adjust, over time the capability will improve to 39sec, then 38sec, etc., until the
target is achieved. It must be remembered that each time a new 'capability' is
achieved, the total loading must also be reset to a higher level; otherwise adaptation
does not continue. Naturally, this is a very simple example used to illustrate a
complex process which involves every facet of performance. Every swimmer is
constantly being exposed to an overwhelming number of physical and psychological
stimuli, some of them contributing to sporting adaptation and some of them detracting
from it.
The concept of specificity suggests that when a greater proportion of stimuli that
make up the total loading are directly related to producing the desired adaptation, the
resulting adaptation will take place more quickly and completely. In the above
example, we can improve the swimmer's capacity to race at 50m by training repeat
100m or 200m distances. This will positively influence a number of mechanisms
involving energy production and muscle endurance to allow performance
improvement. However, a different training emphasis, for example repeat 25m
swims, will also produce the desired performance changes (i.e. improvement of 50m
swim time), but utilise performance mechanisms specific to the requirements of the
event. Each approach produces some of the desired performance outcomes, but
neither completely satisfies all training requirements because rarely do training
outcomes have such a narrow focus. The first training method will not stimulate
enough pure speed. The second training method will not adequately stimulate a range
of physiological improvements that will prepare the swimmer for future adaptations to
improve speed. Only by combining the two training methods (which may seem the
antithesis of specificity) do we achieve the best possible outcome. Specific speed
improvements now, and continued improvement into the future. As higher
performance levels are reached (i.e. elite), the concept of specificity takes on
additional considerations to focus training outcomes more precisely to the demands of
an event. However, elite performance is always the culmination of many specific
factors that interact over a long period of time.
The final concept that's of general importance is periodisation. This term refers to the
sequencing of events to produce maximum adaptation. The rate of adaptation can be
accelerated by using a number of techniques. First, if the stimuli are constantly
changing they will challenge the body to adapt. This does not mean the introduction
of stimuli designed to produce different types of adaptation, but stimuli that are varied
or slightly different, and yet producing the same result. Second, periodisation is used
to structure the logical development of physical and mental capacities. To use a
simple analogy; the foundation of a building must precede the framework, which
precedes the finished walls. Third, the concept of periodisation is applied by the
coach to plan, monitor, and assess the success of the training program over time;
within a season and over successive seasons. Modern training programs are multi-
dimensional; that is, they incorporate many training outcomes from many different
physiological and psychological sources.
If there is one lesson a swim coach must learn, it's that nothing is ever as simple as it
seems; one's depth of understanding helps to make complex programming

5
manageable. It's the coach's ability for personal growth, including a better
understanding of coaching methodology from year to year, that serves as the basis for
adaptation to higher and higher levels of coaching expertise.
Coaching Junior Squads
Most parents have several basic concerns regarding their child’s involvement in a
swimming training program. What is the focus of the training program – fitness, skill,
or competition? How do training commitments change with age and performance?
How many sessions are appropriate each week and what is the content of those
sessions (i.e. volume and intensity)? What is an appropriate competition program?
Whilst there is no single right or wrong answer to each question, there are a number of
supporting recommendations that should be taken into account.
Prior to puberty the paramount objectives of any program should be to instil a love of
the sport, teach quality technique, and develop all-around skill. Junior training
programs must be well thought-out and have goals that include high-level skill
development and appropriate emphasis on physiological conditioning. Decisions
regarding volume and intensity of training and the importance of competitions during
early childhood involve complex issues. Either over-exposure or under-exposure to
training may detract from achieving one's full potential. Age-group competitive
swimming must always be seen as a means to an end, not an end to itself. Finding the
right answers usually comes down to what is suitable for each individual within the
general framework of developmental principles.
The composition of major Australian Swimming Teams (i.e. Olympics, World

Championships, Commonwealth Games, Pan-Pac Championships) in recent years has
reflected the trend toward older, mature competitors, staying in our sport. This
highlights the need for coaches of junior squads to be aware of their role during the
early stages of development and the transition that takes place when physical maturity
and a growing interest in performance swimming emerges. Peak performance at
international level is the result of many things; including early skill development
(physical, technical and psychological skills), maturity, and the optimum development
of physiological capacities.
Training is an ill-defined term during a swimmer's early years of development

because the acquisition and refinement of swimming skill is still ongoing. However,
training involves regular participation in a program that has at least three broad-based
performance objectives. The first and foremost objective will always be the continued
acquisition and refinement of movement skills that contribute to swimming efficiency.
The second objective is an increase in the physiological capacities that will allow
faster swimming speed and/or greater endurance. The third objective is to create a
positive psychological experience for every swimmer. This provides the internal
motivation for a swimmer to dedicate the time and effort required for continual
improvement. If all three objectives are achieved, the swimmer is more likely to
remain on a track of positive improvement. The individual is able to swim further,
faster, more skilfully, and cope with the demands of training and competition.

6
Coaches working with junior squads should have an overall understanding of what
swimmers can realistically achieve. Initially this understanding comes from
knowledge of appropriate coaching methodology and maturational considerations. As
the coach gains more practical experience the accumulation of empirical knowledge
will shape the decision making process. Appropriate strategies are then implemented
to achieve the three performance objectives. Research has highlighted the fact that
young children place great value upon learning skills and active participation (i.e. the
element of 'doing') much more than receiving external rewards. The top five factors
identified by children as influencing their continued participation in sport are:
1. Learning new skills and improving existing skills.
2. Using their skills to improve performance.
3. Having an enjoyable experience with the coach/instructor.
4. Testing their ability by competing with their peers.
5. Being with friends and social interaction.
If we accept that skill development is essential, the coach must develop a good sense
of what is acceptable swimming mechanics, the ‘educated eye’ for correct technique.
This also means that a coach working with young swimmers must have appropriate
communication skills to convey the desired messages. The greatest mistake made by
novice coaches is to translate the techniques and expectations of elite athletes too
literally. Young swimmers are less likely to need the inspirational motivation speech;
the high-powered technical analysis, or the complex training program that we (as
coaches) apply to our senior elite swimmers. Techniques for coaching juniors must
be kept simple, but within the realm of technical accuracy and professionalism.
Coaches of junior swimmers must also have a clear vision of what the end product of
their labour should be, but don't attempt to create a world record holder or Olympic
champion in the short-term. Try to create the best possible environment so that future
champions are allowed to develop. Very high training loads may create a fast
swimming 10 or 11 year-old; but a well balanced program of technical skill
development, physical capacity improvement, and positive attitudes will provide the
underpinning for the highest levels of sporting achievement later in life. Teaching
young swimmers good work habits and responsibility for their training outcomes is an
important part of this process. Performing turns in accordance with swimming rules,
streamlining off the wall, controlling stroke and breathing pattern during all swims,
maintaining predetermined pace and technical form; these are all skills that must be
taught and reinforced daily. The overall environment in which training is conducted
should be positive, competitive (yes, children like to compete with each other during
training) and full of feedback from the coach.
The coach of junior swimmers should be mindful of how growth and maturation
impact upon performance. Often the performance improvements attributed to a
training program are primarily the result of growth and physical maturity. Training
programs for junior swimmers should be simple in their approach to physiological
development. Young swimmers need to progressively improve their aerobic capacity
while also improving upon natural speed. A balanced training approach will take this
into account. Physical preparation for current competition must be balanced with
objectives for future competitions. This means developing capacities that will
enhance performance over a range of racing distances during the formative years.

7
The specific physiological demands upon children and mature-age swimmers are
quite different, even when the racing distance is the same.
Young swimmers need continuous mental reinforcement. This is accomplished in

part by maintaining an environment containing numerous opportunities for interaction
with the coach. In addition to verbal feedback from the coach, non-verbal
communication is very important. The coach must be able to provide reinforcement
by his/her physical presence (i.e. moving around the pool deck during training is
desirable), using eye contact, and demonstrating recognition of how each swimmer is
performing. Although physical training requirements may be simple for juniors,
training requirements from the mental perspective are more complex. Each day the
coach must be able to express the core training objectives in a slightly different and
‘fresh’ way so swimmers do not loose interest. This may require considerable
planning and lateral thinking on the part of the coach.
Developing a healthy attitude toward competition is also a major objective for

swimmers training in junior squads. As mentioned above, it's natural for young
swimmers to want to compare themselves with each other. Healthy attitudes about
competition include being able to find a positive situation from every race experience,
independent of a race outcome (i.e. who finished first). In other words, the coach and
swimmer must embrace the process as much as the product. If a swimmer can
improve his/her execution of race skills, pacing and strategy, or any number of other
performance components, then he/she has ‘won’ in terms of personal achievement.
The young swimmer must first learn to judge him/her self in terms of individual
potential. The inevitable comparisons with other swimmers should be a secondary
consideration, because each swimmer has little or no control over the performance of
other swimmers in a race. In this regard the coach is the most significant role model
for swimmers as they develop attitudes and behaviours toward competition. The
coach must also be sensitive to the influence that parents have upon the attitudes of
their children. Therefore, the coach assumes a role of counsellor or educator to the
parents as well as the swimmers.
Developmental Considerations
There are numerous accounts of how young swimmers progress from novice to elite.
For some individuals, performance improves at a steady rate and for others it
advances and declines in spurts. It's important for the coach to understand how some
aspects of sporting development are sensitive to change during certain periods of
physical growth and maturation. A physiological capacity such as aerobic endurance
will develop quite rapidly during the critical period of pre-pubertal growth. Another
characteristic, such as muscle power to body weight ratio, may decline during a period
of rapid growth and limit swimming performance temporarily. The coach should also
be aware that certain skills and physiological capacities interact. For example, stroke
technique development will affect the ability to swim efficiently and this will
influence the acquisition of both endurance and speed. It's evident that every child
will mature at a slightly different rate. Normative data give us an indication of what
age to expect certain biological events to take place. In reality, any two 10 year-old
swimmers may be 1-2 years apart in their biological ages. Physical training itself may
impact upon the attainment of maturational events. These points are made to

8
emphasise the fact that variation between individuals must always be recognised by
the coach when planning a training program.
Age-Group Training Model
Four broad periods of age-group swimmer development have been identified (refer to
chapter 10, ‘Long Term Swimmer Development). A number of training objectives
are associated with each period based upon biological maturity, progressive skill
development, and emotional maturity. An age-group swimming program should
deliver outcomes in each of the target areas of development (i.e. training, motor
learning, knowledge and attitudes, competition) before the swimmer progresses to the
next period. To achieve all, or nearly all, of the objectives identified for each training
period may take several years of progressive training. Therefore, the coach should
have a plan or vision of how training will progress over time and from one period to
the next. Squad composition and training complexity will reflect what is appropriate
for that level of maturation. Individual variations to the model must be recognised.
For example, a late maturing 12 year-old girl might best fit into the training plans
developed for a group of mostly 10-11 year-olds. Conversely, a 12 year-old girl who
has completed her growth spurt and passed the age of menarche may be capable of
meeting the training expectations of a more advanced training period.
Three important concepts should be incorporated into the coach's planning. First,
different training periods should have different emphasis in terms of program
delivery. That is, the way you conduct the training program will vary according to
maturational considerations. Second, it's of paramount importance that both mastery
and retention of lower level skills and fitness components are carried forward.
Swimmers must be able to quickly re-acquire their prior level of fitness/skill after a
period of reduced training. Third, training plans should be progressive in their
application, advancing in a logical manner. Training plans build from year-to-year,
some components remain the same and increase in volume and intensity; other
components are added when swimmers are ready to absorb the effects of the training.
Summary of Key Points
SKILL DEVELOPMENT
• Good Technique = High Efficiency.
• It's important to know the difference between Technique and Style.
• Complex skills should be broken down into simplified technique.
• Skills develop from 'Learning' to 'Performance with Speed' to 'Performance with
Speed while Under Pressure'.
• The current level of physical preparation impacts on skill acquisition.
• Motor development and the complexity of a skill will affect learning.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
♦ Maintaining motivation requires developing psychological skills within the
context of the swimmer's rationale for participation.
♦ Age-group swimmers are not ‘little senior swimmers’ and senior swimmers are
not ‘bigger age-group swimmers’.

9
♦ Success encourages high self-esteem.

♦ Positive reinforcement instils a sense of success.
♦ The transition from age-group to senior swimming is psychological as well as
physiological.
♦ Psychological skills should improve with training and practice if applied in a
positive environment.
♦ The emotional state of children is unpredictable and can change quickly.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
∇ Success prior to the age of 12 is closely related to biological development /
success at the senior elite level is the result of many factors.
∇ Late or average-age maturing children tend to stay in the sport longer.
∇ Sporting preparation that coincides with developmental stages will result in better
long-term improvements.
∇ Prior to the age of 12 the energy system that is developing most rapidly is the
‘Aerobic System’.
∇ Appropriate endurance based training may be the single most important
component of success throughout the career of an athlete.
∇ Energy systems must be developed concurrently using progressive loading and
recovery methods.
∇ Positive experience motivates one to acquire higher physical capabilities.

10
CHAPTER 2
MECHANICS OF SWIMMING
Biomechanics is the scientific discipline that describes and explains the forces acting
upon, or generated by, our body movements. Understanding basic scientific
principles helps the coach to analyse the effect of body position and movement on
propulsive and resistive forces. Every coach observes the way swimmers perform; by
linking observation with understanding (i.e. biomechanics) the coach can determine
which factors contribute to high quality performance and which may limit even better
performance. Every coach will develop a stroke model in each of the four
competitive strokes that serves to conceptualise an effective and efficient means of
propulsion. Within that model there is an acceptable range of variation of movement.
Every swimmer develops a unique ‘style’ within the overall model for stroke
‘technique’. Variations occur because of individual strength, flexibility, and
anatomical considerations. Understanding the principles of biomechanics will help
the coach fine-tune swimming technique to suit the swimmer.
General Terminology
Swimming strokes have been described using many sets of terminology. For
simplicity this text will adopt commonly accepted terms that help to describe the
movements required to perform acceptable stroke patterns. All movements of the
arms and legs are divided into two phases: (1) propulsive and (2) recovery.
Generally, we are concerned with the positioning of the limbs to apply muscular force
to generate forward propulsion, but we must also prepare for the next stroke; so
recovery movements are important to overall stroke efficiency. Recovery movements
are patterned so they keep resistance factors to a minimum and allow the swimmer to
maintain stroke rhythm and symmetry. Movements of the head and trunk are also
important because they allow the swimmer to position the mouth so that rhythmic
breathing can occur. Efficient trunk and head movements allow water to flow
smoothly over/around the body to aid streamlining. Trunk position is critical to the
effective application and transmission of force by the limbs because all mechanical
actions are part of a kinetic chain. The body's musculoskeletal system of levers is
used to transfer equal/opposite force from the water through each body segment. This
system of levers and subsequent transfer of forces is known as the kinetic chain.
Force is most effectively applied if there is a stable base of support from which the
mechanical actions are liked.
Propulsive movements are usually called sweeps because this terminology reflects the
combined applications of drag and lift principles of propulsion. The term is further
defined by indicating a direction of movement relative to the body, such as; outsweep,
insweep, upsweep, or downsweep. Sweeping movements are seldom uni-directional,
so a combination of descriptors such as insweep-upsweep is often used. Positioning
of the primary propulsive surface (i.e. hands and feet) is further defined by the angle
or pitch of the surface relative to the axis of the limb and the direction of movement.
The hands and feet are sensitive to pressure applied against the water, this allow the
swimmer to position the limbs precisely. The forearm and upper arm, as well as the
segments of the leg, will serve as secondary propulsive surfaces. The aim of efficient
Chapter 2 Mechanics of Swimming

11
swimming is to present as large a surface area as possible to create a flow of water

(i.e. push-pull or speed of water flow) in a direction that yields a resultant force to
produce forward propulsion.
Some movements of the head and trunk are not propulsive, but they contribute to
streamlining by positioning the trunk for optimum transfer of force through the kinetic
chain. Trunk movements are described in relation to the body’s axes. In freestyle and
backstroke we allow the trunk to rotate around the long axis of the body. In butterfly
and breaststroke the axis of the trunk will rise and fall through the horizontal to create
a ‘wave’ like motion. All body movements may be analysed with respect to five basic
elements of technique: (1) streamlining or body position, (2) kicking, (3) armstroke,
(4) breathing, and (5) timing and co-ordination.
The coach should develop a model for each swimming stroke that becomes a frame of
reference for teaching and refining technique. Deviations from the model should
prompt the coach to identify if problems exist and then propose strategies for
correction.
Buoyancy and Gravity
These are opposing forces which act passively through a point in the body. If the
opposing forces act through points which are close together, then the body will float
in a roughly horizontal position. If the opposing forces act through points which are
apart; a rotation of the body’s axis will result. The force exerted by gravity will push
the body downward, but this is counteracted by the upward force equal to the
displacement of water; called buoyancy. The relative magnitude of these opposing
forces will change during the stroke based upon the distribution of body mass. Every
time a body part is lifted above the surface of the water, the gravitational force
becomes greater. This is particularly important when the head is lifted to take a
breath in breaststroke and butterfly or the arms are lifted to facilitate the recovery
phase of a stroke. There are both advantages and disadvantages related to the overall
resistance force created when a body part is lifted out of the water. Holding
bodyweight out of the water will increase the downward force; as an example, a
butterflyer who keeps the head up will find it hard to keep the body in a streamline
(i.e. horizontal) position because gravitational force acting through the body will push
the legs down. However, lifting the arms out of the water is the only way to facilitate
recovery in freestyle, backstroke, butterfly, and is also a common recovery method in
breaststroke. In this case lifting a body segment out of water will decrease the water
resistance created by limb movement. Because the limbs are moving in a direction
that can not produce propulsion during the recovery phase, an out of water recovery
results in greater efficiency.
As a swimmer grows and matures the size and composition of body tissues change.
Increased bone and muscle mass improve the potential to generate propulsive force,
but make the swimmer more dense or heavy in the water. At the same time increased
lung volume and body fat make the swimmer less dense or lighter in the water, but
may decrease (particularly if body fat increases are substantial) the body’s power to
weight ratio. Swimming technique is influenced by the relative balance of these

12
simple forces as the body matures and changes. Any single change results in
numerous trade-offs in other factors that influence propulsive force and resistance.
Inertia and Momentum
Inertia is the amount of force that must be generated to set a body (or body part) into
motion. When we look at whole body motion, it’s clear that the summation of forces
from the limbs must be directed so that forward propulsion results. To overcome
inertia the propulsive force must be greater than the total of all resistance forces.
Once inertia is overcome, momentum is the product of body mass and velocity.
Swimming efficiency increases if we can conserve as much forward momentum as
possible, this is done in several ways. A streamlined body position helps to reduce the
amount of water resistance and thus, maintain forward momentum. By maintaining a
stroke rhythm that balances right-left arm/leg movements a swimmer voids stop-start
actions and conserves more of the forward momentum generated. In butterfly, the
double arm recovery motion becomes a continuation of the propulsive out-upsweep at
the finish of the underwater stroke. Force generated during the final stages is carried
through to the recovery; stopping the arms as they exit the water would break forward
momentum. In breaststroke, the feet recover by moving up toward the buttocks while
the thighs remain angled back; this helps to streamline water flow under the body to
conserve forward momentum while the arms recover forward. Every stroke has
examples of how propulsive movements are translated into recovery movements and
streamlining techniques are used to conserve forward momentum.
Sometimes momentum is not generated in a linear direction. The example of the

butterfly recovery is a good one. The wide sweeping action of the arms will develop
momentum (i.e. the product of the mass of each arm and its velocity) that is translated
in an angular direction. However, because both arms move simultaneously the
angular momentum from each arm cancels out the other. Wide sweeping single-arm
recovery in freestyle or backstroke is not used because it would generate a lateral
force that may push the legs from side to side. The correct way to use the angular
momentum generated during a backstroke or freestyle recovery is to align the
direction of movement with the long axis of the body. Rotation of the trunk positions
the each arm so that it travels in an arc above the body’s long axis. Angular
momentum is also used during tumbling or pivoting movements such as turning.
Efficient turns are executed in a ‘tuck’ position because it concentrates a greater
amount of mass closer to the centre of rotation and this increases the speed of rotation.
Levers and the Kinetic Chain
The joints of the shoulders and hips must apply leverage against the trunk to produce
forward body propulsion. However, for this to occur the force applied by the hands
and feet must be transferred through intermediate joints (i.e. wrist and elbow, or ankle
and knee). The joints of the limbs form a chain to link the transfer of force. As
mentioned before, the propulsive force must be sufficient to overcome the inertia of
the body and all external resistance factors. The body’s mass is levered forward
across joints that act as the fulcrum of the lever system (i.e. joints are the pivot point
in the lever set-up). Because the skeletal structure of humans places the fulcrum very

13
close to the weight being moved, the resistance arm of the lever (which is the
propulsive surfaces of the arms or legs) must move through a relatively long distance.
In all swimming strokes it’s important to position the resistance arm so that force can
be applied along its full length. This means that at the beginning of each stroke as the
shoulder is still extended the resistance arm is defined by the distance from elbow to
fingertips. The classic ‘high elbow’ catch position allows the full length of the
forearm and hand to apply force. In freestyle, backstroke, and butterfly the resistance
arm of the lever system will increase in length as the hand(s) move deeper. As the
hand(s) move under the body (in the case of backstroke the hand moves to the side of
the body, but trunk rotation also brings the hand closer) at mid-stroke the lever system
can apply maximum muscular force. The arm(s) extend back, pushing water until the
transition from propulsive phase to recovery phase is complete. The hand must then
move upward toward the surface, this reduces the length of the lever’s resistance arm
to the length of the hand. Throughout the propulsive phase, force generated by the
arms and legs is transferred through the kinetic chain to the muscle attachments on the
trunk. The trunk becomes the stable platform and the body is levered forward.
As the length of the resistance arm gets longer there is a larger surface available to
push water backward, and thus creating forward propulsion. However, the
musculature of the shoulder and trunk must be equal to the load created. Swimmers
who are not as strong may compensate by simply shortening the length of the
resistance arm. This is why some swimmers use more elbow flexion, combined with
inward rotation of the upper arm, to position the hand(s) under middle of their trunk in
freestyle and butterfly. Other swimmers maintain a straighter arm position or have
less internal rotation to position the path of their armstroke under the shoulder.
Breaststroke uses the same basic leverage principle, but because the underwater stroke
is much shorter there are actually two distinct propulsive movements. The outsweep
in breaststroke increases the length of the resistance arm and positions the propulsive
surface to push water back. The insweep is a powerful movement that develops hand
speed which produces more of a ‘lift’ or sculling effect. As with the other strokes, the
propulsive phase in breaststroke will have a smooth transition into the recovery phase.
Velocity and Acceleration
Velocity is the directional speed of movement. Increased velocity of the limbs will
produce greater propulsion only if the surface is positioned to maximise the
application of force. Swimmers sometimes make the mistake of trying to move the
arms and legs ‘fast’ without regard to the position and application of force. One of
the most common stroke faults is the ‘dropped elbow’ during the first half of a stroke
pattern (note: the dropped elbow syndrome can occur in any stroke). The swimmer
has the sensation of moving the hand fast, but the primary and secondary propulsive
surfaces (i.e. hand and forearm) are not in a position to push water back. Water slides
off the surface of the arm and effective propulsive force is reduced. Increased limb
velocity is always achieved at a cost, the amount of energy required to produce faster
muscle contractions goes up dramatically. A number of factors must be considered
when coaching decisions are made with regard to limb velocity. Sometimes a slower
stroke is required to maintain optimum contact with the water, at other times a faster
stroke is advantageous. The coach must always remember that whatever stoke factors

14
are desired under race conditions must be trained; the body must adapt to the relevant
technical and physiological conditions.
Acceleration is a positive change in velocity and is an important factor in every

swimming stroke. The speed of arm/leg movement continually changes during the
propulsive phase of a stroke cycle. This happens because several mechanical
principles interact. First, force is required to overcome inertia and set the limb in
motion. Second, at various positions in the stroke cycle the mechanical application of
force is either limited or optimal due to the positioning of the lever system of the
limbs. Third, because force application is linked through the kinetic chain, certain
body positions and movements will contribute to limb acceleration. In general, the
ability to apply muscular force through the limbs is less when the propulsive surface
(i.e. hand) is at its' most distant point from the trunk; this is at the start of each stroke.
During each stroke mechanical factors change as a consequence of resistance forces,
limb and body position, and streamlining factors. Theoretically, it would be energy
efficient to apply force evenly throughout each stroke cycle; however, this is
impossible and does not reflect the complexity of human aquatic movement. The
hand generally accelerates to a point of maximum propelling force, this is usually
reached about half to two-thirds of the way through the freestyle, backstroke, or
butterfly propulsive phase. In the breaststroke there are two peaks, one near the end
of the outward hand movement and one near the end of the inward hand movement.
Continuity of Motion
The development of peak propelling force (i.e. through hand acceleration and optimal
positioning of the kinetic chain) must be balanced with sustained propelling force.
From observations on elite swimmers it appears they 'hold the water through the
stroke' much better than average swimmers. Studies on elite and sub-elite swimmers
of similar size and strength actually show very little difference in the amount of peak
force produced by the hand. But great differences exist in the total force production
during the stroke cycle. Elite swimmers apply more effective force throughout the
stroke because they have greater stroke length and fewer low points of force
production during each stroke cycle. Certainly muscle strength, hand speed, and limb
size are important, but these characteristics must be combined with the optimum
application of force through correct stroke technique. Correct technique (other factors
being equal) is the single most important characteristic of successful swimmers
because it increases the level of swimming efficiency.
Another principle that contributes to efficient swimming is the energy cost of

movements. We try to maximise movements that contribute to forward propulsion
and minimise movements that increase resistance factors. Efficient stroking is smooth
and co-ordinates the concurrent or alternating movement of body parts. Stroke faults
develop when stop-start or poorly synchronised or timed movements are used.
Propulsive Forces
Propulsive forces in swimming must be thought of in a number of ways. Movement

of the arms and legs results in a corresponding movement of water in the opposite

15
direction; this produces a simple action-reaction force. However, unlike the forces
applied during land-based movement, the action-reaction in water is not against a
fixed surface. Movement of the limbs against the water causes the water to move, in
the process only a portion of the reactive force generated actually contributes to
forward propulsion. Although pushing against the water is our primary source of
generating propulsive force (this is called ‘drag propulsion’), it is not the only way of
producing enough force to move the body forward. The speed and direction of water
flowing across the propelling surfaces of the body will change the pressure created
against those surfaces. Water striking the leading edge of a moving surface is
deflected around the surface. The direction and angle of the surface can create a
difference in the speed of water flow which creates a pressure difference. As with our
application of push-pull force, the transfer of force through the kinetic chain allows
the trunk to move forward. The lift theory explains why swimmers can move their
hands and feet in vertical or lateral directions and propel themselves forward. The
best example of this application of force is the technique of sculling used by
synchronised swimmers. With the body in a prone or supine position, sculling
movements similar to a figure '8' pattern will move the body. Conceptually we
envision arms and legs pushing against still water (i.e. not moving). However, water-
flow over the propelling surfaces, along and around the body, creates a dynamic
environment where fluid pressure can create lift force. In recent years there has been
vigorous debate over whether one type of propulsion is dominant. Researchers
currently suggest that drag propulsion is the major contributor, but both sources of
propulsion should be important because the contribution of each to the total
propulsive force is constantly changing.
Resistance Forces
Resistance forces counteract propulsion in several ways. First, because water is a

dense fluid (i.e. relative to air) it will resist displacement. A swimmer must push
water out of the way to move through it; this is known as frontal resistance. Second,
the motion of water next to the body creates a frictional force, this is known as surface
drag. Third, water being pushed away from the body or flowing off/around the body
will collide with still-water and become turbulent; this is known as eddy resistance.
Obviously, the shape of a body moving through the water becomes an important
factor in terms of the amount and direction of water displacement and ultimately the
amount of resistance to swimming movement. When large amounts of water must be
displaced, or when the deflection of a mass of water is very abrupt, the resistance is
high. In general, it's more efficient for water to flow smoothly in straight or gently
curved pathways than to become turbulent by changing direction sharply. Frictional
resistance against the body is minimised by tight fitting swimwear, swim cap, or
shaving body hair. Turbulent water flow is minimised by maintaining streamlined
shape and body position so that water is not deflected sharply. Efficient timing and
coordination of stroke components will reduce water resistance substantially, as well
as reducing the energy cost of swimming at any particular velocity.

16
Explaining Swimming Movements
To explain the push-pull force a swimmer applies, we turn to Newton's Third Law of
Motion, which tells us that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. In
other words, pushing water in one direction causes a reactive force in an opposite
direction. Several factors become important considerations when evaluating the
swimming strokes: (1) the size of the surface area pushing water, (2) the direction and
distance water is moved, and (3) the speed of the pushing surface. Together these
factors determine the relative contribution of each type of force to the overall
propulsion. Swimming is a relatively inefficient form of movement because a large
proportion of muscle force is wasted in non-propulsive applications. We commonly
say that water ‘slips’ off the pulling surface. Some of the muscular force is also lost
in the transfer through the body's segments. In addition, some applied force is
necessary to correctly position the body rather than contribute to forward propulsion.
The study of stroke mechanics has highlighted the need to maximise propulsive forces
while minimising resistance forces. One way of applying force over a longer period
of time within a stroke cycle is to adjust the depth, width and length of the stroke
pattern. This allows the hand to find 'still water' and impart a reactive force on it.
This application of technique also allows the hand to build up speed during the
underwater phase of the stroke cycle and thereby increase the potential that lift force
will contribute to propulsion. The hand(s) must move the largest possible volume of
water. However, as with any movement there is an optimal pattern. Force application
is more difficult to maintain when the hand moves too far from the body. Also, if
joint angles do not transfer force effectively (i.e. the classic elbow drop), the reactive
force is angled downward instead of in a direction parallel to the long axis of the
body.
Forces are also transferred through the body during the recovery cycle. When the
arms are recovered over the water (i.e. freestyle, backstroke, butterfly) the distance
travelled, weight distribution from the point of rotation, and limb speed are all factors
that affect the way force is transferred through the body. For example, knowledge of
how force is applied and transferred during the recovery phase of freestyle suggests
that by shortening the distance between the centre of mass of the arm and the point of
rotation (i.e. shoulder joint) we will reduce the amount of force necessary to mover
the arm forward. Therefore, a bent elbow recovery is an effective technique, but must
be coordinated with the correct trunk rotation for optimum efficiency. We often see
highly skilled swimmers using an alternate technique that may not seem efficient.
One example is the straight arm or ‘windmill’ like recovery used by some freestylers.
Some swimmers are able to use this technique effectively because their body rotation,
shoulder flexibility, timing and muscular control allow them to keep lateral forces to a
minimum. This is another example of a style variation within the stroke model.
During the backstroke arm recovery there is also a transfer of momentum. In this case
it's an advantage to keep the arm straight during the course of the recovery movement.
As the arm is lifted from the water some muscular effort is required; however, once
the arm reaches the top of its arc the weight of the arm itself carries it downward in a
ballistic movement. Backstrokers should try to keep their arm recovery in line with
the long axis of the body, avoiding a recovery pattern which swings the arms to the

17
side. As with freestyle, body roll assists the desired movement by allowing forces to
act parallel to the long axis of the body.
We tend to visualise movement of the arms and legs relative to the swimmer's body.
This is actually a good technique used by coaches to explain the strokes and give a
visual representation of the movement patterns. This is called relative movement,
because it's in perspective to the body. However, we know that the body is constantly
moving forward. When the hand movement is viewed in relation to its' actual
directional path (i.e. in relation to a stationary object, such as a point on the side of the
pool), the shape of the pulling pattern may appear compressed or distorted. Coaches
studying illustrations or photos of stroke mechanics should clearly understand
whether relative or actual movement is being depicted and from what viewing
perspective (i.e. bottom, side, front).

18
CHAPTER 3
FREESTYLE and BACKSTROKE
Freestyle – Overview
Technically speaking, 'freestyle' swimming can take the form of any style. However,
the fastest method currently devised is the Australian Crawl and therefore, freestyle
has become synonymous with crawlstroke swimming. Freestyle is the fastest of the
four competitive swimming strokes because the alternating arm action and continuous
kick provide continuous application of propulsive force. Resistance forces are
minimised because the body's long axis remains parallel to the direction of movement.
These two conditions exist during backstroke swimming as well, but the prone body
position used in freestyle allows the musculature of the chest and upper back to pull
the arms through the water with a greater application of power through the kinetic
chain. A prone body position also allows the hand-arm surface to be positioned
immediately after hand entry so that propulsive power is generated through a long
stroke cycle. Backstrokers take a fraction of a second to position the hand-arm
effectively at the start of each stroke cycle.
Streamlining the body during freestyle swimming is achieved by maintaining (as best
as possible) a long, straight and slender shape. Movement of water around the body
tends to be in parallel streams or layers and this flow will be broken if excessive
lateral motion of the head, shoulders, or hips occurs. There will be some turbulence
created by the kicking action, but because this turbulence is at the trailing end of the
flow it presents less of a problem. The propulsive force generated by the kick serves a
very important function – it helps to maintain trunk stability and body position.
Streamlining of the trunk is also assisted when the shoulders rotate as each arm
extends forward for the hand entry. A smooth rolling action of the trunk,
approximately 40-45 degrees to either side of the long-axis of the body also assists in
positioning the arm for a smooth recovery. Rolling of the trunk combined with
turning the head to the side is used to facilitate breathing without altering the body's
position from the horizontal. There is some resistance created from the frontal contact
of water at the head and shoulders, but this can be kept to a minimum if the head is
comfortably aligned with the body. In fact, the small wave produced around the head
is used to the swimmer's
advantage when breathing into
the trough that follows the bow-
wave.
Optimum efficiency in freestyle

swimming relies upon the
application of propulsive force
that is both continuous (i.e. no
gaps between impulses) and
prolonged (i.e. propulsive force is
applied through the full range of motion). This is combined with good streamlining
techniques that minimise active drag.
Chapter 3 Freestyle and Backstroke

19
Kick
1. Heel of the left foot lifts to the surface, then 2. As the left leg moves down the right leg
knee bends and leg pushes down. stretches up.
Kicking action consists of alternating propulsive and recovery movements of the legs,
known as a flutter kick. Beginning swimmers should focus on establishing a strong
kick because this helps to stabilize the body and maintain streamlining. As the
swimmer gains in strength and skill the armstroke will assume a greater proportion of
the overall propulsive force generated. However, the role of kicking remains an
important component to efficient and effective (i.e. fast) freestyle swimming.
The kick begins with hip extension to lift the sole of the foot to the surface. The knee
remains flexed as the leg begins to drive downward. Knee extension completes the
movement in a whip like action; water is pushed backward and downward and slightly
inward off an extended foot position. The ankle remains in an extended position
throughout the kicking sequence to lengthen the kicking surface. The simultaneous
recovery action of the opposite leg involves extension at the hip and knee. As the
upward movement takes the leg past the horizontal axis of the body the knee begins to
flex slightly in preparation for the next downward propulsive movement. Typically 2
or 6 beats (i.e. each downward movement being one beat) are performed during each
stroke cycle. Six beat kicking appears to be continuous, there is no break in the
alternating movement of the legs. A 2-beat kicking tempo has a slight pause in the leg
movement when right-left feet are at the opposite extremes in the range of motion. A
fast kicking tempo drives the hips upward and keeps the trunk positioned high in the
water, but this is achieved at a greater cost in terms of energy consumption than a
slower kicking tempo. Energy consumption is the reason most long-distance
swimmers prefer a slower kicking
tempo. Regardless of the kicking
tempo, the finish of an armstroke will
coincide with the downbeat of the leg on
that side of the body to facilitate the roll
of the hips and a smooth transition to the
arm recovery.
A characteristic feature of the two-beat kick is the “split” position of the legs at the
end of each downbeat; this serves to stabilize and streamline body position. It’s often
the case that two-beat kickers perform smaller kicks between their two major ones;
this gives the impression of a four-beat kick. However, these swimmers are usually
considered to be two-beat kickers because the additional beats do not produce much
effective force. The mechanics of the two basic kicking tempos, 6-beat and 2-beat are
identical, only the tempo differs. It’s worth noting the tendency for distance
swimmers to use the slower tempo during some stages of a race and also have the

20
ability to change to a 6-beat tempo as required. Virtually all sprint swimmers use a
strong six-beat kick.
The pulling pattern, is often described as being shaped like a narrow and elongated ‘S’
when viewed from under the body. This is a generalization, because individual
pulling patterns of skilled swimmers may vary from being almost straight (i.e. very
little lateral directional change) to a distinct outsweep-insweep during the underwater
cycle. As the hand enters the water the trunk should be rotating to that side, the elbow
remains higher than the wrist as the forward momentum of the arm allows the hand to
extend forward smoothly and the fingertips begin to point downward. Some
swimmers reach full (or nearly full) arm extension with the hand just under the
surface; while other swimmers move the hand downward more sharply to begin
feeling pressure on the water from a slightly deeper position. When pressure is felt on
the hand-forearm the swimmer has begun the 'catch' phase of the stroke. From the
catch position the hand sweeps down (or down and slightly outward) while the elbow
is maintained in a high stable position. The elbow position is critical at this point
because any drop or backward slip will reduce the swimmer’s ability to produce
optimum propulsive force. The first photo of the male swimmer (see above in the
discussion of kicking) shows this high elbow position early in the stroke when the
hand is forward of the shoulder.
The hand may come under the trunk during the middle of the pulling pattern. Hand
position may vary from directly under the shoulder to across the trunk and under the
opposite shoulder; anything within these limits fits within the freestyle stroke model.
Not every freestyle swimmer will have the same amount of bend at the elbow; a
‘normal’ range of angles might be nearly straight to about 90-degrees at mid-stroke.
The female swimmer pictured below demonstrates a bent arm position whole the male
demonstrates a straighter arm position.∗ Swimmers who tend to be relatively straight
with the arm will naturally have a deeper pulling pattern and usually have less lateral
movement of the hand. This usually means the hand position at mid-stroke is under
the edge of the trunk. These differences represent acceptable variation in the stroke
pattern as long as the swimmer has the strength to hold the elbow in line with the
wrist (as viewed from the side) and not let the elbow position slip backward. Some
coaches associate a straighter arm position with sprinting; however, this may not be
the case. Many middle-distance and distance swimmers maintain an elbow position
much greater than 90-degrees. Stroke technique is not gender specific and variation
may occur as each swimmer seeks to maintain propulsive force within his/her own
limitations of strength and flexibility.
From the deepest point in its' range of movement the hand sweeps upward, or slightly
outward-upward, as it passes the hip. The amount of both inward and outward
movement of the hand will vary between any two swimmers and may also be slightly
different from right to left hand in any one swimmer. Naturally, approximate stroke
symmetry (i.e. right and left arms as mirror images) is desirable because it indicates a
balance in the movement pattern on each side of the body.
∗
Some swimmers may bend their elbow even less than the male swimmer pictured.

21
Hand sweeps under the trunk, elbow bend about Hand stays in line with the shoulder, elbow
90 degrees. bend is much less.
Hand velocity should increase (i.e. acceleration) through the second half of the pulling
pattern. Muscle strength and power, as well as arm position, determine the amount of
hand acceleration achieved. Hand acceleration, provided the pulling surface of the
hand and forearm are kept in a position to hold the water, is a key factor in attaining
peak propulsive force. The rolling action of the trunk also adds power to the final
phase of the stroke.
The recovery phase of the armstroke actually begins slightly before the hand leaves
the water. When the arm has reached almost full extension the palm surface of the
hand will naturally turn inward. A lifting of the elbow allows the hand to slide out of
the water with minimum surface resistance. Rotation of the body around the long-
axis facilitates arm recovery with a minimum of lateral force transferred through the
trunk. A high elbow position during the mid-stage of recovery keeps the forearm in a
relaxed position with fingertips pointing down. The forward extension of the arm is a
relaxed swing; flexibility and muscle control around the shoulder girdle are required
to make the movement smooth and continuous. The degree to which the arm is bent
or straight during the recovery will have an affect on the transfer of force through the
body because it influences the distance of the hand from the trunk and thus the
amount of rotational force that develops. Each technique variation has advantages
and disadvantages. Shoulder flexibility also becomes a consideration in the recovery
pattern adopted by each swimmer. A higher degree of muscular control is required if
the straight arm recovery (i.e. windmill action) technique is used. A bent-elbow
technique allows for a smaller radius of rotation and less muscular effort is required to
swing the arm forward.
Breathing
Breathing is accomplished by turning the head to one side with the natural roll of the
trunk. It's important that the turning motion is accomplished with very little lifting of
the head because this may disrupt body position or interfere with the rhythmic motion
of the armstroke. One ear remains in the water when the mouth breaks the surface.
Inhalation begins as soon as the mouth breaks the surface because expulsion of air has

22
taken place when the face is submerged. A breath is normally taken during every
complete stroke cycle. However, most swimmers find that it's an advantage to limit
breathing somewhat during sprint events and in certain race situations; such as one or
two strokes in/out of turns and the first and last few meters of a race. This seems to
help lift the stroke-rate temporarily and provide an advantage when racing. In events
longer than 50m swimmers should not be encouraged to hold their breath for long
periods. Normally a breath is taken every 1-3 seconds while swimming. Depending
upon the stroke-rate this means one breath every third stroke is sufficient to supply
enough oxygen for sustained swimming. Swimmers using an average stroke-rate will
not have difficulty breathing bilaterally (i.e. one breath per 1 1/2 stroke cycles). A
few research studies have looked at the kinematics of the body roll and found no
significant differences in the propulsive forces applied during breathing and non-
breathing stroke cycles. Studies investigating the changes in resistance forces during
breathing and non-breathing strokes are more varied. It appears that when a swimmer
incorrectly times the breath (in relation to where it should occur in the stroke cycle)
there may be a sharp increase in resistance forces acting on the body.
Timing and Rhythm
Because the arms do not move at a uniform speed within each stroke cycle, it's
important for every swimmer to develop a rhythm. Deviations from the stroke model
that break the natural rhythm of a stroke may include these factors: breathing late
during the arm recovery phase; incorrect timing of the downbeat of the kick;
excessive overlap of right/left arm propulsion; erratic changes in the length of each
stroke cycle. All of these technical variations will reduce swimming efficiency.
Swimmers often change the timing of stroke components when trying to swim at a
higher or lower stroke frequency (i.e. very fast or slow), this is a mistake. The co-
ordination of stroke components (i.e. body roll, kicking tempo, pulling pattern, and
breathing) that a swimmer wishes to use during competition should be practiced at all
times and under all training speeds. The stroke-rate used at any particular swimming
speed will vary, but the rhythm of the stroke should not.
Backstroke – Overview
Backstroke rules allow any type of arm and leg movement; the only requirement is
that the body must remain on the 'back'. If the shoulders rotate past vertical, or 90-
degrees to the surface of the water, the swimmer is no longer on the back. The most
efficient backstroke is a backcrawl technique that uses a flutter kick (except during the
start and turns when a dolphin kick is often used) and an alternating armstroke.
Streamlining is similar to freestyle; the

ideal body position is as close to
horizontal as possible. This maintains
a smooth flow of water over/around the
body. Resistance is increased if the
kicking action lifts the knees out of the
water or if the hips are allowed to drop.

23
Head position will also have great affect on streamlining. If the head is held too high,
or if lateral movement is allowed, the trunk may deviate from the horizontal. These
actions result in a body position that increases frontal resistance. The head should be
kept comfortably aligned with the body in the horizontal plane, independent of body
roll. A smooth rolling action of the trunk, approximately 45 degrees to either side of
horizontal, will assist in rotating the shoulders for both arm recovery and application
of propulsive force.
Kick
The leg action is similar to freestyle. Because each arm recovery is made using a
high, out of water motion, there are considerable downward forces acting against the
horizontal positioning of the body. Therefore, a strong 6-beat kick must be used to
keep the hips near the surface, as compared to freestyle swimming where a 2-beat
kick is often used. The flutter kick used in backstroke swimming relies upon the
upbeat as the propulsive phase. Hip extension moves the leg downward (recovery
phase) from the horizontal until the foot reaches its lowest point. The knee bends to
position the lower leg and foot and then a combined hip flexion and knee extension
drives the foot to the surface, ending in a whip-like action. As the foot drives upward
it also angles inward slightly, finishing with the toes breaking the surface. Ankles are
extended to increase the surface area of the leg. Correct mechanics of the kick will
assist the roll of the hips and trunk.
The pulling pattern is best described as being shaped like an ''S' on its' side. The arm
is straight and extended behind the shoulder as the hand enters the water. The
shoulder will roll substantially toward the entry arm. The hand is turned so that the
palm is facing outward upon entry, this allows the hand to enter on its little finger
edge to minimise resistance and maintain the momentum developed during the arm
recovery. The hand moves downward and somewhat outward until it achieves the
desired depth. At this stage the fingers may be pointed either slightly downward or to
the side. Pressure increases on
the hand as it begins to apply
force. As with freestyle the
catch position is defined as the
first point at which propulsion
is generated. There is some
debate amongst experts
regarding where the catch actually begins. Some believe that lift forces begin to act
as the hand moves downward, others argue that the catch begins when drag forces
take effect as the hand reaches its maximum depth. Each argument may be correct, as
the depth attained, distance the hand travels away from the body, and angle of the
hand all affect the magnitude and direction of the propulsive force generated.
From the catch position an upsweep of the hand brings it close to the surface at mid-
stroke. This action is combined with a slight insweep due to increasing elbow bend.
An angle of approximately 90-120 degrees between the forearm and upper-arm is

24
reached at mid-stroke. As with freestyle, the

elbow must be held in a position, relative to the
hand, so that it does not slip. If the elbow leads
the hand, maximum pressure will not be
maintained on the hand-forearm surface. From
the point where maximum elbow bend is
achieved, the hand pushes back and downward
as the arm extends. Hand speed increases during
this downsweep because the hips are rolling.
During the final third of the stroke pattern the
wrist flexes so the hand continues to maintain
pressure on the water. When the arm is fully extended the palm turns inward and the
hand begins to move upward as the shoulder lifts to start the recovery phase. Slight
right-left differences in symmetry are common and do not necessarily represent a
problem; flexibility characteristics and muscle strength are not always perfectly
balanced.
During the recovery the arm remains straight, elbow firmly fixed, as it swings upward
in an arc directly above the shoulder. Arm recovery is assisted by rotation of the
trunk around the long-axis of the body. When the arm reaches a vertical position and
begins its downward arc, the hand should rotate so that the palm is facing outward in
preparation for a smooth and streamlined entry
with the edge of the little finger leading. The
timing of each underwater stroke and recovery
keeps the hands at opposite sides of the stroke
cycle. Rolling also allows the arm entering the
water to smoothly slide downward to achieve
sufficient depth for the catch. Breaks in
timing may occur when the shoulders do not
roll sufficiently or the head moves laterally.
Efficient hand entry is critical because it helps to maintain the momentum generated
by the arm during its recovery movement. If the knuckle side of the hand strikes the
water flat upon entry it slows this downward movement of the hand to the catch
position. The ideal arm recovery movement is through a 180-degree arc directly over
the shoulder. Any hand/arm movement across the long axis of the body will result in
a lateral transfer of force through the trunk. If the hand enters the water past the mid-
line of the body it’s very likely the elbow will bend and a smooth transition from
recovery to catch position will be broken.
Breathing
Because the swimmer is on the back, with the mouth out of water, it's easy to
overlook breathing as a consideration when evaluating technique. However, it's
important for backstroke swimmers to maintain an even breathing rhythm. A good
technique is to inhale every time the left (or right) arm recovers and exhale as the
opposite arm recovers. Inhaling and exhaling during backstroke may be a little more

25
explosive than during freestyle. Swimmers should try to take a full breath each stroke
cycle and avoid shallow rapid breathing. During the underwater segment following
the start and every turn, it's normal to exhale continuously from the nose and mouth to
keep water out of the nose.

26
CHAPTER 4
BREASTSTROKE and BUTTERFLY
Breaststroke – Overview
Breaststroke is the least efficient of the four competition strokes because of the large
amount of water resistance created due to body position and an underwater arm
recovery. FINA rules stipulate that the elbows must remain underwater during the
recovery movement. Even though some swimmers recover the hands slightly above
the surface, the forward movement of the arms is
primarily underwater, and thus resistance is
high. The width of the kick also influences body
position and streamlining. However,
development of the ‘wave technique’ has
allowed some breaststrokers to achieve
improved streamlining. When compared to the
other strokes, breaststroke technique uses very
precise timing to balance the contribution of arm
and leg propulsion as well as streamline the upper and lower body segments.
Although some swimmers may still rely on an exceptional kick for peak propulsive
force the breaststroke model should consider both arms and legs in the propulsion-
resistance equation.
Streamlining
There are three key phases of the stroke where streamlining of all, or part, of the body
is critical. First, at the beginning of each stroke cycle the body will be completely
streamlined with the head or face
submerged. Arms are extended,
hands together, and line of sight is
down-and-forward. Hips are at, or
just below, the surface with the
legs fully extended and toes
pointed. The second phase of
streamlining occurs as the insweep
phase of the armstroke is
completed. Because the insweep is
a very powerful propulsive action,
the trunk is moving forward. At
this instant the leg recovery is just
beginning. If the swimmer starts
drawing the heels toward the buttocks too early, some of the forward momentum will
be lost. The shape of the body at this point in the stroke allows water to travel
smoothly backward without being deflected sharply at the thighs. Streamlining the
legs in this way helps to maximise the forward propulsion by reducing the negative
influence of resistance against the legs.
Chapter 4 Breaststroke and Butterfly

27
The third phase of streamlining

occurs as the legs drive backward;
this is the propulsive part of the
kick. Streamlining of the upper
body is achieved because the head
is lowered between the extending
arms and the trunk is stretching
forward. Because the trunk is following the arms forward the hips will tend to lift as
the feet come together at the finish of the kick. Breaststrokers using a ‘wave’ style
stroke will lunge forward with the upper body high in the water (this is often
combined with an arm recovery slightly above the surface) to allow the hips to lift.
The armstroke generates propulsion from both an outsweep-downsweep and insweep-

upsweep of the hands and forearms. From a full streamlined position the hands move
outward with the palms angled slightly. The initial application of propulsive force, as
the hands scull outward, probably results from greater application of lift forces than
drag (i.e. push) forces. Some breaststrokers begin the armstroke with the hands
slightly deeper at the catch position,
their first movement of the hands
may be slightly upward as well as
outward. As the hands move
outward the elbows remain in a high
position and begin to flex so the
hand-forearm position can apply
greater drag propulsion. At the
widest point of the outsweep a breaststroker’s arm
position resembles the pattern used during butterfly.
During the outsweep the hands and elbows remain
forward of the shoulders, if the elbows slip back
efficiency will be reduced. Because the hands must
reverse their direction very sharply, some
propulsive power is lost during the transition. Once
the directional change of the hands is made from
out-to-insweep, the relative contribution of drag
force will increase. Drag force is perhaps more
important to breaststroke propulsion than
previously thought. Forceful adduction of the
shoulders directs the hands on their inward-upward
movement pattern. This also lifts the head and
shoulders out of the water. As the hands come
together the elbows are positioned under the outer
edges of the shoulders and are pointing downward.
The hands travel through a loop-like pattern when
viewed from the front. Arm recovery is a smooth
transition following the insweep. Some swimmers start moving the hands forward
slightly during the insweep in an attempt to 'round off' the armstroke into the
beginning of the recovery. While this may have some advantage in producing a

28
slightly faster recovery movement, it may also reduce the potential propulsive force
applied during the final stages of the insweep. During all propulsive sweeping actions
the hands are angled so that pressure is felt on the palm surface. Breaststrokers will
produce a powerful upward force component during the insweep; this lifts the
shoulders well above the surface. Lifting the trunk does not cause a problem for
streamlining if the hips remain high in the water. A high hip position determines if
the stroke effectively combines propulsive force with streamlining effects to produce
an efficient stroke.
Arm Recovery and Breathing
The recovery phase of the armstroke is combined with a lowering of the head
position. The swimmer usually has the sensation of diving or lunging forward with
the arms and trunk. Hands should remain together as the arms push or lunge forward.
Variations are seen in the position of the palms as the arms extend, some swimmers
turn the palms inward and other swimmers position them facing downward. Both
hands may break the surface of the water during the recovery, but the elbows must
remain below the surface to comply with technical rules. Some swimmers use an over
the surface recovery technique to increase the speed of the arm recovery and thus
increase the overall stroke-rate.
Positioning the head so that a breath can be taken during each stroke cycle is an
integral part of timing each stroke. During the insweep of the hands the shoulders
will naturally lift. Taking a breath at this time makes use of this upward component to
help stabilize hip position. If the head is lifted too early in the stroke cycle some of
the forward propulsion will be sacrificed by downward pressure from the arms to
support the lifting action. If the head is lifted too late in the stroke cycle there is no
counterbalancing force from the insweep. As with freestyle and butterfly, there
should be a constant exhalation of air from the nose and mouth whenever the face is
below the surface and an increase of exhalation pressure just before the mouth breaks
the surface. Because breaststrokers keep their
shoulders parallel to the surface throughout the
stroke (i.e. no body roll) a wave forms in front of
the head and shoulders. The chin must clear this
wave during the breathing action. Some
breaststrokers position the head with the chin
close to the chest (see photo), others prefer to
keep the face positioned forward (refer to the
first photo in this section).
Kick
The leg movement is correctly referred to as a whip kick. It involves simultaneous

extension of the hip and knee and inward rotation of the ankles. From a streamlined
body position at the start of a stroke cycle the recovery of the kick begins with a
subtle bend of the knees as the arms reach the widest point during the stroke (i.e. the
transition from out-to-insweep). As the arms start the insweep the body position
changes only slightly; hip position is held stable as the trunk begins to rises out of the

29
water. Flexion at the hip and knee lifts the heels closer to the buttocks as the ankles
dorsi-flex (i.e. ankle at a right angle position) and rotate outward. For a split second
at the completion of the leg recovery the body position is poorly streamlined.
However, proper flexion at the hip is necessary to create a powerful thrust during the
propulsive phase of the kick and therefore some resistance against the legs is
unavoidable.
Extension of hip and knee joints is made as the arms extend forward and the head
begins to lower. This action positions the trunk, arms, and head so the power of the
kick is used effectively to drive the trunk forward. A slight wave action in the trunk
position results from a combination of actions: (1) lowering the head position to
streamline the upper body; (2) changing from a slight concave shape in the upper back
to a straighter or convex shape (i.e. shoulders rounded forward) as the body dives
forward; and, (3) inward rotation of the feet during the forceful extension of the legs.
Leg extension is an accelerating movement, combined with inward rotation of the
ankles these actions helps to lift the feet slightly at the end of the kick.
1. Feet turn out and legs extend. 2. Ankles rotate inward. 3. Kick complete.
Timing
Timing in the breaststroke is critical to optimal propulsion because any unnecessary

overlap in the application of power impulses will decrease the potential net result. If
the propulsive phase of the kick overlaps too much with the arms there will be a
reduction in net potential propulsive force from the kick. The coach will be able to
see when obvious timing errors are made because the stroke will look uneven.
Competitive breaststroke has changed over the years to reflect more precise timing of
stroke components. An ideal stroke-rate must be determined for each race distance
(i.e. 50m to 200m) to take advantage of one’s stroke capabilities. Current techniques
use almost no pause or glide between the end of one stroke and the start of the next.
Breaststrokers using a fast-rate wave action technique may appear as though the lower
body is ‘dolphin kicking’. However, this is not the case, as a dolphin kick involves
downward movement of the feet with the knees bent. This would not be permitted
under the rules for breaststroke swimming. What’s actually happening is the inward
rotation of the feet serves to lift the soles of the feet at the end of the kick. At the
same time the trunk extends, or lunges, forward to lift the hips. Because the head
position is also lowered at the same time, the affect appears to be an undulating
movement of the trunk. Biomechanical analysis shows us the body’s centre of gravity
(located at the hips) does not move up or down too much. However, the changing
position of body segments produces the resulting ‘wave action’ appearance.

30
Butterfly – Overview
Efficient butterfly technique relies on timing to maximize propulsion while

minimizing resistance. Correct timing of the kick is used to position the body so the
large surface area of the trunk is streamlined at both the least and most propulsive
aspect of the armstroke. The large power impulse generated by the simultaneous
double-arm pulling pattern yields great propulsive potential; however, during the arm
recovery phase there is no propulsion generated. This creates a ‘dead space’ in the
stroke. Reducing resistance at key points during the stroke cycle is a major objective
of ideal butterfly technique. The simultaneous and symmetric arm and leg actions
mean the body’s centre of gravity will naturally tend to rise and fall slightly. Correct
timing of the kick and breathing action helps to facilitate a smooth ‘dolphin-like’, or
wave action, that deflects water over and around the body to help maintain forward
momentum.
Streamlining
Before describing the arm and leg action it’s important to note how timing can be
used to help streamline the body. Turbulence is minimised by positioning the body so
that water flows over / under / and around with a gradual, rather than a sharp,
deviation from horizontal flow. The first streamlining technique is to enter the hands
at shoulder width, or slightly closer together as the first kick is initiated. This helps to
set the body position with hips high in the water. At this point the propulsive force
generated by the arms is almost nil; thus, its' important that the hips remain high so
water flow along the body (while not perfectly horizontal) is smooth and unbroken.
1. First streamlining technique is to enter with hands at shoulder width and start the first kick.
A second technique that affects streamlining occurs during the middle stages of the
stroke, when the arms are positioned to deliver maximum drag propulsion. The legs
are stretched toward the surface to level the trunk. This requires strength in
abdominal and lower back muscles, as well as flexibility. This action also helps to
counterbalance the lifting of the head if a breath is taken on that stroke.
2. Second streamlining technique is to stretch the legs up during mid-stroke (prepare for second kick).

31
A third application of streamlining occurs when the arms are being recovered over the
water. By stretching the legs the soles of the feet come to the surface and the trunk is
positioned closer to horizontal. Streamlining at this point is one way of conserving
forward momentum generated during the powerful finish of the underwater armstroke
cycle and the second kick. Keeping the trunk high in the water allows the arm
recovery to be completed smoothly. The swimmer actually slides forward on top of
the wave created by the body’s forward motion. One of the greatest difficulties
encountered by novice butterflyers is completing a strong second kick. If the second
kick is weak, or poorly timed, the hips will be too low as the hands exit the water.
This will encourage the swimmer to pull the hands sharply upward near the end of the
stroke and begin the arm recovery too soon. Once the timing is delayed, it’s
increasingly difficult to lift the soles of the feet to the surface in time for the start of
the next stroke. The end result of this series of timing and streamlining problems is a
rapid deterioration of body position. The swimmer becomes more vertical in the
water and performance suffers.
3. Third streamlining technique is to recover the legs during the arm recovery (prepare for next stroke).
Kick
Dolphin kicking is used exclusively during butterfly swimming, as well as during

specific parts of freestyle and backstroke races. Therefore, it’s a useful crossover
skill. Two kicking cycles fit nicely within each complete butterfly stroke cycle.
Although some swimmers have tried to exist with one kick per stroke cycle, and
others have tried to use three or more kicks, the net result of these off-tempos is
usually a reduction in the overall streamlining of the body. There is some difference
of opinion among coaches regarding the relative contribution of each kick. Some
believe the second kick should be stronger than the first. This belief is strengthened
by the observation that over racing distances of 50m and 100m, swimmers tend to
accentuate the second kick as a result of the great acceleration in hand speed during
the second half of the armstroke. Other coaches feel that each of the two kicks should
be the same depth and intensity; this is the case for most 200m swimmers. There is
general agreement that all butterfly swimmers should attempt to get the most out of
each kick by timing the downbeat precisely at certain phases of the armstroke.
The dolphin kick begins with the legs together and extended, toes pointed. Extension
at the hip (or hyperextension) lifts the feet to the surface. The knees begin to flex
while the heels stay at the surface. Knee bend rapidly increases until the angle
between the hamstrings and calf muscles is almost 90-degrees. The propulsive thrust
of the legs is accomplished by forceful extension of the knees and simultaneous
flexion of the hips to create a ‘whip like’ downward movement of the legs. During
this propulsive thrust the abdominal muscles must remain tight to stabilise the pelvis

32
and allow the large muscles of the legs and buttocks to contract strongly. The
backward-downward push from the legs will drive the hips upward and forward.
When the downward thrust of the kick is completed the hips are still flexed slightly.
The pattern traced by the hands (relative to the body) during butterfly is sometimes
referred to as an ‘hour-glass’ shape. There are three or four sequences of sweeping
movements that contribute to propulsion in the butterfly. Hands enter the water at
shoulder width, or slightly inside, palms pitched outward so the thumb edge of the
hand enters first. Hand position is angled upon entry to allow air bubbles to escape
the pulling surface. The angled hand entry also allows a smooth transfer of
momentum developed during the arm recovery as the hands strike the surface. The
first downbeat of the kick is completed almost immediately as the hands enter and
begin to press outward. Hands sweep symmetrically outward with the elbows held
up. Some amount of lift is generated at this point of the stroke; however, the major
propulsive impulse will not come until the hands move under the body. The insweep
may also be angled slightly up toward the body; this determines how much elbow-
bend is achieved. A final propulsive sweep, or push, moves the hands from a position
under the chest to a position past the hips. The hands slide out of the water and into
the recovery phase in one smooth motion.
Sweeping movements cause the hands to change direction several times (i.e. from
'out-and-down' to 'in’ and then 'back-and-out'). Because the movements are rounded,
rather than changing direction sharply, hand speed continues to accelerate during the
length of the stroke. There is a large amount of drag propulsion generated during the
butterfly armstroke because the surface of the hand-forearm can be positioned at right
angles to the directional movement of the body.
When the underwater push of the hands is completed, the wrists relax to turn the
palms inward. The recovery phase begins as the elbows begin to lift and the hands
slide out of the water with the little finger edge of the hand leading. At this point the
downbeat of the second kick assists by positioning the hips close to the surface. The
arms remain comfortably extended as they begin to swing forward. Once the hands
lift sufficiently to clear the water the forward
swing of the arms becomes a ballistic
movement. Lateral forces created by the
wide swing of right and left arms during the
recovery act to cancel each other; this keeps
the shoulder position stable.

33
Breathing
Most butterfly swimmers breathe on every second stroke cycle. If the stroke-rate is
low, or the swimmer needs to breathe more frequently because of the race distance
(i.e. 200m event), taking a breath every stroke cycle may be required. Swimmers who
develop correct timing and have a strong kick should not worry about reducing their
stroke efficiency if they breathe during every stroke cycle. Conversely, during sprint
events of 50-100m the swimmer may want to limit breathing for 3 or more strokes to
achieve a faster stroke-rate. The breath is always taken in conjunction with the
natural rise of the shoulders created by the strong propulsive force generated during
the middle of the armstroke. The head is generally lifted with the face positioned
forward, chin just clear of the bow-wave. However, some swimmers may prefer to
turn the head to the side, similar to the movements used in freestyle. Side breathing is
much harder in butterfly than in freestyle because the shoulders do not roll; the action
is truly a turning of the neck. Side breathing may be an advantage to some swimmers
because it doesn't require as much lifting of the head and shoulders.
Timing
When the face is below the surface the line of sight is down and slightly forward. As
the hands sweep inward and backward there is a natural lifting of the shoulders and
the chin should begin to move forward. Before the arms finish their propulsive phase,
the face breaks the surface. Timing of the second kick is critical because it helps to
hold the head up while the breath is completed and the arm recovery begins. As
mentioned, the second kick also maintains trunk position at a time when the final push
of the arms deliver peak propulsive force. As the arms swing forward the head is
lowered so the face is in the water before the next hand entry is made. This action of
dropping the head serves two purposes: (1) it allows the muscles of the upper back to
complete the forward swing of the arms without restriction, and (2) it lowers the
body's centre of gravity to assist the wave action. Swimmers who keep their head up
too long will eventually disrupt their body position; the legs will drop and greater
frontal resistance will result.
As we have seen, correct butterfly technique is all about timing. Each stroke contains
periods of accelerating movement that must be performed simultaneously on right and
left sides of the body. Unskilled swimmers often fail to coordinate the symmetry of
the stroke. The timing of each kick is also critical. Both kicks help to maintain
forward momentum and body position. Timing of the head movement must be
precise so that body position is not adversely affected. The breath must always be
taken in coordination with the stroke, without breaking stroke rhythm. When the
components of the stroke are properly coordinated, the body's centre of gravity should
rise and fall in a narrow wave pattern.

34
CHAPTER 5
STARTS, TURNS, and FINISHES
Dive Start
Although a number of techniques have been used in the past, the simplest and most
effective racing dive is called a ‘grab start’. A common variation of the grab start is
the ‘track start’ because it resembles the starting position used in sprint running. The
difference between the two techniques is the initial placement of the feet on the
starting block; this affects the forward transfer of bodyweight. One start is not
necessarily better than the other, it’s a matter of individual preference and how the
start is executed. Either start can be used for freestyle, butterfly, breaststroke and
individual medley races.
A long-whistle from the referee signals the competing swimmers to step onto the
block and assume any position they desire. The swimmer may take up a fixed starting
position straight-away or stand back from the front-edge of the block and await
further starting instructions.
On the starter's command "take your marks" all swimmers must immediately take up a
starting position with at least one foot at the front edge of the block. Whatever
starting position is taken, the swimmer’s bodyweight should be balanced over both
feet to maintain a stable base of support and allow the swimmer to remain motionless
until the starting signal (i.e. usually a gunshot, horn or beep) is given. Foot placement
(width) may be close together or slightly apart. Hand placement may be next to the
feet at the front edge of the block or grasping the side edge of the platform. Hand and
foot placement should be
comfortable and allow for
some pressure to be
maintained against the
surface of the block, this
helps to maintain stability.
The swimmer will be in a
position where the hips
and knees are flexed. The
degree of flexion will
depend upon a swimmer’s
individual flexibility,
balance, and foot
placement. The head is
positioned slightly upward
so the water is in view.
There are several

objectives to be achieved
during the dive. First, the swimmer must react quickly and move bodyweight forward
after the starting signal. Second, the trunk and legs must be positioned so that
maximum force can be applied against the block. Third, during the flight phase the
Chapter 5 Starts, Turns, and Finishes

35
body must be repositioned so that entry into the water is made with minimal
resistance.
The first objective, reaction time, will improve if the swimmer learns to concentrate
on the starting signal, rather than be distracted by other external cues. It’s also an
advantage to maintain some amount of muscle tension when the hands are in contact
with the block. The second objective is realised if the swimmer can move the trunk
forward to a position that is approximately horizontal when the legs reach full
extension. The first photo shows a swimmer
in the start position, the pathway that the
body’s centre of gravity (COG) will take
during the flight phase has been plotted (i.e.
connected dots). The COG initially drops
slightly when the trunk begins to move
forward and will follow a parabolic pathway
once the feet break contact with the starting
block. The distance the COG travels during
the flight phase is established by the
accumulated muscular force transferred
through the segments of the lower body.
Also, when the feet leave the block the axis
of the trunk is angled slightly upward from
horizontal (solid lines in the photos). To
achieve the third objective of a good dive the
swimmer must allow the axis of the trunk to
rotate (i.e. tilt downward) so it lines-up with
the pathway of the COG. This adjustment in
trunk alignment is accomplished by
performing several small actions that serve to
redistribute the weight of the body around the
COG. The easiest way to bring weight closer
to the COG is by dropping the head between
the arms during the flight phase. Another
way of adjusting body position is to bend
slightly at the knees or hip; once again, to
distribute more bodyweight forward. The net affect of these actions will be to rotate
the trunk downward to a position that’s in line with the flight pathway (third photo).
The entry is made with the head positioned between the extended arms and the hands
held together, punching a small ‘hole’ in the water and allowing the body to smoothly
follow through the hole along the pathway of the COG.
Dive Start Checklist

• Feet firmly on the block, bodyweight balanced.
• Knees and hips bent.
• Looking down and slightly forward.
• Hands in contact with the block, apply slight amount of pressure.
• Bodyweight begins to move forward, arms in front of body, head up.
• Arms push or swing forward, but stop below the shoulder, head up as feet
leave the block.

36
• Full leg extension off the block.

• Head moves down between the arms during flight phase.
• Slight bend at the hip or knees to help tilt the trunk downward during flight
phase.
• Reach for the water with hands together, head between the arms.
• Enter the water by making a small hole with the hands.
• Keep body extended upon entry, but allow the legs to 'relax' slightly as they
enter.
• Point the toes on entry.
Backstroke Start
Backstroke events (and the backstroke leg that starts a Medley Relay) begin from
water-level. This takes away the advantage of an elevated starting position.
However, the principles of a good dive start also apply to the backstroke start. The
swimmer takes up a position with the feet fixed firmly on the wall, at about hip width
apart. Some swimmers feel more comfortable with one foot slightly lower; this
increases the size of the base of support. Hands may grip the starting block in several
different positions, depending upon block design. The most common hand positions
are directly in front of the body (grip with palm facing downward) or to the side of the
block (palms facing inward).
On the long whistle

the swimmer
positions the hands
and feet. Remember
that the toes must
remain below the
water surface. At the
command "take your
mark" the swimmer
pulls the body slightly
upward The hips
should be as high as
possible, but not so
high that the
swimmers looses
balance and foot pressure against the wall surface.
When the starting signal is given the swimmer must try to drive the hips upward and
backward while throwing the arms over the head. Several simultaneous actions must
be completed in a split second. Extension of the hips must initiate the movement, but
a forceful swing of the arms (either to the side or straight over the trunk) will help to
project the body forward. The head tilts back and the trunk is arched slightly as these
movements are made. The hands meet when the arms reach full extension and the
final drive from the knees and ankles completes the movement. The hips should be
clear of the water surface, legs together and the toes pointed. As the hands enter the
water a slight flexion at the hip and knees are used to lift the legs and allow the body
to slide into the water smoothly (see photos that follow).

37
1. Hand entry with arms together. 2. Flip feet up to straighten body for entry.
Once completely underwater it's possible to level the body by using the hands as a
rudder. The upper body must be held in a streamlined position with arms extended
and head firmly between the upper arms. Dolphin kicking is used to propel the
swimmer forward while submerged. The swimmer may need to exhale continuously
through the mouth and nose to keep water clear of the nose while underwater. As the
swimmer approaches the surface, within the 15m limit for underwater swimming
allowed by the rules, the kicking technique changes from dolphin to flutter as the first
armstroke begins. The face should break the surface during this first armstroke. If the
timing is correct the swimmer will maintain momentum and should continue into
rhythmic stroking at race pace.
Backstroke Start Checklist

• Feet firmly on the wall (usually slightly apart) so bodyweight is evenly
balanced. Toes must remain below the surface. Feet may be placed parallel or
staggered (i.e. one foot slightly lower than the other) on the wall.
• Knees bent, bodyweight close to the wall.
• Line of sight is forward.
• Hands grip either the horizontal or vertical bar in a comfortable position.
• On the starting signal push or throw the arms back.
• Slight bend in the back to help lift the hips.
• Reach for the water with hands together, head between the arms.
• Try to ‘flip’ the feet upward (by bending at the knees) as the hands enter.
• Enter the water with body straight, moving through a small hole made by the
hands.
• Keep trunk extended upon entry, but allow the legs to relax slightly as they
enter.
• Point the toes on entry.
• Dolphin kick several times in a streamline position on your back while
underwater. Head must break the surface within 15m of the start.
• Begin normal kicking action as the first armstroke begins.
Racing Turns (Overview)
The tumble-turn technique used in freestyle is essentially the same for backstroke.
Even young competitive swimmers, from the age of 8 years, are capable of mastering
the skills of this turn. Tumble-turns should be an integral part of all training swims.
The energy cost (provided the technique is correct) is not significantly greater than the

38
slower hand-touch turn. The major problem encountered by young or inexperienced

swimmers in executing tumble-turns is insufficient forward momentum going into the
turn. This is usually the result of: (1) poor streamlining which results from lifting the
head out of the water to look for the turn or take a breath, or (2) reducing or stopping
the flutter kick during the pre-turn stroke, or (3) not using the arms effectively to
maintain momentum at the start of the tumbling action.
Breaststroke and butterfly turns are similar in many ways because these two strokes
are swum with the shoulders level (i.e. no roll of the shoulders as in freestyle and
backstroke). The turn must pivot the body after both hands have touched the wall.
The pivot action turns the body sideways so that wave action against the trunk is
minimised. The turning action must then return the swimmer to a level shoulder
position during the push-off to continue the race. A fast competition turn in
breaststroke or butterfly uses the body's forward momentum as the hands touch to
begin the turning action. The legs are drawn up into a tuck position so the feet can be
quickly positioned on the wall for the push-off. During the turn one hand stays below
the surface to help the body pivot in a tuck position and the other arm comes over the
surface to speed the turning action of the shoulders. Both hands meet in front of the
body as the arms extend and the legs drive the body off the wall in a streamline
position.
Freestyle Tumble Turn

1. Approaching the turn. 2. Last armstroke completed.
3. Head down, dolphin kick. 4. Tuck position during rotation.
5. Feet strike the target, hips are flexed. 6. Extend upper body, drive with legs.

39
7. Streamline body off the wall. 8. Several fast dolphin kicks may be used.
Freestyle Turn Checklist

• Complete last armstroke so that both hands remain near the side of the body.
• Drop head and dolphin kick.
• Tight tuck at the hips, keep the chin close to the chest.
• Bend knees as the legs rotate out of the water directly over the body.
• Use both hands to help the body rotate while it's upside-down.
• Both feet strike the wall at the same time, body is in a tuck position, hands close to
the face.
• Extend forward with the arms and push through the hips and knees to stretch the
body completely during the push-off.
• Head between arms, hands together during push-off.
• Fast, sharp dolphin kicks may be used (keep upper body streamlined).
• Begin first stroke and strong transition to freestyle kick.
Backstroke Tumble Turn
1. Approach the turn, count strokes. 2. Recovery-arm crosses over the body.
3. Dolphin kick into tuck position. 4. Rotate in tuck position.
5. Push-off, body streamlined. 6. Dolphin kick underwater.

40
Backstroke Turn Checklist

• On the last stroke use recovery-arm to begin body rotation by crossing-over the
body for hand entry in front of the opposite shoulder.
• Finish the underwater pull as the head drops down.
• Small dolphin kick to lift the hips as the tumble begins.
• Rotate in a tuck position to complete the tumble.
• Keep both hands under the face as the body tumbles, this allows the arms to assist
the body's rotation.
• Feet strike the wall at the same time with the toes pointed up.
• Push-off by extending from the hips and knees.
• Stretch the body completely in a streamlined position, head between the arms and
hands together.
• Dolphin kick in a streamlined position, stretch upward with the arms.
• Begin first stroke with a strong transition to flutter kick.
Breaststroke Turn
1. Time the last stroke into the wall. 2. Touch at full extension (palms flat).
3. Legs tuck and hips rotate toward the wall. 4. Underwater hand helps to level the trunk.
5. Push-off in a streamline position. 6. Streamline glide in prone position.
7. Long underwater armstroke. 8. Finish pull, stay in streamline position.

41
9. Recover arms close to the trunk. 10. Kick to drive the head to the surface.
Breaststroke Turn Checklist

• Reach for the wall and begin to pull the knees up under the body.
• After a two-hand touch, pull one hand away (this arm stays below the surface).
• Body pivots toward the leading arm (this arm applies pressure to help rotate the
body).
• Trailing arm falls off the wall and recovers over the water.
• Both feet strike the wall with toes pointed to the side.
• The arm that is out of the water travels directly over the head and enters in front of
the body (i.e. to meet up with the underwater arm).
• Body is level as extension from the hips and knees drives the push-off.
• Body quickly rotates from a slight side position into a prone (i.e. stomach down)
position.
• Stretch and streamline the body with head between the arms and hands together.
• Underwater pull is similar to a butterfly pull, keep the head level.
• Underwater pull finishes with both hands at the side of the body.
• Hands recover close to the body as the legs begin to recover.
• Legs drive back (breaststroke kick) as arms stretch forward.
• Head lifts and breaks the surface as the first armstroke is made (head must break
the surface before the hands start to move inward).
Butterfly Turn
1. Contact the wall on a full stroke. 2. Pull knees under the body (one hand under).
3. Pivot body onto its side, feet against the wall. 4. Push-off in a streamline position.

42
Butterfly Turn Checklist

• Stretch as you reach for the wall, hand touch on a full stroke.
• Pull the knees under the body as a two-hand touch is made.
• Leading arm moves underwater and trailing arm moves over (similar to
Breaststroke).
• Use pressure on the hand of the leading arm to help the body rotate.
• Trailing arm comes directly over the head and enters in front of the body.
• Hands together as the hips and knees extend to drive the body off the wall.
• Body comes off the wall slightly on the side, but quickly rotates to a prone
position.
• Point the toes during the streamlined glide.
• Several dolphin kicks, keep the trunk level and head between the arms.
• Begin first butterfly armstroke as head breaks the surface (within 15m limit).
• Try to finish the first stroke with the face in the water.
Individual Medley Turns
Finally, the Individual Medley event has its own set of turns to master as the swimmer
switches from one stroke to another. These turns are specialised and will be taught
once individual turns in each of the four strokes are mastered. Swimming rules
require the swimmer to complete each section of the race in accordance with the
specified rules for that stroke, and begin the next section of the race in accordance
with the rules for that stroke.
The butterfly to backstroke changeover begins as a normal butterfly touch on the wall.
The swimmer should try to make contact with the wall on a full stroke, with arms
extended and without excessive gliding into the wall. Once a simultaneous two-hand
touch is made, the swimmer will pull one hand away (i.e. leading-hand) and begin to
pivot the legs toward the wall in a tuck position. The trunk begins to twist slightly
during the pivoting action of swinging the legs up. When the feet strike the wall the
toes will be pointing straight up. The momentum of the body’s rotation causes the
trailing-hand to fall off the wall an instant before both feet make contact. The
trailing-hand is usually brought over the surface and re-enters the water behind the
head as both arms extend. A streamlined position on the back is held for only a
fraction of a second; then underwater dolphin kicking (in a supine position) is used to
drive the body toward the surface. The face breaks the surface as the first armstroke
begins.
1. After two-hand touch, pivot trunk. 2. One had over (one under) to level the body.

43
The backstroke to breaststroke changeover is perhaps the most difficult of the medley
turns. The backstroke leg must end with a hand touch while on the back. There are
several methods commonly used to execute this turn. Beginning competitive
swimmers will find that a simple open-pivot turn is effective and then graduate to a
faster method. The hand touch is always made at, or slightly below, the surface. In
the open-pivot turn the body pivots underwater, rotating toward the hand making the
touch, as the hips and knees flex to bring the body into a tuck position. The non-touch
hand remains underwater and assists with the rotation of the body by pressing upward
with the palm. The shoulders and head move toward the underwater hand as the
touch-hand releases from the wall just before the feet strike. The toes will point to the
side. The touch-hand comes over the water and enters in front of the head; both arms
then extend as the push-off is completed. The body may be slightly on its side as the
legs begin to extend, but the rotation of the turn quickly brings the body into a prone
position during the glide off the wall. The long underwater breaststroke pull
completes the transition to the next leg of the race. Once a swimmer has mastered the
open-pivot turn it’s time to move on to something faster. A second stage turn usually
involves lifting the feet out of the water during the pivot. Because most of the legs
are lifted out of the water during this turn there is less water resistance and it should
be faster.
1. Hand touch (shoulders not past 90 degrees). 2. Swing legs under body (take a breath).
3. Hand over the water. 4. Streamline body position during push-off.
A breaststroke to freestyle changeover is very simple. The touch is made from the
breaststroke and the pivot action is identical to a normal breaststroke turn. As the
swimmer drives off the wall a normal freestyle kicking action begins. The success of
this changeover is usually determined by the swimmer's ability to pivot quickly and
change swimming tempo quickly (remember, the swimmer is changing from the
slowest to the fastest stroke).

44
1. Touch on a full stroke (arms extended). 2. Swing feet under the body (tuck position).
3. Swing arm over the water (take a breath). 4. Extend body for streamlined push-off.
Race Finishes
Finishing a race correctly can save time and often provide the winning margin in a
close contest. There are several simple techniques any swimmer, from beginner to
elite, can execute. In all strokes it’s important to practice finishing on a full stroke
with the arm(s) extended; this should be practiced daily. Swimmers can learn to
adjust stroke length slightly while still 5+ metres from the wall. Large adjustments to
stoke length should not be necessary on the very last stroke. In strokes where a one-
hand touch is permitted (i.e. freestyle and backstroke) it’s possible to hyperextend at
the shoulder by rotating the trunk slightly onto the side as the final reach for the wall
is made. However, backstrokers must take care that the shoulders do not rotate past
90 degrees before the hand contacts the wall, so that a legal touch is made while still
on the back. In all finishes the head should stay down as the final stroke is made.
There should always be sufficient forward pressure from the touch to allow any
electronic timing equipment to activate. Swimmers who try to touch as they lift their
head and pivot to look at the electronic timing display or look up into the grandstand
will often miss the wall or slide across the touchpad. Another time saving technique
on freestyle and butterfly is to limit breathing during the last five metres of the race.
This allows the swimmer to visually focus on the wall for the final lunge.
Backstrokers must learn to count their strokes from flags to wall and know exactly
when to lunge backward with one arm to make their final touch.
Finishing Checklist
• On freestyle, breaststroke and butterfly finishes look for the wall targets and
judge the distance travelled over the last 3-4 strokes. This should be practiced
in every training session.
• On backstroke count strokes as the head passes under the backstroke flags.
This must be practiced at race pace.

45
• Once you know the number of strokes taken from flags to wall (this applies to
Fly – Back – Breast – Freestyle strokes), try to finish with a full reach on the
final stroke.
• On freestyle and backstroke finishes, as the arm reaches for the wall the body
may rotate slightly on its’ side (be careful that the shoulders do not rotate past
90 degrees before the touch is made in backstroke). This helps the swimmer
extend the distance of the final reach toward the wall.
• Keep the head down until the hand(s) touch the wall (all strokes).
• Keep the body streamlined until the touch is made. This is done by using
small, fast kicks when swimming freestyle, backstroke, and butterfly.
• Small adjustments to stroke length during a breaststroke finish are made with
the armstroke, not with the kick.
• On freestyle and butterfly, try to finish the last 5m, from flags to the wall,
without taking a breath.

46
CHAPTER 6
PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Competitive swimming success is dependent upon many factors. The application of

mechanically efficient stroke technique has already been discussed; there are also
certain physiological demands associated with swimming, in particular swimming at
race speeds. Energy supply capabilities and muscular capacities must be trained to
meet these requirements. All swimming coaches must continue to update their
knowledge of the body's physiological response to exercise. Only then will the coach
have confidence in planning the best possible training program. As a beginning
coaching text, this chapter will not attempt to explain exercise physiology in detail.
However, the coach will be introduced to a number of principles. The application of
these principles will be fundamental to the development of a sound training program.
Energy Supply for Swimming
Muscle contractions require an energy source. In the broadest sense, our energy
supply comes from the foods that we consume. However, a number of processes must
occur before food sources are broken down into compounds useable at the cellular
level. The basic energy source required by cells is a compound called adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). Each ATP molecule is structured so that one adenosine
component is bonded with three phosphate components. The bonds represent stored
energy. The presence of muscle enzymes causes one of the phosphate components to
separate, thus releasing stored energy when the bond is broken. In addition to the
release of energy we now have the molecule adenosine diphosphate (ADP) containing
only two phosphate components. Our continuous energy demands are satisfied by the
different systems our body uses to break down molecules to release energy and then
reform the energy source. There are three systems that contribute to the total supply
of energy:
• ATP-PCr (called the phosphagen system),
• anaerobic glycolysis (called the lactic acid system),
• aerobic system (called the oxygen system).
Each energy supply system has distinct features that determine the rate at which ATP
stores can be used and then regenerated. The rate of energy supply is determined by
the energy demand required to perform a movement task. Thus, to swim 50m
successfully in competition requires a very high rate of work (i.e. energy demand) and
to swim 1500m requires a lower rate of work, but sustained over a longer period of
time. Understanding the energy supply mechanisms will influence how the coach
plans training as well as how the coach plans race strategy.
The ATP-PCr system uses the presence of another phosphate compound called
phosphocreatin, or PCr, to recombine with ADP and produce ATP. The system
actually rebuilds the existing structures so that high-energy compounds are available
'on site' within the muscle cell for immediate energy release. The breakdown of PCr
releases the energy required to drive this chemical reaction. The process can replace
ATP so quickly that consecutive muscle contractions may take place rapidly.
Unfortunately, the supply of PCr in the muscle is limited. When rapid energy demand
Chapter 6 Physiological Considerations

47
calls upon the ATP-PCr system, it can supply the major portion of energy
requirements for only a few seconds. These chemical reactions do not rely on the
presence of oxygen, and therefore are classified as anaerobic metabolism.
Anaerobic glycolysis is another energy system that does not require oxygen.
Glycolysis is the metabolic process of breaking down the simple sugar glycogen. The
series of chemical reactions (i.e. glycolysis) resynthesizes glycogen to produce ATP
molecules. This energy pathway reacts quickly when the energy demand is high and
can be sustained at a very high level for about 40-50 seconds. However, the
breakdown of glycogen is incomplete and lactic acid is produced as a by-product.
When lactic acid accumulates in the muscle tissue it changes the chemical
environment and this becomes a limiting factor to sustained high energy supply.
Accumulation of lactic acid in the muscle tissue increases the concentration of
hydrogen ions (i.e. positively charged hydrogen atoms) and this makes the chemical
balance more acid. The characteristic muscle burning sensation and tightness
experienced after a few seconds of high intensity exercise is the signal that chemical
reactions are slowing down and energy from anaerobic glycolysis has reached a peak.
The aerobic system relies upon a series of chemical reactions to break down more
complex fuel sources into ATP, the system relies upon the presence of oxygen to help
break down molecules and release energy. There are hundreds of chemical reactions
required, making it a more complex system than anaerobic glycolysis. This means the
aerobic system takes a little longer to reach peak energy supply. The system is also
limited by the body's ability to deliver oxygen to the muscle. However, there are a
number of advantages to obtaining energy supply from the aerobic system, rather than
from anaerobic processes. First, under aerobic conditions both fatty acids (i.e. simple
fat molecules that are transported in the blood) as well as glycogen can be utilized,
giving a greater fuel storage potential. Protein sources may also be used, but under
exercise conditions this complex breakdown is usually not required. Second, the
synthesis of ATP is more efficient, the by-products produced are carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water (H2O). Carbon dioxide is easily removed from the cell, transported
via the bloodstream and expired through the lungs. Excess water is also removed
from the cell easily without major changes to the cell chemistry.
Interaction of the Energy Systems
Both anaerobic and aerobic metabolic pathways contribute to the total energy
production during all levels of activity, from the shortest sprint to the longest distance
swim. However, the relative contributions of the three energy systems are dependent
upon the energy requirement in terms of 'how much' and for 'how long'. Because
competition swimming involves the application of peak or optimal resources, we
generally require very high amounts of energy over a short period of time during
sprint swims, and lower amounts of energy over a longer period of time during
distance swims. Race distances of 100-200m fall between the two extremes and
require different proportions of energy resources from the anaerobic and aerobic
systems.

48
Relative Contribution of Anaerobic and Aerobic Energy Sources

Time Percent of Supply Percent of Supply
Anaerobic Sources Aerobic Source
10 sec. 95+ <5

30 sec. 85 15
1 min. 75 25
2 min. 60 40
4 min. 40 60
9 min. 20 80
15 min. 10 90
We determine the relative energy contributions from aerobic and anaerobic sources by
monitoring two key markers: (1) oxygen consumption, and (2) blood lactic acid
accumulation. We do not measure oxygen consumption directly during swimming
unless laboratory conditions exist. However, we can observe and measure respiration
rate and heart-rate to get an indication of increased oxygen delivery. Lactic acid
measurement can be taken from the blood to give us an indication of the chemical
balance in the muscle. Most coaches will not have access to blood lactate
measurement. However, we can get some indication of the anaerobic energy
contribution by monitoring perceived effort (i.e. subjective evaluation of effort) and
the relationship between work-rate and swimming velocity.
At rest our energy demands are low, so low-level aerobic metabolism is an efficient
way of supplying energy. Any amount of lactic acid produced (remember that both
aerobic and anaerobic pathways are always operating) in the muscle is efficiently
removed or metabolized. Thus the muscle pH remains unchanged and there is no
sensation of muscle discomfort. Lactic acid measured in the blood during rest usually
remains around 1 millimole per litre of blood (i.e. mMol/L). A mole is a given
amount of a chemical compound by weight, as determined by its molecular structure.
When energy demand increases, both aerobic and anaerobic systems will respond.
Anaerobic energy pathways can respond very quickly to a demand for high amounts
of energy because increased oxygen delivery is not a factor. Increased oxygen
delivery to the muscle may lag behind at the start of intense exercise. Swimmers
having a large aerobic capacity will be able to gear-up more quickly. If the energy
demand remains high for more than a few seconds lactic acid production begins to
overcome the rate of lactic acid removal from the muscle tissue. Alkaline substances
and proteins within the muscle (these substances are called muscle buffers) will act to
absorb some of the hydrogen ions, but they simply can not keep up. The increased
blood supply to the muscle triggered by the increased demand for aerobic energy
production will also help in the lactic acid removal process. However, the
mechanisms of lactic acid removal will not be able to keep pace with lactic acid
production and the chemical balance of the cell will change. If demand for high
amounts of energy continues, the peak rate of anaerobic metabolism will reach its
limits.
The rate of anaerobic energy production will drop back if sustained high energy
demand continues. If the aerobic system has the capacity to supply greater amounts

49
of energy the swimmer will be able to sustain a swimming velocity that represents a
'critical point' where lactic acid accumulation and reduction are balanced (this is often
referred to as the anaerobic threshold or AT). Every swimmer has an individual
anaerobic threshold, represented by a specific swimming velocity and lactate
accumulation level (i.e. number of mMol/L of lactic acid in the blood) that can be
sustained for several minutes. Aerobic fitness is associated with the velocity at which
AT is reached. Training helps to improve the swimming velocity (i.e. making it
faster) at anaerobic threshold. Training will also increase the length of time a
swimmer can maintain AT pace and counteract the affects of lactic acid accumulation.
In addition to relating training adaptations to AT velocity, the AT velocity can be
compared to the percentage of total aerobic capacity it represents. Unfit swimmers
who try to sustain fast swimming will reach their AT quickly (i.e. a fairly low
percentage of their aerobic potential) and gradually begin to slow down as they
‘tighten up’. Fit swimmers have adapted their energy supply systems so they reach
anaerobic threshold at higher swimming velocity (i.e. representing high percentage of
their aerobic capacity) and sustain that speed for longer periods of time.
Energy System Capacities
Each swimmer's maximal capacities change as a direct result of training, but they're
also influenced by a number of other factors. First, genetic potential influences
everything. Some swimmers will have a natural advantage; this does not always
guarantee success, only a head start. Second, growth and development strongly
influence both aerobic and anaerobic capacity. Physical size alone; with respect to
body mass and lung capacity; has a great influence on one's potential aerobic capacity.
The influence of biological maturity on hormonal activity and muscle development
also helps to determine anaerobic potential. Early maturing swimmers have a
temporary performance advantage; however, in the long-term swimmers who mature
later will catch-up and may in fact experience some long-term performance
advantages. Third, mechanical proficiency (i.e. the ability to move through the water
with minimum resistance) can never be ignored. Having large energy capacities
means little if that energy is wasted.
Having the largest possible capacity to deliver oxygen (i.e. max VO2) to the muscles
will contribute to swimming success, regardless of whether a swimmer has a sprint or
endurance orientation. Changes in max VO2 occur during childhood and puberty as a
combined result of maturation and training. Once a swimmer has passed puberty
increases in aerobic capacity tend to be less from year to year. However, mature
swimmers incorporating an appropriate amount of endurance based training program
can still stimulate an increase in max VO2 up to their genetic potential. Endurance
performance will also improve as a result of changes to the swimmer's individual
anaerobic threshold, as a percentage of max VO2. Changes occur to the oxidative
capacity of muscle fibres at a cellular level. Training overloads produce adaptation to
a swimmer’s aerobic capacity and then maintaining a new level of fitness requires
relatively less training volume. This is sometimes called maintenance level training.
Aerobic capacity will decline when the aerobic component of training falls below
maintenance level; this fact has training implications during the 'taper' period and
transition periods between seasons.

50
Peak anaerobic capacity is dependent upon anaerobic glycolysis, which in turn is

dependent upon the supply of glycogen stored in the muscle and the type of muscle
fibres having a glycolytic capacity. Not all muscle fibres are alike. Skeletal muscle
consists of both slow-twitch (ST) and fast-twitch (FT) fibres, each having different
capacities. Slow-twitch muscle fibres have these properties: (1) a low neural
activation level and relatively slow contractile speed, (2) a high oxidative capacity and
large blood supply, and (3) a high resistance to fatigue. Fast-twitch muscle fibres
have these properties: (1) a high neural activation level and fast contractile speed, (2)
a high glycolytic capacity and no direct blood supply, and (3) a low resistance to
fatigue. In general, we associate ST fibres with aerobic endurance capacity and FT
fibres with sprint capacity. The percentage of ST and FT fibres making up the
skeletal muscle is genetically determined. Some people would say that talented
sprinters or distance swimmers are born to be that way. However, it's not as simple as
that; the type of training program used will have a great deal of influence on how
some of the FT fibres respond.
Studies have shown that an average person will have an ST – FT distribution in the
range of 40-60%; that is, somewhere between 40% ST / 60% FT and 40% FT / 60%
ST. Therefore, the vast majority of swimmers will have the potential to swim well at
most distances and a few very exceptional swimmers will have greater potential for
either sprint or endurance events. Fast-twitch fibres are actually divided into two sub-
groups (note: some scientists would argue there are more than two sub-groups),
known as FTa and FTb. Fast-twitch, type 'a' fibres tend to alter their functional
characteristics based upon the way they are used over a period of time. This is
because FTa fibres have characteristics that support oxidative capacity of the total
muscle and have a greater resistance to fatigue than FTb fibres. We might say these 'a'
type fibres can learn to function more like ST fibres while retaining many of their fast
contractile properties. Specificity of training allows these fibres to adapt and produce
the sustained speed required for 200-400m events. It also means that training
programs that are based exclusively on sprint work will train the 'a' fibres to function
more like the 'b' fibres; this produces the 'drop-dead sprinter'.
The capacity to use high amounts of energy to produce fast, and strong, muscle
contractions is also dependent upon the neuromuscular recruitment of fibres. When a
submaximal amount of muscle tension is required for a sustained period, ST fibres are
the first ones recruited for the job. If maximal muscle tension is required for
sprinting, or greater muscle tension is required at slower swimming speeds (because
of technical inefficiencies or increased resistance loads), additional fibres must be
recruited. The rate of muscle fibre recruitment will influence energy demand.
Glycogen storage capacity of the muscle is another variable that affects potential
performance. Muscle glycogen is the sole source of ATP synthesis for anaerobic
glycolysis and glycogen reserves are limited. Muscle glycogen level will be
dependent upon diet and the rate at which the available glycogen is used. The
individual fibres most frequently recruited during exercise will be the ones depleted
first; thus both ST and FT will be affected. When ST fibres are depleted of muscle
glycogen it's still possible for them to metabolise fats aerobically. Since FT fibres are
reliant on glycogen breakdown alone to supply energy, depletion of muscle glycogen
will limit a swimmer's ability to use FT muscle fibres to swim fast. The characteristic

51
sensation of muscle fatigue and heaviness is often the result of insufficient energy
reserves in the muscle.
The capacity for PCr energy production is limited by the amount of phosphocreatine
available in the muscle, which is subject to rapid depletion. There is some evidence
that diet may be a factor influencing the amount of phosphocreatine in the muscle,
although more research must be done in this area. The overall potential of this energy
system seems to be determined by the percentage of pure fast-twitch (FTb) muscle
fibres. Phosphocreatine is depleted very quickly during intense activity; however, the
regeneration rate is also very fast. Replenishment of phosphocreatine will take place
under conditions of complete rest or low level activity that does not require the FTb
fibres to fire for a short period of time (perhaps 46-60 seconds). The overall
reformation of phosphocreatine will gradually reduce when repeated short sprints are
performed.
Cardiovascular Considerations
The circulatory and respiratory systems contribute to the energy supply process by
delivering oxygen and fuels and removing waste products from the working muscles.
The heart and blood vessels respond to training by becoming more efficient in their
delivery/ removal function. Not only does the heart respond to exercise by increasing
the rate of contraction (i.e. heart-rate), but over time the heart adapts by being able to
pump a greater volume of blood with each beat. This is particularly true in endurance
trained athletes. Another observable response to endurance training is the lowering of
resting heart-rate; again, because of the heart’s increased stroke volume. However,
changes in maximal heart-rate are more dependent upon factors such as age and health
status, rather than training. Maximum heart-rate generally declines somewhat with
age; although studies on active athletes over many years indicate that predicted age
related declines are diminished by long-term fitness. Swimming coaches should be
aware that each person may have a slightly different maximum heart-rate during land
based exercise and during swimming, because swimming places the body in a
horizontal position and the heart does not have to work as hard against gravity. It's
wise for the coach to have one maximum heart-rate as a reference for swimming work
and another as a reference for gym work.
At any submaximal swimming velocity, improvements in cardiovascular efficiency

are evident by a lower heart-rate requirement to perform that level of work. Thus, one
of the easiest ways of determining if endurance has improved over several weeks of
training is to test the swimmer on a steady-state swim (usually 10-30 minutes
duration) and check the heart-rate response. Adaptations are also shown by a
decrease in the time it takes the heart-rate to recover to a resting level following a
standard workload. Faster heart-rate recovery to a resting level indicates a positive
fitness adaptation.
Respiration is the process of gas exchange that takes place in the lungs; there is also a
capacity to exchange gases (O2 and CO2) across muscle tissue. A more complete
description of the mechanisms of respiration should be taken from an exercise
physiology textbook. It's important for the swimming coach to know that the capacity
for oxygen exchange will improve as a response to aerobic training loads. Nutrition

52
and health status are also major concerns because they influence one’s haemoglobin
level in the blood and iron storage capacity in blood plasma. Another of the body's
responses to endurance training is the increase in capillary density within muscle
tissue. This allows the blood to more fully profuse the tissue and thereby carries more
oxygen to ST muscle fibres, as well as removes more lactic acid from around the FT
fibres. This second effect will impact upon a swimmer’s anaerobic capacity.
Endurance trained individuals also show an increase in blood volume. The
summation of all training adaptations will affect the swimmer’s efficiency by
increasing both energy supply capacities and recovery mechanisms.
Measuring Exercise Intensity
Heart-rate has been shown to have a certain relationship with aerobic energy supply
because heart-rate must respond to a greater demand for oxygen by the muscles.
Therefore, heart-rate is often used as a marker to estimate a relative aerobic workload.
However, there are some problems inherent with both measurement error and the
theoretical significance of using heart-rate alone as a measure of intensity. When
heart-rate is taken manually by holding two fingers over a pulsating artery in the wrist
or neck; or one hand is placed on the chest to count heart beats; there can be
considerable measurement error. There is usually not enough time to count heart
beats for a full minute; therefore, a 6 or 10-second count is taken and the number of
actual beats is used to calculate a rate for one minute (i.e. by multiplying the count by
either 10 or 6, respectively). You can see that a simple miscount of one beat will
mean an error of 6-10 in estimating the heart-rate. Using electronic monitoring
equipment will provide a more accurate estimate of heart-rate, but this estimate may
still contain fundamental errors because heart-rate is also sensitive to other influences.
For example; body temperature, hydration, and health status represent only three
factors that may also have an influence on heart-rate. It would be more precise to
continuously monitor oxygen consumption to estimate aerobic energy supply, but this
is simply not practical for the coach. Swimming velocity is another key marker that is
generally associated with energy supply, and velocity is easily measured with a
stopwatch. Yet another marker of energy supply is the accumulation of lactic acid in
the blood. Although lactic acid is not associated with aerobic energy supply, we must
remember that both aerobic and anaerobic systems are always working. There will be
some small increases in lactic acid production as the aerobic energy load increases,
but until a critical point is reached the body’s reduction and buffering mechanisms
keep lactic acid level under control. We can see that all measures contribute some
information relevant to aerobic exercise intensity. Some of these measures are more
easily or accurately obtained than others. Because heart-rate, oxygen consumption,
and lactic acid accumulation are all physiological factors that are 'felt' or interpreted
by the individual as a perception of effort, this measure also becomes useful. While
perception of effort is not a scientific measurement, it has been shown to be a reliable
indicator of energy supply. Using a simple rating scale from 1 - 10 that represents the
effort required to swim at various speeds or intensities will give us a guide to how the
body perceives energy demand/supply. Such a scale provides the coach with a useful
estimate and can be combined with heart-rate to help define a workload.

53
Scale of Perceived Exertion

Heart-rate Approx. % Lactic Acid Effort Description of
bpm below Max MaxVO2 Balance Rating Perceived Effort
rest - 70 less than 30 resting level 1 very light exertion

(sub training level)
70-50 30-50 resting level 2 easy warm-up

(recovery & preparation)
50-40 50-70 removal rate 3 light to moderate work

increases (basic training effects)
40-30 70-80 both production 4-5 moderately hard

& removal increase (endurance effects)
(balanced)
30-20 80-90 * both production 6-7 hard
& removal increase (endurance & speed)
20-10 90-95 * production starts 8 very hard

to exceed removal (high sub-max load)
10-max above 95 * production 9 very, very hard

exceeds removal (approaching max load)
max 100 production 10 exhaustive

exceeds removal
* Endurance trained swimmers will be able to remove lactic acid from the muscle
more efficiently and maintain a more even balance of production and removal.
Therefore, lactic acid accumulation will be slowed.
Fatigue
The term fatigue is used to describe the short-term sensation of tiredness and decline
in performance. There are a number of causes of fatigue, among them: depletion of
energy reserves, reduction of energy supply (due to the accumulation of waste
products), neuromuscular factors, and psychological factors.
As noted earlier, very short-term (for a few seconds) energy supply is dependent upon
phosphocreatine availability, and longer-term energy supply is dependent upon the
synthesis of ATP from more complex fuel sources. Lower energy requirements
associated with slow swimming speeds can be supplied from aerobic energy sources
and the fuel supply is extensive, both fats and carbohydrates can be used. Higher
energy requirements rely on glycogen as the sole fuel source for anaerobic
metabolism and glycogen is also the preferred fuel source for high aerobic energy
loads.

54
Therefore, glycogen depletion and replenishment in the muscle is critical. Glycogen

replenishment will be explained in the chapter on nutrition. The rate of glycogen
depletion is dependent upon the volume of intense work performed. If successive
training sessions (i.e. from one day to the next) contain work that depletes glycogen
reserves, diet alone may not be enough to bring glycogen levels back to 100%. Rest,
diet and the cycling of training intensities to draw upon other energy reserves will
allow the body to replenish glycogen in the muscle. The most common cause of
accumulated fatigue at the end of a hard training week is the incomplete restoration of
glycogen. The rate of glycogen use is an important factor to consider when the coach
schedules individual training sets. The most intense sprint sets may deplete glycogen
to the point of muscle fatigue after 15-20 minutes of interval work (note: this time
estimate does not include rest time between swims). Depending upon diet and other
fatigue factors, it may take 12-24 hours (sometimes more) for glycogen stores in the
muscle to return to 100% capacity. Scheduling another hard sprint set during the
‘depleted period’ may, or may not, deliver the specific stress the coach wants.
Sometimes the coach will want the swimmer to be ‘fresh’ and ready to perform at
maximum capacity and sometimes the coach will try to ‘overload’ the swimmer when
he/she is at less than maximum capacity.
The accumulation of waste products from anaerobic glycolysis can produce short-
term fatigue in less than one minute of intense work. As mentioned earlier, the
balance between energy production and lactic acid removal will determine whether
fatigue set in. A well developed aerobic capacity will assist on the removal side of the
balance, and fatigue can be delayed. Muscle buffering capacity also helps to delay the
onset of fatigue. In general, we say that 'fitness' helps to reduce or delay fatigue and
assists in returning the muscles to a chemical balance where additional intense work
can be performed. Repeated intense swims as part of a training set will cause
accumulated lactic acid to stay in the muscle long after the training set has ended.
This residual fatigue may cause muscle soreness lasting after training has finished.
There are techniques the swimmer can employ to reduce this long-term fatigue, such
as: massage, stretching exercises, hydrotherapy (whirlpool bath, etc.), active and
passive rest, and deep rest (i.e. sleep).
Fatigue may also result from an inability of the nervous system to activate the muscle
fibres. Electrical impulses must be transmitted across the junction between the nerve
and muscle, called the motor end-plate. Failure of nerve impulse transmission from
the motor end-plate to the muscle cell may be caused by an alteration in a number of
chemical reactions involving calcium, potassium, neurotransmitters, and/or muscle
enzymes. The stress of training or competition may change the threshold for
electrical stimulation of the muscle tissue. Fast twitch muscle fibres, because of their
high threshold for stimulation, may not receive the message to activate. Fatigue is the
result of fewer FT fibres being recruited for the required muscle action; this causes a
feeling of 'weakness' in the muscle. It's also likely that the central nervous system is
another site where fatigue occurs. The recruitment of muscle fibres depends, at least
in part, upon conscious control from the brain. Exhaustive efforts (usually from
training) or anxiety (usually from competition) may subconsciously inhibit the
activation of muscles because the brain is constantly receiving messages regarding the
'pain status' of the muscle. An increase in the perception of effort is usually one of the
early signs of fatigue. Swimmers can learn to overcome some of these central
nervous system inhibitions and thus delay this type of fatigue to some extent.

55
Psychological factors can never be completely separated from physiological factors.

Muscle fatigue and inefficient neuromuscular coordination is often brought about by
general conditions of psychological fatigue, depression, or anxiety. Keeping
swimmers happy, motivated, and focused on achieving realistic outcomes is often the
best way to delay or overcome the short term effects of fatigue.

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CHAPTER 7
TRAINING METHODS
The previous chapter introduced basic information on how the body supplies energy
to meet the needs of swimming performance. There were also references to key
training concepts, such as: overload, recovery, specificity, variability, periodisation,
and adaptation. Now it's time to explore ways that training outcomes can be achieved
through the application of specific training methods. Then, in the following chapters,
we'll consolidate this information into logical program guidelines covering both short-
term and long-term planning.
Eight types of training, each having a specific performance outcome, are listed in the
chart and will be discussed in this chapter. The labels attached to each type of
training may vary from other textbooks, but certainly the descriptions and definitions
provided will help the coach to understand what each training method represents
when encountered under some other name. To minimise confusion, try to associate
each type of training with the energy sources, stress impact (i.e. how long will the
body take to recover?), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and the relative proportion
of race pace swimming velocity attained. Because every swimmer's goal is to swim
each race distance at the fastest possible pace, the term 'race pace' is dependent upon
the distance being swum. Every swimmer will have many race paces, covering
standard racing distances; 50 – 100 - 200 – 400 – 800 – 1500m that help set the
parameters for training expectations.
Aerobic Base Training
The term, 'aerobic base', identifies a level of training that stimulates our aerobic
energy supply systems to begin to produce physiological adaptations. Therefore,
aerobic base as a training method represents swimming at a velocity that is well below
any specific race pace. It’s valuable for the heart function, respiratory and circulatory
adaptations stimulated. Because the stress of each individual swim is relatively low,
to obtain an overload affect the volume of work is usually substantial. This means
that aerobic base training loads must be sustained for a period of time with very little
rest if interval training sets are used. As the desired physiological adaptations occur
our aerobic base swimming velocity will become faster, but the relative proportion of
effort will not change. The measurement of a swimmer's aerobic base swimming
velocity can be utilised as a valuable performance indicator to reflect aerobic
adaptation or basic fitness.
In theory (and indeed in practice) if a swimmer can elevate base swimming velocity,
he/she has a platform that can be used to achieve adaptations at higher levels of
aerobic energy demand. Coaches should be aware that effective training programs are
ones that work toward improvements in all areas of the energy supply spectrum.
Aerobic training at all levels along the energy supply continuum is only part of the
full training package a coach must plan. It’s a mistake to concentrate only on one
method of training to the exclusion of others, although base level aerobic training is
very important (particularly at the start of a training program).
Chapter 7 Training Methods

57
Training Methods
Training Energy Source(s) RPE Stress Impact Relative to Race

Method (short and long-term) Pace
Aerobic aerobic metabolism 3 low - total stress is based below race speed
Base on volume of work for all distances
Aerobic aerobic metabolism is 4-7 moderate to high - total below race speed
Endurance primary energy source stress based on volume for short distances
and frequency of work close to long-
distance race pace
Critical aerobic & anaerobic con- 6-8 high - total stress usually close to race
Velocity tributions are both high, but based on frequency speed for 400m
below maximum values of application
Maximum aerobic metabolism at max, 9+ very high - total stress close to race
Aerobic anaerobic contribution based on frequency of speed for 200-
increasing use, high residual fatigue 400m events
Lactate anaerobic metabolism at 9+ very high - volume will be close to race

Tolerance max, aerobic system under self-limiting; frequency of speed for 200m
stress to help recovery use is limited by high events
residual fatigue effects
Peak anaerobic system is 8+ high to very high - total close to race

Lactate stressed, aerobic system stress based on frequency speed for 100-
increasing to meet lactate of use, residual fatigue 200m events
clearance demands may vary with volume
Sprint anaerobic (both lactic acid 6-9 moderate to very high - close to race
and alactic) systems are- total stress based on volume speed for 50m
used and frequency of use, 50m events
residual fatigue effects vary
with volume of work
Maximum anaerobic alactic system 6-8 moderate – total volume faster than 50m
Speed is primarily used (may be of work is controlled, race speed
some lactic acid fatigue is usually short-
accumulation) term
Training loads in the aerobic base range will contribute to the total training volume
(i.e. the total of all types of training) at every stage of the season. In relation to higher
training loads, aerobic base loads become the 'recovery' sessions that complement
more stressful training components. The general rules for prescribing aerobic base
training loads are: (1) maintain submaximal heart-rate around 50 bpm below
maximum, (2) swim with minimum rest as continuous work or very short-rest
intervals, (3) sustain the workload over a sufficient period of time, usually in excess
of 20 minutes and sometimes up to 60+ minutes, (4) maintain efficient swimming
technique, and (5) even pace or slightly negative split each swim. **
*
Negative split swimming means the second half of the interval is swum faster than
the first half.

58
Coaches should use aerobic base training as an additional opportunity to improve

stroke technique and racing skills, such as streamlining off the wall, turns, and
finishes. Done correctly, aerobic base swimming is not always easy, because it
involves great effort to maintain the type of stroke technique that will be used at race
speeds. Correct technique includes maintaining the timing, kicking tempo, and body
position desired during peak performance.
Coaches normally monitor a full range of performance improvements over a season.

There should be parallel changes in aerobic base, aerobic endurance, sustained speed,
and peak speed. If aerobic base improves without improvements in other race
components, then the coach is probably concentrating too much on low intensity
training and more work should be done at higher training speeds. If aerobic base
training speed decreases (i.e. becomes slower), it's most often the result of detraining
or failing adaptation caused by illness, injury, or too much intense work. Each case
represents a lack of balance in program design.
Examples of Aerobic Base Training Sets
Set #1 (mixed interval distances)

2 x [150m / 300m / 450m / 300m /150m] first cycle free & second cycle
formstroke or form/free mix, rest 10 seconds between swims (check HR) total
2700m
Set #2 (also mixed distances)

2 x [4 x 50m / 3 x 100m / 2 x 200m / 300m] as above, but rest 5 seconds after
50's, total 2400m (a swimmer using the same pace as in the set above will take
longer to compete this set, because of more frequent breaks -- keep the rest
short)
Set #3 (fixed interval distances)

10 x 250m or 10 x 300m freestyle, rest 10 seconds between swims,
swimming at 1:30 pace (for example), this set will take about 40-47 minutes
(note the use of ‘off’ interval distances, such as 250m, adding variety to the set)
total 2500-3000m
Set #4 (over-distance intervals, freestyle)

3 or 4 x 1000m freestyle, rest about 15-20 seconds (this could also be done as
an arms only pulling set using a pull-buoy) total 3000-4000m
Set #5 (over-distance, formstroke)

5 or 6 x 600 backstroke of breaststroke, rest about 15-20 seconds (also try
this set for breaststrokers using fins and a ‘wave-action’ body motion following
each pull, or alternate 600 breaststroke swim and 600 breaststroke with fins)
total 3000-3600m
Set #6 (single long swim)

3000m straight freestyle swim (a variation could be 15 x 200 IM consecutive
swims, no rest between change-overs) if this type of set is used be careful that
swimmers maintain the correct pacing and insist upon correct technique (which
includes turns) total 3000m

59
Aerobic Endurance Training
As the term suggests, this type of training is designed to stress the swimmer so that
greater volumes of work can be performed. It builds upon the physiological
adaptations stimulated by aerobic base training, but endurance work is performed at a
greater swimming velocity. Building endurance is important not only to the distance
swimmer, but to formstroke specialists and sprinters. Increasing one's aerobic
endurance by delivering more oxygen to the working muscles has the effect of
enhancing the swimmer’s ability to recover from stressful anaerobic efforts.
Adaptation to endurance training allows the swimmer to swim further/faster while
relying on a major proportion of energy supply from aerobic sources.
Aerobic endurance outcomes are similar to aerobic base training, except that greater
depletion of muscle glycogen occurs and neuromuscular fatigue is greater. Endurance
training is performed with heart-rates in a range of 50-30 beats below maximum.
Aerobic endurance training relies on three components to stimulate successful
adaptation: (1) sufficient volume to overload the aerobic energy system, (2) controlled
intensity, usually within a limited heart-rate range, and (3) relatively short rest
between interval swims. As with aerobic base training, work of 20 minutes or more is
required. This is usually made up of interval type sets of swims, although continuous
long swims may be used. Interval training methods provide us with an almost
unlimited degree of variation that can be applied to constructing training sets. The
distance of each interval swim may remain the same or vary up/down, strokes may
change, specialised kicking only or pulling only sets will also produce endurance
outcomes provided the three components are present. Working through a range of
heart-rates also allows the coach to specify descending times and other variations in
the training set.
The amount of rest programmed between repeat swims should be carefully planned to
overload the aerobic energy system. The amount of time spent swimming during an
interval will probably be six to eight times the amount of time spent resting between
swims. For example, swimmer 'A' performs 30 x 100m holding on average time of
1min.28sec. (i.e. 88 seconds) with a heart-rate around 35 bpm (± 5) below maximum.
Using a 6:1 ratio means about 15 seconds rest between swims. It may be convenient
for the coach to round-off the interval time to 1min.40sec. (this actually gives the
swimmer only 12 seconds rest on average), but the standard interval gives the coach
greater control if there are several swimmers sharing the training lane. Swimmer 'B'
performs 10 x 400m maintaining an average swim time of 6min; a ratio of 8:1 means
that each swim will commence on a 6min.45sec. clock cycle. In general, as the
interval distances become greater the coach should select a greater work-rest ratio.
Almost any repeat distance can be incorporated into endurance sets; however, there
may be a tendency for swimmers to exceed the heart-rate range if very short intervals
(i.e. such as 50m) are used. There is some research to indicate that the best endurance
adaptation occurs when rest is controlled between 10 and 30 seconds.
Anaerobic threshold is reached somewhere in the range of heart-rates used for aerobic
endurance sets. There are various tests used to estimate AT pace, usually they consist
of a single distance (1500-3000m) performed at the ‘fastest possible even pace’. The
average 100m velocity on the test swim provides an estimate of the velocity where
anaerobic threshold is reached.

60
References to target heart-rates used during the various types of training are worth
further explanation at this point. While it's generally true that most of the athletes we
train will have similar maximum and resting heart-rates, the actual individual values
from swimmer to swimmer may vary considerably. Maximum heart-rate is
influenced by factors such as age, sex (i.e. girls generally have maximums 5-10
beats/minute higher than boys), and genetic profile. While resting heart-rate is
influenced by adaptation to aerobic base training, health status, and general state of
fatigue. The difference between maximum and resting heart-rates is the range in
which we prescribe exercise intensity (remember that heart-rate is only one indicator
of intensity). Clearly, two swimmers each performing at a heart-rate of 160
beats/minute (bpm) may be under different stress. Swimmer 'A' might be working at
20 bpm below maximum, while swimmer 'B' might be 45 bpm below! It's also likely
that each swimmer is training at a different number of beats/minute above resting
values. Because maximum heart-rate is a relatively stable measure, while resting
heart-rate is sensitive to change, we prescribe training heart-rate based upon beats
below maximum. Coaches often ask "if bpm below max is the training goal, how do I
start by determining a swimmer's maximum heart-rate". Simple, administer a test
such as the one shown on the following page and record each swimmer’s results.
Test to Determine Individual Maximum Heart-Rate
There is no single 'best' test to use. However, these criteria form the basis for a test
the coach may construct:
• heart-rate will increase rapidly at the start of an exercise effort of high intensity,
but don’t expect max heart-rate after the first swim,
• it may take 2-3 minutes for some individuals to reach their maximum heart-rate,
• heart-rate will decline rapidly (particularly in well conditioned swimmers) if the
intensity of the effort is reduced or broken (i.e. when the swimmer slows or is
given too much rest between swims),
• achieving maximum swimming speed over a short distance is not always directly
related to attaining maximum heart-rate.
Suggested Test Protocol

After completing a warm-up routine - swim 200m increasing the pace on each 50m
from 'easy' to 'moderately-hard' - check heart-rate during a 10-15 second break after
the 200m effort - swim 2 x 100m high effort repeats (as close to race pace as possible)
with very short rest between each (3-5 seconds is enough) - check heart-rate
immediately upon completion of the second 100m effort.
1. if the swimmer's second 100m effort is significantly slower (i.e. more than 5-6
seconds) than the first 100m effort, then repeat the test substituting 3 x 50m efforts
(3 seconds rest between) for the second 100m effort, measure heart-rate after the
final 50m effort.
2. an electronic heart-rate monitor should be used (i.e. for accuracy) / young age-
group swimmers may not be experienced enough to accurately use palpation
methods to measure heart-rate; therefore, the coach must develop his/her skill in
taking heart-rates manually.
Although the ideal situation is to keep the heart-rate in a target range, in practice the
coach and swimmer will notice a gradual upward drift in heart-rate during the middle

61
and later stages of any aerobic set. Cardiac drift may occur early in the training set if
the swimmer has a poor endurance base or the intensity is too high during the first few
swims. It’s normal for swim times to remain constant and yet heart-rate will
gradually climb, in this situation the coach has two courses of action. First, the coach
can encourage the swimmer to maintain swim times while the heart-rate continues to
drift upward; this results in a greater anaerobic energy contribution. Second, the
coach can advise the swimmer to slow slightly and keep the heart-rate under control;
this keeps the energy supply primarily within the aerobic range. A third possible
option, change the send-off interval to increase rest between swims, is a less desirable
choice if endurance is the primary objective of the training set. By allowing more rest
between repeat swims, recovery is enhanced and endurance overload is sacrificed.
However, if maintaining swimming pace is important, then changing the interval to
allow slightly more rest may be an acceptable option. In this case a greater
percentage of the required energy will come from anaerobic sources.
Examples of Aerobic Endurance Training Sets
Set #1 (fixed interval distance)

15 x 200m or 30 x 100m freestyle, rest 15 seconds between swims, or use a
send-off interval to allow this rest (variation - descend times on swims 1-3, 4-6,
7-9, 10-12, 13-15, etc.) total 3000m
Set #2 (also fixed distance)

60 x 50m mixed strokes, rest 5-10 seconds (or appropriate send-off interval),
swim 15 repeats each stroke or alternate 10 x 50 formstroke, 5 x 50 freestyle,
check heart-rate every 10th swim, total 3000m
Set #3 (mixed interval distances)

4 - 8 x (100 - 200 - 300m) freestyle, rest 10/20/30 seconds (or establish an
interval time per 100m such as 1min.25sec., i.e. 1.25/2.50/4.15 send-off times),
total 2400-4800m
Set #4 (mixed distances & descending times)

5 - 10 x (50 - 100 - 150m) formstroke, rest 5/10/15 seconds (or establish interval
time per 50m), on the second set swim 50m faster than first set, on third set
swim 100m faster than first set, on fourth set swim 150m faster than first set, on
fifth set swim all three distances faster than the first set (repeat sequence if
extending the work to 6-7-8 etc. sets), total 1500-3000m
Critical Velocity Training
This type of training is based upon a heart-rate – swimming velocity response that
predicts maximum heart-rate is reached at the same point where maximum oxygen
consumption is reached. In practice swimmers can only maintain maximum oxygen
consumption for a few minutes duration (naturally this capability is extended with
specific training). In theory if we can train at a level just below the point where max
HR and max VO2 are reached, a specific training load can be sustained long enough to
create an overload effect.

62
The relationship between swimming velocity and heart-rate is roughly linear at sub-
maximal rates. When maximum heart-rate is reached, there is a logical limitation on
oxygen delivery to the working muscles because the heart can not pump blood any
faster. Maximum heart-rate is a physiological parameter not sensitive to changes with
training, but the heart's stroke volume (i.e. the amount of blood pumped with each
beat) is subject to change. Therefore, endurance training that approaches maximum
heart-rate will overload the heart to stimulate increases in stroke volume. Critical
velocity training has also been called 'heart-rate sets' by some authors, although any
type of aerobic training can include some evaluation of heart-rate as one measure of
intensity. The key to successful training at high, yet sub-maximal, loads is to identify
a 'critical velocity' for repeat swims when the heart-rate is still 15-10 bpm below max
(some coaches use a range of 20-10 bpm below max).
Very little has been said about lactate production thus far in the discussion of training
that is primarily aerobic. As pointed out in the discussion on energy systems, lactic
acid is produced at all levels of exercise intensity. Energy is always being produced
via both aerobic and anaerobic energy pathways, the relative proportions of each are
determined by the energy demand and one’s training adaptations. At very high
aerobic loads (such as critical speed training), lactate levels will be high but remain
stable (i.e. not continuing to climb). If lactic acid levels in the muscle are stable
during critical speed training sets, it means the mechanisms for lactic acid removal are
being stimulated to keep pace with the increased production. This is an important
feature about critical velocity training; it forces the body to change the dynamics of
lactate removal as well as providing a high level of aerobic stress.
As well as the benefits derived from critical velocity training, there are some
limitations. Because of the higher overall stress placed on the body, this type of
training can not be done every day. There are also concerns that young swimmers
could be over-exposed to this type of training and fail to recover sufficiently for
adaptation to take place. Other concerns are the volume of critical velocity work per
individual training sessions and the accumulated volume during a week or fortnight’s
training. The ideal amount of rest taken between repeat swims is somewhat variable,
any two swimmers may need slightly different amounts of rest. These general
guidelines will help the coach plan an appropriate amount of critical velocity training:
• volume of CV work applied at any one time should be in a range of 1500-3000m
(somewhat below this range during a taper period),
• volume of CV work should build up during the season and then reduce during the
taper,
• CV training is generally applied no more than twice per week for senior age-group
swimmers,
• interval distances of 100 - 200m are best, although intervals ranging from 50m to
300m may be used in some cases,
• rest intervals of 35-50 seconds are usually prescribed; this may be extended to one
minute in some cases,
• CV work may be performed in freestyle or formstrokes; the training outcomes
become more specific if the swimmer's racing stroke is used,
• CV work should be introduced with target heart-rate of 20 bpm below max; if the
swimmer is able to hold swim velocity at the target heart-rate then training loads
approaching 10 bpm below maximum can be used.

63
It will be necessary for the coach to monitor the progress of swimmers during the CV
training set to maintain the target heart-rate. It's also an advantage for the coach to
predetermine a swimmer's critical speed and review this about every 4-6 weeks to
determine a new critical velocity. A useful formula has been developed to allow the
coach to estimate critical velocity based on two test swims.
Estimating Critical Velocity
Test Protocol: Critical velocity can be estimated from two criterion values.
Freestylers will use times for 50m and 400m freestyle and formstrokers will use times
for 50m and 200m. It's not advisable to use competition times for this purpose. Prior
to the test the swimmer should be reasonably fresh (i.e. not showing symptoms of
residual fatigue from previous training sessions) and the coach should prepare the
swimmer with an adequate warm-up. From a 'push start' swim 50m at maximum
effort, record the time. Following this effort a sufficient recovery swim (or set of
swims) should be performed. Again from a 'push start' the swimmer performs a
maximum effort 400m freestyle (or 200m formstroke) swim, record the time.
Calculation: CV = (400m - 50m) ÷ (400 time* - 50 time*)

* all times are given in seconds (i.e. 5min.30sec = 330sec)
Example: 400m time 5min.42.61sec. 50m time 31.27sec.

CV = (400-50) ÷ (342.61 - 31.27) = 1.124 m/sec
Training Estimate: 100m repeat swims @ 1.124 m/sec

(i.e. 100m ÷ 1.124 m/sec = 88.9sec or 1min.28sec)
Set Construction: 20 x 100m on 2min. interval, HR 10-20 bpm below max.

target time of 1min.28sec allows about 32sec rest
Variations: Critical Speed sets may involve 150m or 200m repeat swims.
Calculate the target velocity and add a fraction of a second for
150m repeats and 1-2 seconds for 200m repeats.
Coaches will find that CV becomes faster after a few weeks due to adaptation.
During CV training sets if the heart-rate begins to climb to maximum there are two
options. First, ask the swimmer to slow slightly to maintain HR at the target level.
Second, increase the time interval within the guidelines for set design (i.e. provide rest
that is closer to 50sec. to one minute). If these modifications are made and the heart-
rate still continues to approach maximum, then the training set should be shortened or
stopped. Swimmers having poor endurance capacity will find it difficult to cope with
CV training. If training heart-rate remains below the target zone the coach should not
shorten the rest, but encourage the swimmer to go faster. This may be an indication
that the targeted critical velocity needs to be revised. Over time, the coach will
become familiar with the way individual swimmers respond to this type of training
and be able to adjust training parameters on an individual case basis.

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Maximum Aerobic Training
Training at one's maximum aerobic capacity can only be maintained for a few minutes
duration. When aerobic energy supply is at its limit and heart-rate is at maximum,
any additional demand for energy must be supplied from anaerobic (lactic acid
producing) energy sources. This causes a rapid imbalance in the production /
reduction of lactic acid in the muscle and creates a rapid increase in lactic acid
accumulation. This type of training is very stressful and, depending upon the volume
of work done, may require two or three days before full recovery is complete. When
we talk about 'recovery' in this context we don't mean full rest, but a reduction in
specific training stress to allow residual fatigue to dissipate.
There is some debate regarding the effectiveness of this type of training for pre-
pubertal swimmers. Prior to and during the childhood growth spurt it may not be
advisable or necessary to program maximum aerobic training. Most of the gains in
maximum aerobic capacity during childhood are the result of growth and maturation.
Sub-maximal aerobic training loads are more than sufficient to stimulate continued
improvements among young swimmers.
However, maximum aerobic training is a useful training method for senior age-group
and elite level swimmers. As with other forms of highly stressful training a
swimmer's ability to absorb the training stimulus and adapt to it will depend to a large
extent upon other fitness components. Certainly there is a readiness for this type of
training that’s determined by how well a swimmer recovers and adapts to other
components of the training program. The volume of each training load, and frequency
of application, will determine the amount of overload applied during a Max VO2 set.
General guidelines for prescribing maximum aerobic training are:
• total volume of work (per session) will be much lower than other types of training,
800-1500m is a realistic target,
• highly stressful performance should be maintained for 3-5 minutes, then some
level of recovery will be required,
• recovery should always take the form of active recovery (i.e. swimming at aerobic
base level).
Examples of Maximum Aerobic Training Sets
Set #1 (freestyle)
3 x (4 x 100m max effort, rest 5-10 sec. between * / swim 200m recovery
following the fourth 100m effort) heart-rate should reach maximum during the
second 100m effort and remain at that level on the third and fourth swims, total
1200m effort and 600m recovery
Set # 2 (formstroke)
3 x (3 x 100m max effort, rest 5-10 sec. between * / swim 150m recovery
following the third 100m effort) heart-rate should reach maximum and remain
there during the short breaks (recovery to ‘true’ resting level is never achieved
during the recovery swim), total 900m effort and 450m recovery

65
Set #3 (freestyle of IM)

4 x (400m free or IM max effort, swim 150-200m easy between each effort)
time allocated to recovery swim should equal half the time of the effort swim,
total 1600m effort and 600-800m recovery
* Fixed time intervals may be used if the swimmer can hold all repeat times within
the interval.
Because we are demanding maximum aerobic contribution, the corresponding

swimming velocity will be fairly high and blood lactate levels will be increasing. It's
very difficult to maintain the required high swimming velocity for 3-5 minutes of
sustained effort with heart-rate at maximum. Therefore, broken swims with very
short rest between each segment are used. Each 3-5 minute period of effort will be
followed by an active recovery lasting approximately 50-60% of the effort time (i.e.
two and one-half to three minutes recovery time). Well conditioned distance and
middle distance swimmers will be able to achieve maximum oxygen consumption
quickly. The time frame usually allows 300-400m of effort, followed by 150-200m
recovery swimming. Training overload is provided by repeating this cycle a number
of times.
Lactate Tolerance Training
This type of training is done with the intention of producing very high amounts of
lactic acid in the muscle. The swimmer experiences the feeling of muscle soreness,
burning, and fatigue and responds by adapting to the physical and psychological
demands. When a swimmer attempts to swim at/close to peak velocity from the start
of a swim, the energy demand is very high from the start. The body relies heavily on
anaerobic metabolism to supply the required high level of energy. Therefore, the
process of lactic acid production/reduction is out of balance very quickly. Lactic acid
is normally removed from the muscle tissue via the blood, but the fast twitch muscle
fibres being called upon do not have a direct blood supply. Therefore, lactic acid
accumulates in the muscle and results in a characteristic feeling of 'muscle burn'.
Lactic acid will diffuse across the FT muscle cell membranes and eventually be
carried away from the tissue. The body responds to the condition of lactic acid
accumulation by increasing the buffering capacity in the muscle and blood to
neutralise more lactic acid. Changes also occur in the production of some enzymes.
In addition, there may be a psychological adaptation to the characteristic discomfort
felt in the muscles; the swimmer can learn (to some extent) to tolerate this pain and
continue slightly longer at a very high level of effort.
As with maximum aerobic training methods, there is good rationale for not including
lactate tolerance training as a primary training method used among pre-pubescent
swimmers. Although the notion that children do not produce high lactates has been
shown to be incorrect, the qualitative response (in terms of muscle chemistry) among
children to this type of training may not produce the desired outcome. Young
swimmers will experience the feeling of high levels of lactate in the muscle during
peak lactate training and if properly motivated will achieve the desired psychological
outcome.

66
By its very nature, lactate tolerance training is very stressful and produces residual
fatigue which may last for 48-72 hours (i.e. 2-3 days). Although most of the lactic
acid will be removed from the muscle within 30-60 minutes, higher than resting levels
may remain for days. Several factors will influence the rate at which the muscle
chemistry returns to normal. First, the swimmer's aerobic fitness will influence the
rate of recovery because of greater lactic acid removal capabilities. Second, recovery
enhancement techniques such as massage, spa baths, sauna, etc. will help to speed the
recovery process. The fast twitch muscle fibres used during high velocity swimming
may also sustain micro-trauma (i.e. tearing or damage) during the state of acidosis
induced during this type of training. This may take several days to repair so coaches
should be aware that this is a natural part of the stress-recovery-adaptation cycle.
However, when there is repeated high stress training loads, the swimmer may not be
able to cope and adaptation fails to occur. It's for this reason that lactate tolerance
training should not be used too frequently. These general guidelines will help the
coach use lactate tolerance training appropriately:
• total volume of work (per session) will be limited, between 800-1200m is a
realistic target,
• individual swims must be long enough to produce a peak blood lactate level,
• a series of peak lactate performances are scheduled so that successively higher
levels of residual blood lactate are present at the start of each swim,
• active recovery swimming between efforts should be 3-5 times longer than the
effort swim,
• the adaptation period must be long enough for the swimmer to absorb the training
before it is repeated; the length of this period will depend on the amount/types of
other training in the total program.
Muscle lactate will presumably reach a saturation level, but blood lactate will
continue to increase throughout the set. The net effect is that a high level of lactic
acid must be tolerated in the muscle tissue. Since the training objective is to achieve
peak lactate production on each swim, repeat distances of 75-200m are recommended
for lactate tolerance sets. Sprint specialists, because they have a high percentage of
fast twitch muscle fibre, may be able to effectively use shorter repeat swims on lactate
tolerance sets.
Examples of Lactate Tolerance Training Sets
Set #1
8 x 100m max effort on 4-6min interval, swim easy between efforts, total 800m
(excluding recovery swimming)
Set #2
5 x 200m max effort on 8-13 min interval, swim easy between efforts, total
1000m
Set #3 (sprinters)
3 x (100m max effort on 5-6min + 4 x 50m max effort on 2-3 min), swim easy
between efforts, total 900m
Note: freestyle or formstroke may be performed on any of these sets

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Peak Lactate Training
This type of training helps the swimmer to adapt to race conditions over 100-200m. It
may also be called race simulation or quality training because the physiological
response should be similar to that encountered in competition. A training overload is
created when more than one swim is performed. This type of training also gives the
swimmer an ideal opportunity to practice the desired stroke technique at the desired
stroke rate and count, race start, turns, and pacing. Guidelines for the construction of
peak lactate training sets are relatively simple:
• each swim should be approached with race intensity; post-race heat-rate should be
at maximum,
• total volume of work (per session) should be limited to 400-600m (distance
specialists may need to increase this total)
• active recovery swimming should be encouraged between effort swims (note: this
is a good opportunity to practice post-race swim-down routine),
• there should be a suitable adaptation period between sessions containing this type
of training,
• competition events may be used in the same way that a peak lactate set is used
(i.e. several race efforts over a 2-3 hour period with swim-down between each).
Examples of Peak Lactate Training Sets
Set #1
4 - 6 x 100m race effort on 20+min. interval, recovery swimming or aerobic
base training set between efforts, total 400-600m of race quality (excluding
recovery swimming)
Set #2
3 x 200m race effort on 30min. interval (as above), total 600m of race quality
Set #3
3 x 200m race effort (each effort split, 5-10sec. rest at 100m and 150m) on
30min. interval (total swim time for 100-50-50 faster than race time), total 600m
of race quality
Note: freestyle or formstroke may be performed on any of these sets
Sprint Training
Specialist training for 50m sprint events should stimulate both alactic and lactic acid
producing anaerobic energy production. Coaches should note that pre-pubertal age
swimmers will utilise a higher percentage of aerobic energy even on sprint swims.
The key elements of racing capacities that are developed by using sprint training are
energy supply and neuromuscular patterning to specific race requirements (i.e. the rate
of muscle contraction). Coaches should always encourage the best possible technique
during this type of work.

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As with other types of training, the overall fitness of swimmers will influence their
ability to absorb larger amounts of sprint training. Sprint training sets should include
these elements:
• partial recovery between effort swims to stimulate an overload (i.e. there will be a
gradual build-up of lactic acid in the muscle),
• because this is primarily an anaerobic exercise load, heart-rates after each swim
are expected to be high (although they are not necessarily at maximum),
• work to rest ratios range from 1:1 to 1:3 or slightly more,
• active recovery swimming may be used between efforts,
• individual repeat distances of 25-75m (usually the distance of each repeat swim
will be below the range of peak lactate accumulation from a single swim),
• training volume (per session) is dependent upon maintaining swimming speed,
800-2400m of work is realistic.
Variety can be added to training sets by programming descending times, ascending or

descending distances, and slight changes of pace to try to negative split swims. Rest
between swims may be a combination of active recovery swims and complete rest.
Examples of Sprint Training Sets
Set #1
24 x 50m on 1min.15sec. to 1min. 30sec interval (or sufficient rest within an
appropriate work-rest ratio), total 1200m of fast swimming
Set #2
64 x 25m on 45sec interval, sprint odd numbered swims / build-up even
numbered swims, approximately 1000m fast swimming and 600m at lower
intensity
Set #3
10 x (25 - 50 - 75m) on 45sec/1min.30sec./2min. interval (rest or easy 25m
swim between efforts), total 1500m of fast swimming
Note: freestyle or formstroke may be performed (send-off interval adjusted to fit the
stroke and ability of the swimmer)
Sprint training is perhaps less stressful in the short-term than previously mentioned
maximum loading types of work because partial recovery is provided between swims.
However, because this type of training relies primarily on anaerobic metabolism there
will be accumulation of lactic acid in the muscle that may result in residual muscle
soreness. The body will also draw heavily upon glycogen stores in the muscle as a
fuel source, so glycogen levels will be depleted after this type of training. Depending
upon conditions such as diet, immediate glycogen replenishment (i.e. use of a sports
drink during the training session), and other types of training programmed during the
session; glycogen stores may not return to full capacity for several hours. This may
impact on how frequently this type of training is scheduled.

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Maximum Speed Training
Short bursts of energy are required at times during all race distances. Explosive
movements are used during the push-off following each turn, as well as the increased
stroke rate while swimming in-out of turns. In sprint events (i.e. 50m) the
requirement for maximum speed from the first stroke is obvious. Maximum velocity
swimming over a short distance will call upon alactic anaerobic energy supply.
Repeated maximum, but short duration efforts, stimulate adaptation from both energy
supply mechanisms and the neuromuscular system. Actual swimming speed may be
greater than the average speed over 50m race performance. This type of training will
rely on the recruitment of fast twitch muscle fibres. All swimmers, regardless of their
preference as a distance or sprint specialist, need this type of training regularly.
Sprint swimmers will benefit most in terms of the contribution made to specific
improvements in race performance. Guidelines for prescribing maximum speed sets,
also called ‘High Velocity Overload’ (HVO) are:
• maximum swimming velocity, stroke rate, stroke length, and correct technique are
the most important factors (heart-rates are irrelevant),
• individual repeat distance is usually 25m or less,
• work to rest ratios should favour rest; 1:4 or more is appropriate,
• active rest (i.e. low intensity swimming) may be used between explosive efforts,
• total volume of high-speed swimming (per session) should be relatively low, 400-
600m is appropriate,
• small amounts of maximum velocity work may also be combined with drill work,
kick or pull sets (i.e. as part of the active recovery).
Benefit from maximum speed training sets is achieved when swimmers are reasonably
fresh (i.e. not exhausted from other types of training) and focused on quality
performance. However, there is evidence to suggest that performance benefits are
also achieved from adaptations in neuromuscular control (as opposed to adaptations of
the energy system) when maximum speed sets are scheduled at the end of a training
session. Residual fatigue effects are not unusually high, provided that sufficient
recovery swimming is used during and after the required efforts.
Examples of Maximum Speed Training Sets (HVO Sets)
Set #1
16 x 25m on 1min.10sec. interval (or sufficient rest within an appropriate work-
rest ratio), active recovery swimming between efforts, total 400m (exclusive of
recovery swimming)
Set #2
9 x (3 x 50m ) → first 50m sprint 20m and 30m easy swim / second 50m build-
up 20m and sprint 15m, then 15m easy / third 50m build-up 30m and sprint 20m
1min.20sec. interval, approximately 500m of fast swimming
Set #3
8 x (4 x 25m) on 1min. interval → after each cycle swim 200m recovery, total
800m (exclusive of recovery swimming)
Note: freestyle or formstroke

70
Each type of training can be defined in terms of the physiological stress that is
applied. However, the net affect of training is a complex mixture of volume,
intensity, and specificity (i.e. type of training applied). Similar training programs will
not automatically produce the exact same training result for any two swimmers. Well
constructed training programs contain the right mixture of training sets that are
designed to: (1) achieve the desired training objectives over both short and long-term
timeframe, (2) complement each other for the best possible adaptation, and (3)
provide an overload without subjecting the swimmer to overtraining.

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CHAPTER 8
DRILLS and STROKE-RATE
Stroke drills attempt to isolate some aspect of stroke technique and then pattern a
more desirable movement. Coaches should always remember that swimming
performance is determined by skill level as much as fitness level. If the skills
emphasized in a drill are to become successfully integrated into a swimmer’s stroke,
they must be practiced regularly and practiced under increasingly stressful conditions.
Therefore, drills are not meant to be easy, they may be just as demanding (but in a
different way) as other components of the training program.
When selecting a drill and then applying it in a training program, the coach should
consider these points:
• Is the drill appropriate to the current skill level of the swimmer?
• What are the complexities of the movements?
• Will the physical demands of the drill require low or high energy expenditure,
physical strength, or specific range of motion?
• Does the drill have application to one or more strokes?
There are three phases of progression in learning a drill. The first is to learn the
movement pattern at a slow tempo. Neuromuscular patterns and kinaesthetic
awareness may take some time to develop into a routine or automatic action. During
the second phase the movement speed is increased so the drill is performed at a rate
similar to swimming speeds. During the third phase, movement speed is combined
with pressure; that is, some demand is placed on the swimmer to perform the drill
within a timeframe. Pressure may also be applied by performing the drill under an
external load; such as wearing a drag suit, hand paddles, fins, or towing an object. It’s
important for the swimmer to maintain the correct movement pattern while under
pressure.
There are an infinite number of drills that a coach could use. However, most coaches
maintain a limited number of drills they feel are useful. In some ways, teaching a new
drill is similar to learning a new stroke, it will take time for the swimmer to perfect
the drill and move from phase-one into phases-two/three.
The Green Licence Coaching Course placed considerable emphasis on stoke

progressions and the use of drills to shape desirable stroke patterns. Rather than
repeat a list of drills in this text, we will try to provide additional background
information on the rationale for drill selection and use. The coach will use his/her
experience and other resources (manuals, video, and demonstration) to build a
personal set of drills.
When teaching drills coaches need to emphasize the key elements of control,
precision, rhythm, and co-ordination along with the targeted movement pattern. To
achieve the desired results, drills must be performed under close supervision with
adequate feedback. Ideally the swimmer-to-coach ratio should be lower when
performing drills than in most training situations. Those coaches who would dismiss
the use of drills from a training program might argue that drills represent ‘ideal’
movements and have little connection with the complex set of movements used in
Chapter 8 Drills and Stroke-Rate

72
swimming. As with all aspects of training, the model comes from the ideal and the
application (i.e. commitment on the part of the swimmer) will determine the results
achieved. Therefore, the coach must have a rationale behind each drill so that it ends
up having a purpose and specific outcome. In this way drills can be used as a
prescriptive tool to fine tune a stroke pattern.
The term drill is applied to countless variations of teaching techniques and coaching
practices having a wide range of performance outcomes. This author would like to
propose that the term drill is further broken down into four categories. Each category
represents a somewhat different performance outcome.
1. Stroke Development Drills
Movement patterns and techniques designed to develop the stroke from the basics
through to the whole stroke, performed under competitive conditions. The major
focus of stroke development drills is to enhance the positive performance aspects of
technique. These drills are ideally practiced just prior to a 'main training set' to review
correct movement patterns and maximise the transfer of the stroke model into a
performance setting.
This concept of stroke development is generally expressed by a series of movement

progressions that build in their complexity, increase in their intensity, and maximise
propulsive efficiency. Stroke progressions that have been developed as part of
Australia’s National Junior/Youth Program serve as a good example of stroke
development drills. During each drill sequence the swimmer must concentrate on
distance per stroke and streamlining the body.
Variations on these progressions involve sensory perception and efficient application

of propulsive force. For example, drills that incorporate hand paddles or fins are used
to change the level of sensory input. They stimulate neuromuscular feedback so that
stroke patterns are reinforced. However, these drills by themselves do not necessarily
correct fundamental stroke faults when the whole stroke is swum. Stroke correction
may require a more specific application of drills.
2. Stroke Correction Drills
These drills use techniques designed to correct specific stroke faults (i.e. significant
deviations from the stroke model). They work to correct a negative aspect of stroke
that is causing the swimmer to swim with decreased efficiency. These drills should
not focus on cosmetic changes (i.e. technique that only makes the swimmer look
better), but they should be applied to fundamental defects that limit the swimmer's
performance potential. For example, a slight spread of the fingers is less important to
the propulsive affect of a stroke than a major defect such as dropping the elbow
during the middle of a stroke. The essential coaching question to ask is: "Will the
stroke correction drill increase speed by improving efficiency?" If the answer is ‘no’,
leave it alone and concentrate your coaching efforts elsewhere.

73
A common example of a drill applied as a stroke correction device is the ‘fingertip

drag’ drill. In this case, if a freestyle swimmer's arm recovery is too wide, trunk
rotation may be inhibited. The real problem lies with achieving the desired shoulder
and hip rotation during the whole stroke. The specific fingertip drag drill is used to
program a new movement pattern that corrects the stroke fault. As with the
developmental drills, a progression is used to teach the desired movement, increase
the speed of that movement, and finally integrate the desired movement into the
whole stroke. However, before introducing stroke correction drills get all the facts -
question why the swimmer's stroke is ineffective. Is the real problem poor range of
motion in a joint, or below average muscular strength? Is the real problem a result of
past injury? Is the real problem a skill learning issue? Is the real problem
motivational? Some of these problems may be address outside of pool training time.
Designing stroke correction drills requires both analytical skill as well as an element
of artistry. The coach has a stroke model to work from, but must also be aware of the
individual characteristics of the swimmer. In the above example of the ‘fingertip drag
drill’ if shoulder flexibility as well as abdominal and lower back strength are poor,
this drill may not successfully correct the stroke fault.
Stroke correction drills are best used apart from main training efforts. They should
always target the current limitations of the swimmer. The key to success is to make
the drill become a natural part of the swimmer’s stroke pattern. Unlike the great
variety of stroke development drills a coach may have in his/her coaching repertoire,
the number of effective stroke correction drills a coach may use is usually limited to a
few for each stroke.
Drills in these first two categories are usually linked to performance through an
intermediate step. In some ways this third category of drill could be referred to as
'reminder drills'; however we have chosen to link them to full stroke development and
will refer to them as linking drills.
3. Linking Drills
These drills and techniques are designed to link the performance of basic movements
to the execution of the whole stroke sequence under race conditions. One of the great
dilemmas faced in coaching is balancing the time requirements needed for technical
refinement with the time needed to condition the swimmer’s physiological systems.
There are so many training priorities that it’s difficult to decide when to make a stroke
correction and when to concentrate on other training objectives. Certainly, when
swimming technique is incorrectly applied the physiological benefits of training are
not fully realised. However, if the continuity of training is always broken to redefine
technique, then the physiological affect of training is reduced. This author feels there
is good reason not to stop swimmers, for the purpose of making a minor correction,
during a main training set. However, this does not mean that constant feedback from
the coach to the swimmer regarding the application of stroke technique is
unwarranted. The coach should be constantly monitoring technique during training
sets. Interaction with the swimmer usually takes the form of giving verbal or visual
cues to help the swimmer re-focus their attention. If there is a need to repeatedly stop
swimmers to correct technique during a main training set, it could be argued that the

74
swimmer was not adequately prepared to undertake the training in the first place.
This is where drills have their greatest impact, as an adjunct to total stroke preparation
and maintenance. Swimmers must be prepared to train using an efficient technique
and must be able to use that technique under pressure situations. Linking drills allow
the coach to apply the elements of both reinforcement and correction to performance.
Stroke drills have absolutely nothing to do with easy swimming; they are about doing
fewer strokes but with a maximum of effort and concentration. Linking sets should
include the key elements of pace, stroke count and stroke-rate as well as the skill
elements of a development or correction drill. These drill progressions usually serve a
duel purpose as a physiological training stimulus as well as neuromuscular patterning.
The energy demand during most drills is normally at an aerobic level. However,
some drills place an emphasis on anaerobic energy supply to facilitate powerful
muscular actions. Because these drills have a performance component, improvement
from beginning to end of season indicates the net improvement in both fitness and
stroke efficiency. In fact, the well known international coach, Bill Sweetenham,
suggests that these drills should be incorporated into certain test sets.
Linking drills can be used as a stand-alone training set or as a warm-up to a main

training set. When used after a training set they serve to reinforce a movement skill
under fatigue conditions. Ultimately, the coach wants to achieve stroke technique that
does not break down during competition when the swimmer experiences fatigue.
4. Speed Drills
These drills are performed faster than race pace and focus on the stroke components
of hand speed and acceleration. They highlight the interaction between the variables
of stroke-rate and stroke-length at different swimming paces. The goal is to develop
stroke efficiency at the speeds used during competition. Sometimes paddles or fins
are used in conjunction with speed drills because the speed of movement is the critical
variable. Speed drills can also be used as one means of translating strength gains
from land based training into specific power gains in the water. However, there is a
danger of over-use or excessive loading (specifically if very large paddles or fins are
used), or if the drills are prescribed indiscriminately. There is also an element of
readiness, the swimmer must be able to meet the fitness and strength requirements of
the drill.
Speed drills, with or without the use of training aids, are performed over short
distances (usually 25m or less) at very high energy output. Therefore, appropriate rest
between repeats must be a consideration. These drills may be performed either at the
start of a training session, when the swimmer is fresh, or at the end of a training
session, when the swimmer is fatigued. In each case the training outcomes are
slightly different. Drills performed when fresh place the emphasis on the desired
energy production. Drills performed when fatigued place the emphasis on muscle
fibre recruitment and neuro-muscular patterning.

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Adding Value and Variety to Drills
A useful variation on practising stroke drills is to have swimmers perform the drills
through set distances during normal training sets. For example a specific drill is
performed during a 10m mid-pool section of every swim on a 20 x 50m training set.
Drills are often performed at a reduced frequency of breathing. By controlling the
rate of breathing as part of the drill protocol (i.e. one breath every 5-8 seconds) the
swimmer will experience a condition known as hypercapnia. This is characterised by
an increase of the partial pressure of CO2 and a decrease in the partial pressure of O2
in the lungs. The result is a mild increase in heart-rate in relation to the level of
energy expenditure. There is some evidence that suggests a beneficial training
response occurs, in terms of how the body controls the level of accumulated lactic
acid in the blood.
Because many stroke development drills rely on kicking to stabilize the body and
provide propulsion, the drill progressions themselves can be an effective alternative to
kicking laps on a kickboard. Using drills to strengthen and condition the legs has the
added benefit of reinforcing a streamline body position. Another coaching technique
is to ask swimmers to practice multiple skills during drills. This gives the coach an
opportunity to examine the effectiveness of a drill progression. Drills are given added
value if completed in a certain progression; such as, body position – body position
with kick – body position with kick and armstroke – body position with kick,
armstroke and hand acceleration – body position with kick, armstroke, hand
acceleration, and distance per stroke or stroke-count. A series of the above
progressions are repeated at progressively faster speeds and under race pressure.
Observation of ‘less skilled’ swimmers usually reveals their desire to swim faster is
manifest by faster arm and leg movements. One benefit of intelligently constructed
drills is that young swimmers gain a better feel of the water and understand that fast
swimming is an application of good swimming technique as well as faster stroke-rate.
Drills should have the capacity to strengthen areas of weakness as well as maximise
individual strengths, whilst coordinating the effective interaction between upper and
lower body.
The value of drills does not diminish as a swimmer's career progresses. Coaches at
the senior level must take the time, through one-on-one coaching contact, to fine-tune
a swimmer's stroke. Formula one racing cars do not come off an assembly line;
precision and attention to detail, refinement and evaluation, are all components of a
long-term strategy for stroke development.
Regardless of type of drill, these ten guidelines are relevant:

• A drill done 100% right is 100% right, and a drill done 99% right is 100% wrong.
(i.e. one percent separates champions from ‘would be’ champions).
• Drills represent an effective tool for isolating the difference between propulsion
and resistance. It's essential that both factors work in harmony and that
improvement in one does not sacrifice the other. Propulsive force without proper
streamlining is wasted and great streamlining without propulsion is inefficient.
• Swimming is a technique driven sport. Among elite swimmers, performance
differences are usually the result of technique and skill differences, rather than
major differences in training programs. Great swimmers do not train with poor

76
technique. Part of their greatness comes from their desire to be the best they can
be; they will expect more of themselves.
• For every technique fault there is a drill to correct it, and for every drill there is
another drill to correct the fault within the drill (i.e. no drill is perfect). If you're
looking for a magic cure to every stroke problem, there is none!
• Teaching a drill correctly is like teaching a completely different stroke because the
drill itself becomes sets of complex motor patterns. If you have four key
correction drills for each stroke, in effect you have to teach 20 different strokes.
That is, the 16 drills plus the four swimming strokes. Quality, not quantity, is the
hallmark of effective use of drills. The better the overall teaching standard and
methodology, from learn-to-swim onwards, the less likely you are to rely on drills.
Learn-to-swim progressions, stroke development drills, stroke correction drills, and
linking drills all contribute to the end result.
• The quality of previous instruction/coaching and a swimmer's talent determine the
amount of attention to technique required at the present (or next) stage of
development. This requirement will vary from one swimmer to another. Some
swimmers may benefit from learning many drills, other swimmers may learn only
one or two.
• New drills should be taught near the beginning of a session when the swimmers’
minds and bodies are most receptive to learning. Once drills are learned they are
applied specifically to achieve a desired affect. Sometimes it's best to practice
drills under conditions of fatigue, to closely simulate actual race conditions.
• The brain will learn the correct and incorrect technique equally well. In the early
stages of learning, correct the swimmer by providing positive constructive
feedback as often as possible. Lack of supervision or quality control at any step
makes the next step more demanding or more difficult. It's also important to
maintain the quality of previous skills as a drill progresses to the next step.
• Design training sets to reinforce the skills learned in drills. For example, if your
drill improves a turn or finish, then allow swimmers enough space in the lane to
practice those skills during their training sets.
• Always have a long-term plan of swimmer development. Establish a learning and
skill development progression through drills that include: (1) quality practice until
mastery, (2) practice under a skill-performance criteria (i.e. such as minimum
stroke-count) (3) practice under physiological performance criteria (i.e. such as
time limits on repeat intervals).
Stroke-Rate
One of the simplest and most useful methods of assessing stroke efficiency is the
measurement of stroke-rate. The rate represents the number of strokes that would be
taken per minute, based upon the current rate of execution. This does not mean the
current swimming speed is maintained if stroke-rate is maintained. Although there
are reasons why these stroke parameters are linked, it is possible for stroke-rate to stay
the same and swimming speed to increase or decrease. Therefore, a desirable stroke-
rate should be associated with a specific speed. For example, a 50m freestyle swim at
stroke-rate of 47 stroke/minute producing a time of 34.5 seconds. What if the same
50m swim produced a time of 34.5 seconds at a rate of 52 strokes/minute? It becomes
clear that an increased stroke-rate that produces the same time means that swimming
efficiency has decreased. That is, faster muscular contractions (and therefore greater

77
energy expenditure) is generated to produce the same swimming speed. Usually a

change in the stroke-rate and swim time relationship means that distance per stroke
has changed. This will also mean that stroke count (i.e. the actual number of strokes
taken during the 50m swim) will change.
Analysis of the mechanics of swimming indicates that several important relationships

are constantly changing. First, if we try to increase the forward distance travelled
with each stroke we must either, (1) apply a greater amount of propulsive force, or (2)
decrease the resistance to forward motion, or (3) use a combination of these two
factors. Second, if we try to increase the rate of movement there will be a
corresponding increase in energy demand to cope with the increased rate at which
muscles contract. Third, if we try to increase efficiency what we are asking the
swimmer to do is maximise stroke length at a stroke-rate that can be maintained for
that speed. Swimmers must learn how these stroke relationships interact if they are to
develop a sense of pace at progressively faster speeds. This is a valuable race skill,
particularly for distances of 200m or more.
A swimmer's stroke-rate may change many times during a race. Therefore,

measurements are usually taken at least twice per 50m lap on swims of 200m and may
be averaged to give an indication of the stroke-rate used during each 50m split. To
calculate the stroke-rate, first time three complete stroke cycles. One cycle would be
too sensitive a measure because of slight variations in the timing of one stroke to the
next. In timing freestyle, backstroke, or butterfly the stopwatch is started on hand
entry (in free or back select either right or left hand and then continue to use that
marker). Similarly, in breaststroke the same point in the stroke cycle is used to start
and finish the timing of stroke-rate. The initial marker becomes the '0' or starting
point for the three stroke-cycle count. Three complete cycles will mean a count of 0-
1-2-3 on the same hand entry. Upon completion of the third cycle the watch is
stopped. Stroke-rate can then be calculated or if the coach is using a stopwatch
having a ‘mode’ key the calculation is made automatically.
Calculation of Stroke-Rate
Example #1 Freestyle, count 0-1-2-3 on the right hand entry, time = 4.20sec.
Time for one stroke cycle = 4.20 divided by 3 = 1.4sec per stroke
cycle.
60sec per minute divided by 1.4sec per stroke = 43 strokes per minute
Example #2 Breaststroke, count 0-1-2-3 on similar head position during each cycle,
time = 3.66sec.
3.66 divided by 3 = 1.22sec per cycle.
60sec per minute divided by 1.22sec per stroke = 49 strokes per minute
notes: (1) calculations are made and the resulting stroke-rate is expressed as
a whole number (i.e. rounded up or down)
(2) coaches having a 'mode' setting on their stopwatch can use this
function to directly calculate stroke-rate using three stroke cycles.

78
Because training and racing are conducted in a pool, over a measured distance
(usually 50m or 25m), the average distance travelled per stroke is easily determined
by counting the number of strokes taken on each lap. Naturally, this does not take
into account the distance covered while performing a start or turn, but it gives the
coach some idea of distance per stroke. Swimmers should take stroke counts during
training sets to determine if mechanical efficiency is being gained; fewer strokes per
50m at a sustained speed means greater efficiency. When stroke count is combined
with stroke-rate and swimming time, we begin to get a better picture of the
relationships between propulsive force, resistance, and energy expenditure. During a
season's training program the coach should strive to improve distance per stroke while
maintaining a stroke-rate that will sustain the lap or split time required. Changes in
these relationships can be recorded, graphed, and evaluated to indicate if the desired
adaptation to training has occurred.
Collecting information over a season means the coach must apply a simple test every
4-6 weeks involving graduated swimming speeds. For example, a swimmer is given a
set of 6 x 50m swims and asked to swim each 50m about 2-3 seconds faster. The
following data is recorded for each swim: (1) time for 50m, (2) time per 3 stroke
cycles taken twice, during the first and second 25m segments, and (3) stroke count
during each 50m. Calculation of stroke-rate can then be made for each 25m and
averaged over 50m. Calculation of swimming velocity is easily made from the
swimming time. The Table below illustrates the relationship between stroke-rate and
swimming velocity. One objective of this test is to make the swimmer aware of the
stroke-rate vs velocity relationship. If velocity increases (i.e. faster swim time) and
the stroke count increases dramatically; the swimmer is shortening the forward
distance travelled with each stroke. As a guide, the difference in stroke count
between the slowest and fastest swims should not be more than three (in very young
swimmers the difference may be a bit more). In the example shown below the
swimmer did not perform significantly faster times during the second test, but the
stroke counts were lower. This indicates that swimmer is getting more out of each
stroke taken. The ideal situation would be to swim faster times at a lower stroke rate
on successive tests. If the data from repeated test sets is plotted onto graph paper a
line representing stroke-rate - velocity can be determined. If the line representing the
second set of data has shifted to the right on the graph, indicating the swimmer is
getting more out of each stroke, we can conclude that there is an overall improvement
in efficiency.
However, the data below does not tell the coach what components have contributed to
efficiency gains. The swimmer may be improving because the application of
propulsive force is better and this may be the result of fitness or strength gains.
Improvements may also be the result of better stroke technique or reduced resistance.
Regardless of the source of efficiency gains, information such as this helps the coach
to measure the net affect of the training program. It's important that the coach uses
data to compare the individual progress of a swimmer. For obvious reasons (i.e.
differences in body size, limb length, and individual strengths or weaknesses in stroke
technique) it is a false comparison to evaluate one swimmer against another on this
type of information.

79
Stroke-Rate and Swim Velocity
Test 1 (initial) Test 2 (follow-up)

Swim Time Velocity St'k-Rate Count Time Velocity St'k-Rate Count
(sec) (m/sec) (cyc/min) st'k/50 (sec) (m/sec) (cyc/min) st'k/50
1 37.5 1.33 27 28 37.1 1.34 25 27

2 34.5 1.45 31 28 34.5 1.45 29 27
3 32.5 1.54 35 28 32.4 1.54 33 27
4 30.5 1.64 39 28 30.6 1.64 37 27
5 28.5 1.75 43 29 28.5 1.75 41 27
6 26.0 1.92 47 29 26.0 1.92 45 28
note: calculation of velocity involves division of the swim time (in seconds) by the
distance swim (in metres), to obtain metres per second
Achieving the best possible race results will require both the coach and swimmer to
understand the stroke-rate and distance per stroke (i.e. stroke count) relationship.
Stroking faster is an acceptable way of swimming faster, only if the distance per
stroke is not greatly reduced. There will be some slight reduction in distance per
stroke at very high stroke-rates because of the extreme difficulty in maintaining
contact with the water as the hands accelerate. Increases in stroke-rate can only be
achieved at some energy cost, that's why it's not advisable for a middle-distance or
distance swimmer to 'spin their wheels' by stroking too fast early in a race. However,
even distance swimmers may need to lift their stroke-rate late in a race to increase
speed. Swimmers who start their sprint too early may find it difficult maintain the
pace until the end of the race.
Race analysis of elite swimmers indicates that many factors contribute to success.
However, results consistently show that swimmers who are able to maintain their
stroke length (i.e. distance per stroke) throughout a race are more likely to produce the
best time. The best swimmers maintain their distance per stroke with some variation
in stroke-rate during the early and middle stages of the race and then try to lift the
stroke-rate (without sacrificing too much stroke length) at the end of the race.
Coaches should use stroke-rates and counts during training as another descriptive tool.
In addition to setting out distances, send-off intervals (or rest intervals), number of
repeats, and target heart rate (as a measure of intensity); the coach should indicate
approximately what stroke-rate or stroke count should be used on specific training
sets. Rates and counts are particularly important when sprint or high velocity
swimming sets are performed.

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CHAPTER 9
LONG TERM SWIMMER DEVELOPMENT
Identifying Talented Swimmers
As mentioned many times in this text, swimming success is determined by many

factors. Coaches often seek to identify young swimmers having characteristics that
contribute to performance and fast track their development. Many swimmers with
average physical abilities achieve remarkable results because of their great desire and
dedication to succeed. In some respects their ‘talent’ as an athlete lies in their
exceptional will to succeed, dedication to training, and mental toughness in race
situations. Sometimes this is enough to make up for any shortfall in natural ability.
It’s also true that many physically talented swimmers fail to achieve their potential
because of insufficient commitment, bad luck, or missed opportunities.
Much of what we consider to be talent is the degree to which each swimmer possesses
certain physical, physiological, or mental attributes that may contribute to
performance. Some of the physical characteristics are controlled by genetic profile.
For example, the coach can’t do much to influence the mature height of a swimmer or
other anatomical characteristics. Therefore, selecting swimmers having desirable
physical or physiological traits may give that swimmer some advantages.
Studies on elite swimmers have been used to identify common physical

characteristics, as compared to their less successful peers. The general premise is
that a swimmer’s body type influences the application of forces that produce
propulsion and also minimise resistance. The typical profile of an elite swimmer
features these general characteristics:
• greater than average height,
• wide shoulder girdle and narrow hip width (note: ‘wide’ and ‘narrow’ are
relative terms, the respective ratio will determine if the relationship is
favourable),
• relatively long arms in relation to one’s standing height,
• favourable ratio of long-bone development in the legs (note: this means that the
leg-length is greater than trunk length),
• relatively large hands and feet.
There are also some variations reported in research literature specific to stroke
specialty. For example, male breaststrokers tend to be slightly heavier in their body
build with large feet relative to their height. Freestylers and backstrokers (both
sexes) tend to be the tallest and have the longest legs in relation to their body size.
However, the overall differences between elite swimmers having different stroke
specialities are usually less than the differences between elite and non-elite
swimmers.
Body composition also appears to be a good descriptive characteristic of elite

swimmers. As a rule, elite swimmers tend to have lean body types. That is, the
percentage of body mass that is fat tissue is relatively low when compared to age/sex
peers who are not elite performers. The amount of body fat is one factor that is not
entirely controlled by genetic influence. To a large extent, one’s body fat can be
Chapter 9 Long Term Swimmer Development

81
reduced through good nutrition practices and adequate aerobic training loads.
Muscularity of elite swimmers would be described as ‘lean muscled’ rather than the
‘heavy muscled’ body type characteristic of some other elite sportspersons.
Muscularity is also subject to change, due to the type and amount of exercise
performed. The lean body types commonly seen among swimmers tend to retain a
lean muscular appearance without developing excessive muscle bulk when specific
strength training programs are undertaken. The body shape of elite swimmers is
typically narrow in terms of chest depth (for mature female swimmers this means
relatively small breast size), but wide at the shoulder. The torso typically tapers to a
narrow waist and hips, a ‘V-shape’ as viewed from the front.
Some physiological characteristics are best suited to certain swimming events; such
as, muscle power for sprinters and high oxygen delivery capacity for distance
specialists. Physiological factors are more susceptible to change as a result of the
type and volume of training. The coach may want to use simple tests to identify
swimmers ‘likely’ to succeed. Swimming tests that assess pure speed, sustained
speed, or endurance can be used on general populations such as primary school
groups to assess talent (note: it’s important that subjects have first attained basic
swimming skills). Sometimes it’s also an advantage to use non-swimming tests to
estimate a physiological capability; tests such as vertical jump (i.e. to estimate
muscle power) or an endurance run.
Other factors are related to one’s motor control; these are much harder to measure
but are no less important than physical features or physiological capacities.
Experienced coaches will recognise that some swimmers have a better feel for the
water than other swimmers. A swimmer’s ability to sense pressure on the propulsive
surfaces of the hands and feet provides a great advantage in terms of applying
optimal stroke technique. Talented swimmers are the ones who quickly make
adjustments in their movement patterns to maximise applied force. The quality of
one’s tactile sense determines the ability to maintain propulsive force. The talented
swimmer will also possess a great sense of balance and body awareness in the water.
In recent years international coach Bill Sweetenham has advocated the use of
recovery ability as a measure of talent. Both sprint and endurance athletes will have
a certain ability to absorb and adapt to physical activity to a point where they can
repeat the activity with minimum reduction in performance. It’s possible to structure
specific sprint or endurance test sets to get an indication of a swimmer’s potential to
recover after specific energy demands.
Last, but by no means least, some characteristics shared by elite swimmers are
associated with one’s psychological make-up. Like the technical aspects of
performance, these characteristics are sometimes hard to assess by traditional
methods. Research has not clearly identified if specific traits are common to elite
swimmers. However, there are general traits worth considering when looking for
talented swimmers. Most successful swimmers have a well-balanced sense of ‘self’.
That is, they have a healthy self-concept and belief in their own ability. They are
usually the type of person who displays great determination and concentration to stay
with a task to completion.

82
It’s been said that the best form of talent identification is mass participation. The
best way to identify talent is to have large numbers of children exposed to quality
learn-to-swim programs and then to keep them in the sport during the age-group
years. This approach is supported by the fact that talented athletes will mature at
different rates and some will be ‘found’ as 10 or 12 year-olds and others will be
‘discovered’ as 14 to 16 years of age. Much of the success attributed to any talent
identification process relies on the ‘educated-eye’ of the coach. However,
observation must act in consort with scientific principles and good judgement
regarding future talent development. The coach’s understanding of how swimmers
develop and progress during their sporting lifetime is the cornerstone of talent
development.
Break Point Volume Concept
An extension of the long-term swimmer development model has been proposed by

coach Bill Sweetenham. His concept is referred to as Break Point Volume (BPV). It
suggests that an optimum volume of training, performed at optimum skill level, and
achieved through participation in a maximum number of training sessions at
controlled intensities, provides the ideal preparation for future success. The BPV
concept recognises the fact that during the maturation years increased volume of
training can be absorbed more easily by the athlete, provided the intensity is
controlled within certain limits. Senior swimmers are more likely to absorb more
complex training programs if their swimming career contains appropriate amounts of
background training. The key ages appear to be 13 to 15 years (± 1 year) and girls
generally respond at a slightly younger age than boys. According to the BPV concept
five factors are critical to the structure of a training program.
• Up to and through maturation the quantity of training under aerobic workloads is
more important than the quantity of training under high intensity workloads.
(Note: it’s recognised that all types of training are required in a balanced
program.)
• After maturation the proportion of training performed at a high percentage of
maximum becomes more important to the overall success of the training program.
• Recovery is always a major concern in the design of training programs.
• Quality technique and application of skills are vitally important at all training
intensities.
• The frequency of training stimuli is important. There should be continuity in the
number of sessions swum during any phase of the season.
The general observation made by coach Sweetenham is that an annual training

volume of approximately 2000-2500 km, accomplished over a 42-46 week training
season, should be achieved by the time a swimmer reaches physical maturation. This
means that a 13-15 year-old swimmer would need to train about 6 km per session in a
training plan that averages 8-9 sessions per week. Following maturation the
swimmer’s yearly training volume will not change too much for the next few years,
although the composition of training components will change considerably.
Sweetenham’s BPV concept of long-term training fits within the upper range of
values suggested in the Australian Swimming Multi-Year Age-Group Development
Model. The BPV model assumes that all prior levels of fitness and skill attainment
have been satisfied in the build-up to break point volume.

83
AUSTRALIAN SWIMMING MULTI-YEAR AGE-GROUP SWIMMER DEVELOPMENT MODEL
Age 8 ± 1 year 10 ± 2 years Girls 12 / Boys 13 ± 1 year 14 ± 2 years

Training Period 2 years 2 years 2 - 3 years 3 - 5 years
Training Venue Pool Land Pool Land Pool Land Pool Land
Time Per 2-4 Sessions 1-2 Sessions 3-5 Sessions 2 Sessions 4-6 Sessions 2-3 Sessions 6-10 Sessions 2-3 Sessions
Week 40 min - 1 hr 15-25 min 1 - 1 1/4 hr 20-30 min 1 1/4 - 1 1/2 hr 30-45 min 1 1/2 - 2 hr 45 min - 1 hr
Volume / Session 0.75 - 2 Km. 2 - 3.5 Km. 3.5 - 6 Km.* 4 - 8 Km.*
Yearly Training 24 - 30 Weeks 30 - 36 Weeks 36 - 44 Weeks 40 - 46 Weeks

Volume (Pool) 75 - 250 Km. 250 - 500 Km. 500 - 1000 Kms. 1000 - 2500 Kms.
Training * Technique * Flexibility * Technique * Increase Strength * Technique * Musculo- * Increase Volume * Periodise
Objectives all strokes * General Body * Racing Skills to Body Weight * Increased Training Skeletal and Intensity of Strength Program
* Racing Skills Strength * Aerobic Endurance Ratio Volume Assessment Training * Transfer Power
starts, turns, pace * Movement * Speed (< 50m) & * Even Development * Racing Skills * Simple Weight * Integrated into Swimming
* Aerobic Endurance Coordination Acceleration of all Muscle Groups * Speed (< 50m) & Exercises & Training Model Performance
* Sculling Drills * Group * Greater mix of * Learn Flexibility Acceleration Gym Equipment * Begin to * Cross Training
* Speed at 25-50m Activities Training Methods Exercises * Introduce some * Flexibility & Specialise Activities
* Simple Training * Improve Core Intense Interval Range of Motion * Perfect Tech- * Maintain
Sets and Games Body Strength Training nique & Skills Flexibility
Motor 1. Develop a feel for the water, the ability 1. Improve stroke technique and learn 1. Maintain efficient technique as 1. Adapt to diverse training methods.
Learning to make corrections in movement race skills (such as turns, starts, body proportions change. 2. Refine stroke technique during all
Objectives patterns. pacing, and acceleration). 2. Accommodate increases in muscle speeds & intensity of swimming.
2. Learn the technical skills of all four 2. Consolidate stroke development. strength to improve swimming 3. Apply strength and power to
strokes. 3. Improve conditioning components of efficiency. swimming performance.
3. Develop general body co-ordination endurance and speed while main- 3. Retain diversity of performance 4. Specialise in strokes and competition
and strength. taining stroke technique. goals (compete in various stroke distances.
4. Learn good habits for maintaining and 4. Develop simple race strategy and events and distances). 5. Retain range of motion and
improving natural flexibility. tactics. 4. Improve both steady pace and muscular co-ordination at all swim-
5. Learn to maintain correct technique on sprint performance using ideal ming speeds.
longer (submaximal) swims. stroke technique (all strokes). 6. Refine race skills (starts & turns,
6. Learn to maintain correct technique on tactics, pace, etc.).
short sprints. 7. Learn to taper for peak performance.

84
[age 8 ± 1 year] [age 10 ± 2 years] [age 12 / 13 ± 1 year] [age 14 ± 2 years]
Knowledge 1. Enjoyment of pool and land based 1. Enjoyment of pool and land based 1. Enjoyment of swimming activities 1. Enjoyment of the process (i.e.
& Attitudes activities. activities. and desire for personal improve- goal setting) and product (i.e.
2. Learn to function as an individual 2. Become part of the club, team, squad ment. attainment of results) of sports
within a group activity. culture. 2. Broader knowledge of training participation.
3. Become familiar with rules and 3. Develop habits which support an methods and the resulting perfor- 2. Understanding and practicing perfor-
competitive situations. active, healthy lifestyle. mance outcomes. mance management skills (such as
4. Learn about stroke technique and 4. Begin to function with less direct super- 3. Improved personal management good nutrition, recovery techniques,
training methods. vision and make positive decisions skills (balancing training, school mental skills, etc.).
regarding training compliance. and social objectives). 3. Independence (i.e. working with a
4. Develop self-discipline and in- coach and support personnel, but
creasing commitment to swimming. taking responsibility for self).
4. Improved personal skills (including
education & vocational objectives).
Competition Have fun and learn to participate with- Club level competitions leading up to Club and State level competition (age State and National (age-group) perform-
Objectives out anxiety or distraction. Personal State competitions (i.e. school or age- group). Performance goals should be ance goals. Competition in 'open' events
improvement (in both performance and group). Skill development, improvement, evaluated regularly, as they apply to as ability improves. Selection of events
skill) and enjoyment should be and number of events swum are the most both training and competition. Each begins to focus on stroke and distance.
recognised and reinforced. important goals. race opportunity is used as a learning Race strategies and mental skills are
experience. perfected.
[* During some developmental stages girls will be capable of handling a greater volume of training than boys, due to an advanced rate of maturation.]

85
CHAPTER 10
STRENGTH and FLEXIBILITY
Considerations for Young Swimmers
A commonly misunderstood concept is the contribution of muscle strength to

swimming performance, particularly during the childhood and adolescent years. It's
true that some successful age-group swimmers do not participate in organised strength
training programs. However, this does not mean that specific strength training isn't a
useful part of a total training package. Because of growth and maturation factors
there will always be improvements in strength during childhood. Specific strength
programs for swimmers will help accelerate development and better satisfy the
demands of racing (particularly sprinting).
Effective coaching is all about planning the appropriate training activities and
implementing them, in other words ‘using training time wisely’. Training time will
eventually become a self-limiting factor; that is, we can not continue to increase the
training load indefinitely. Therefore, decisions must be made regarding how training
time is used. The majority of training time will always be devoted to swimming,
because movement skill and energy system development are paramount. But
swimming itself provides a limited overload for muscle strength of the major muscle
groups. Therefore, general training principles suggest that to develop all of the
qualitative aspects of skeletal muscle (i.e. endurance, strength, and power) it's
reasonable to devote some amount of training time specifically to the areas of strength
and power.
The effectiveness of current training will always be dependent upon what has gone
before. Too often coaches are presented with situations where a 13-15 year-old
swimmers lack the basic strength necessary as a platform for future improvements.
Insufficient (or inappropriate) training background is also one of the primary causes
of injury or failure to adapt when increased swimming loads are undertaken. It's
particularly important during the childhood years that a variety of training experiences
are programmed to promote balanced muscular development, maintenance or
improvement of natural flexibility, and motor control.
Some coaches are reluctant to introduce a strength development program to their

junior squads because they don't understand the potential benefits, or they feel that
special facilities or equipment are required. General body strength that includes the
musculature of the chest, shoulders, abdominal region, lower back, and legs can be
developed using relatively simple exercise methods. There are many activities that
the coach can successfully use in the pool; such as, tethered swimming, paddles, fins,
and other resistive devices. Land based programs using gymnastic exercises against
one's own body weight, stretch cords, and other simple resistance equipment are safe
and effective methods for improving strength. Over the past 15-20 years our
understanding of the adaptation response by children to strength loading activities has
refined our views and helped us to understand what methods are appropriate.
Some coaches can use land based training to counter some restrictions imposed by
having less than ideal pool conditions or access to water training. Planning general
Chapter 10 Strength and Flexibility

86
fitness training for young swimmers will usually give better results than doing
nothing, but be mindful of the fact that poorly planned or inappropriate training may
be worse than no training at all. Clear objects regarding how land based training is
used to support (not entirely replace) pool training should be part of the coach's plan.
Overall, safety standards must be maintained during all land based training,
particularly when equipment is being used. Proper instruction and supervision should
never be overlooked or taken for granted.
Strength Training Outcomes
The overall objective of a swimming training program is to prepare swimmers to

perform at successively higher levels. This objective carries with it the implication
that to achieve at the next step, a swimmer must be fully prepared and master the
skills appropriate to the current level of maturity and development. Therefore,
specialist strength training is not an end in itself (i.e. since it is not swimming), but it
is one of many methods used to fully prepare swimmers. There should be an element
of basic education directed toward the parents as well as the young swimmer when
specialist work is integrated into the swimming program. The outcomes of strength
training should include:
• improved muscular strength and power,
• some increase in muscle mass (it is not necessary or desirable for swimmers to try
and develop large muscle mass),
• improved muscle endurance,
• changes in body composition that increase the proportion of lean tissue to fat,
• improved strength in connective tissue and joint structures,
• improved total body strength (i.e. core strength of the trunk as well as muscle
balance between anterior/posterior and lateral muscle groups),
• maintenance or improvement in flexibility and range of motion,
• decreased potential for muscle and joint injury,
• improved self-image and confidence.
Training outcomes during childhood will be influenced by an individual's rate of

maturation; therefore, individualised exercise prescription is the key to success. Older
children will also be influenced by training history, both from prior swimming
experience and exposure to other sports. Swimmers at age 13 or 14 having limited
training experiences should begin with a remedial or simple program design, before
attempting to achieve the same outcomes as swimmers having a more extensive
training background. It's always best if the coach starts with an easy program and
progresses to more advanced (i.e. specific, complex, intense, and time consuming)
activities once training outcomes are realised.
When an individual begins strength training the initial improvements in strength may
be noticeable within 4-6 weeks. A large part of this early improvement is due to
neuromuscular adaptation. The individual becomes more skilful in co-ordinating the
movement pattern required because opposing muscle groups work together more
efficiently. Muscle fibre recruitment also becomes more efficient. Strength
improvements based upon non-specific movement patterns do not necessarily reflect a
complete transfer of strength application in the water. There will always be
differences in the rate of muscle contraction used during land based exercises and the

87
muscle actions used during swimming. Many coaches have used this fact as a
justification for not including land based strength work into their program. However,
this overlooks two major benefits derived from a specific strength training program.
First, because muscles are stressed at a higher force requirement than during
swimming activities they will change in their structure and biochemical function. The
overall strength potential of the muscle will improve, this is independent of any
specific muscle action. Second, if strength training is integrated into the total training
program (i.e. swimming, land based work, stretching, and recovery components) each
component tends to complement the primary training effects stimulated by the others.
Male and Female Differences
Differences in growth and maturation patterns mean that girls begin their growth spurt
around age 10 years (± 1 year) and attain biological maturity, as marked by the onset
of menstruation between ages 12-13 (± 1 year). Boys typically begin their growth
spurt about age 13.5 (± 1.5 years) and then experience greater changes in the
development of muscle mass during their mid-teens. Thus, many young girls,
particularly prior to age 10-11, may be taller and stronger than their male age peers.
However, the outcomes of a strength program applied to young children will be
identical for boys and girls. During periods of growth and development there will be
rapid changes, girls will experience the benefits about 1-2 years before the boys. In
the late teen years boys will continue their rate of improvement while the
improvement rate for girls will plateau. Actual strength increases will continue for
girls but the rate of change will be must less than in the early teen years. Regardless
of age, specific training that targets strength development, can contribute positively to
swimming performance. During periods of rapid growth the coach must be careful to
avoid extreme loadings (i.e. very heavy weight lifting) that might strain joint
structures. Scheduling training so that adequate recovery is provided during periods
of rapid growth is essential.
The major contribution of strength training to swimming performance results from

improvements in relative strength; that is, strength compared to body weight.
Because most mature females have a smaller and lighter body structure than mature
males, it's even more important for them to gain strength without increasing their
body size. There is an obvious dilemma created during the period of growth and
maturity. Often strength gains do not keep up with changes in physical size, and
swimming performance may decline. Females have the additional problem of
naturally occurring changes in body composition, as well as changes in their physical
dimensions, during puberty. Girls will tend to increase their level of body fat during
puberty; although proper diet and training will help to moderate or control this to
some degree. Changes in the physical shape of girls, particularly the ratio of hip
width to shoulder width, can affect the hydrodynamics of swimming. A change in
body shape may mean increased drag factors are introduced. The changes typically
seen among boys during puberty have more positive affects on swimming
performance. Boys tend to develop a more advantageous body shape during puberty;
their shoulder width increases in relation to their hip width and increases in muscle
mass are accompanied by decreases in body fat.

88
Muscle Loading Relationships
There are three functional qualities of the skeletal muscles that respond to training;
endurance, strength, and power. Muscle endurance is the capacity of the muscle to
continue contracting over-and-over again. Swimming is an activity that requires
muscle endurance and this capacity is improved as a result of the volume of work
performed. Muscle strength is the capacity of the muscle to exert force. Increasing
the potential for force production allows the swimmer to maintain the best mechanical
positioning of the limbs to generate propulsive force or 'hold the water'. Improving
muscle strength requires a loading that combines increased intensity and volume of
work. Muscle power is the capacity of the muscle to exert force over a shorter period
of time. To become more powerful a swimmer must increase force production and
increase the speed of contraction. Improving muscle power helps the swimmer to
perform explosive movements as well as improve sprint speed. However, muscle
power is a quality that all swimmers require because within each stroke cycle limb
velocity will increase (i.e. accelerate). All three capacities of the muscle are limited
by energy supply and neuromuscular fatigue.
An inverse relationship exists between the percentage of maximal force produced and
the number of muscle contractions that can be sustained at any given output. A
muscle that contracts at 40% of its maximal force production will be able to sustain
many contractions. That muscle contracting at 90% of its maximal force production
will be able to sustain only a limited number of contractions at that output. Any form
of exercise produces changes because some system or capacity has been stressed; we
call this stress the ‘load’. To train the muscle and improve one or more of its
functional capacities, we must create an overload. This overload effect is determined
by the way we combine volume and intensity of exercise.
Pure muscle endurance training is best done in the pool, as an outcome of the volume
of swimming strokes performed. Most swimming speeds require only moderate
amounts of muscle force; this will vary, based upon the mechanical efficiency and
resistance factors that exist. The amount of force generated by the major muscles
involved during swimming is probably below 50% of maximum force capabilities.
However, since 1000's of strokes may be performed during a training session, there is
a significant endurance overload. Swimmers generally require a combination of
muscle endurance and muscle strength, referred to as strength/endurance. Land based
training overloads will require intensity around 60-75% of maximum muscle force
performed over 25-10 repetitions. We often quantify a load as a percentage of 1
repetition performed at a maximum force (i.e. 1RM is the conventional abbreviation).
Repetitions and Percentage of Maximum Force

1 (100% 1RM) MAX Strength
2 (96+% 1RM)
3 (90+% 1RM)
4-6 (88 - 83% 1RM)
7-10 (80 - 75% 1RM)
11-16 (73 - 68% 1RM)
17-25 (66 - 60% 1RM)
Strength - Endurance 26-35 (58 - 50% 1RM)
36+ (<50% 1RM)

89
At 75-85% 1RM the number of repetitions performed in any one set (i.e. a set is the
number of exercise repetitions performed before rest is taken) usually drops to 10 or
less. Continuing this progression, loads of 85-100% 1RM will reduce the number of
repetitions further. Most coaches use the following guidelines to determine the
number of repetitions per exercise set:
• 30-15 repetitions performed at 55-70% 1RM (ideal for circuit training where the
number of repetitions will be completed within a specified time period, usually 30
sec. to 1 min.) This is strength/endurance training, with more strength benefits at
the low repetition end of the range (with higher percentage of 1RM) and more
endurance benefit from more repetitions performed at a lower percentage of 1RM.
• 12-8 repetitions performed at 70-80% 1RM (the traditional set design, using
various types of equipment to provide the load). This type of set produces greater
strength outcome.
• 6-3 repetitions performed at 85-95% 1RM This is maximum strength training.
In addition to the number of repetitions per set, the coach must plan the number of
sets of each exercise to be performed. The number of sets, on any one exercise,
should be inversely related to the number of repetitions performed during each set.
That is, if high repetition sets are used, only one or two sets are performed. If low
repetition sets are used, then many sets may be performed. At this point we should
consider the amount of rest taken between sets. The general rule in constructing
training sets is that small amounts of rest are taken when endurance effects are
desired, longer rest is taken when maximum strength effects are desired. During high
repetition sets it's appropriate to give rest that is about equal to the total exercise time.
In a circuit training situation this might be 30 repetitions performed over 1 minute,
with one minute rest between stations. Higher loads require more complete rest
between sets if the swimmer is to maintain the required level of work. Sets of 12-8
repetitions may require 2-5 minutes rest between, and sets of 6-3 repetitions may
require 10 minutes rest between sets. Coaches should try to schedule exercise time
efficiently; therefore, a number of program techniques can be used when designing
training routines. Consecutive exercises can be arranged so that different muscle
groups are used; the focus changes from one part of the body to another (i.e. arm
exercise, then leg exercise). In this way recovery time for a specific muscle group
occurs during exercise time for another muscle group. However, remember that
energy production will result in some general fatigue effects and it's a mistake to
completely eliminate rest between exercises. Stretching exercises performed between
resistance exercise sets is another good way to use recovery time.
There are many opinions regarding how often strength training should be performed.
Because land based training is used as an overload on the muscle, there will be
residual fatigue effects. Therefore, specific strength training sessions must be
scheduled to allow recovery and regeneration of the muscle tissue. Other components
of the training program will also have an influence on how quickly the recovery
process occurs. In general, two or three training sessions can be scheduled into a
week's training plan. It's possible to split a session and focus on specific exercises; for
example, a session on day one that includes upper body work, and a session on day
two for lower body work. In this way coaches can achieve the training objective and
use time/resources more effectively. The length of each session will also depend
upon the training objective. If strength/endurance is the objective, then 20+ minutes
of relatively continuous work is required. If maximum strength training is the

90
objective, then sessions may be longer because of the recovery time required between
sets or exercises. Specific strength training sessions of more than one hour are
generally reserved for senior athletes.
Periodisation of Strength Training
Periodisation is the process of planning a logical progression of activities so that

maximum adaptation to the training stress will take place. One of the basic training
principles that coaches must follow is progressive loading. That is, numerous
activities build upon one another to produce the end result. There are two very
different ways of looking at how various components of training fit together, each
method can be used successfully. One training philosophy involves using
complementary training effects. Complementary means working together; coaches
who use this method will program similar training objectives into both pool and land
based sessions. For example, early season programming will focus on endurance
work in both the pool and in the gym. The volume of each type of work will increase
as the swimmer adapts. As the focus of pool work shifts to more specific race
outcomes, gym work will change accordingly to develop maximum strength or power.
A second training philosophy involves using contrasting training effects. Contrasting
means working at opposite ends of the performance range; coaches who use this
method will schedule different training objectives in the pool and in the gym. For
example, early season pool work may focus on progressive endurance loads, while
gym sessions will focus on building maximum strength. As the focus of pool work
shifts, gym work also changes so that early strength gains are maintained and
elements of strength/endurance developed.
Successful results have been achieved by applying different training philosophies;

either complementary or contrasting can be used. The relative success achieved will
depend upon how skilfully the coach manipulates the variables to allow the body to
adapt to the workload. Complementary methods are good because they work to a
single objective. However, the coach must be careful to allow adequate recovery
because similar methods will have a multiplied effect, too much volume (i.e. during
the endurance phase) or too much intensity (during the strength phase) may cause the
swimmer to break down. Contrasting methods are good because they stress different
physical capacities. However, there will be numerous compromises required to allow
the recovery process to work. Any coach who has attempted to have swimmers train
long endurance sets at a time when they have sore aching muscles will realise this.
Periodisation of training allows the coach to vary the training stimulus to achieve the
best long-term outcome. As mentioned earlier, training overload is created by
manipulating both volume and intensity, but these variables can not be increased
indefinitely. Therefore, training loads are progressively increased for several weeks
and followed by a reduced loading to allow adaptation to occur. The completion of
each training cycle is usually marked by a recovery period in which the training load
drops to about 50% of the previous load. Recovery periods provide the coach with an
opportunity to evaluate any gains in strength (i.e. test to determine a new 1RM load).
A typical progression will look like:
week #1 - 2 sets of 30 repetitions, at 60% of 1RM, over 10 exercise stations,

91

week #4 - (recovery) 1 set of 30 repetitions, at 60% of 1RM, over 10 exercise
stations; test to evaluate new 1RM value for each exercise.
During the next training cycle of weeks 5-8 the same progression could be repeated,
but the absolute value of 1RM would be greater. Therefore, the total load created by
training sessions in the second cycle would be greater than the total load given during
the first cycle (i.e. progressive overload).
When the coach makes a transition from one training objective to another; for
example, from strength/endurance to strength or from strength to maximum strength;
the number of repetitions decline and the percentage of 1RM increases. During
recovery/adaptation weeks following high loading it may be advantageous to rest
completely or use a moderate endurance load. The principle of progressively
increasing training loads, followed by a recovery or adaptation period, remains the
same. The total training load represents the interaction between the number of
repetitions and the percentage of 1RM used. An example of maximum strength
loading progression might be:
week #4 - (complete recovery) or 1 set of 20 repetitions, at 50-60% of 1RM
over 8 exercise stations.
Using a three week loading, one week recovery, model only serves to illustrate how
the progressive overload principle is applied. The coach may find that a 2:1, or 4:1, or
4:2 model fits better into the total training program. If the loading cycle is too short
the overload affect will be reduced; and if the loading cycle is too long there may be
too much accumulative stress. If the recovery cycle is too short (i.e. for example, a 3-
4 day reduction in the load) complete adaptation may not occur; if the recovery cycle
is too long (i.e. 2 weeks) the training progression will not be optimal. If the coach
establishes training objectives and maintains accurate records of performances, the
best cycle pattern will become apparent. If an error in judgment is to be made, then
err on the side of less load and more recovery.
Exercise Selection
There are three types of muscle actions that require force production:
• isometric contraction - tension is developed within the muscle without external
movement,
• concentric contraction - tension is developed as the muscle shortens and
movement occurs, and
• eccentric contraction - tension is developed as the muscle lengthens and
movement occurs.
Muscle strength can be developed using exercises that apply any of the three
contraction methods. However, because swimming is a dynamic movement activity
that requires loading of the muscles under concentric contractions, the choice of
muscle actions used in our exercise program is clear. Isometric training imposes a
limitation because specific strength is developed through a narrow range of joint

92
angles that reflect the nature of the exercise overload. Although eccentric loading can
produce great improvements in strength, the gains can not be used under the
conditions that exist in swimming. Eccentric loading also produces greater muscle
soreness and microtrauma to muscle tissue.
Exercise selection should be based upon three priorities. First, general strength of the
musculature of the trunk is required to stabilise the body during all swimming strokes.
Second, the major muscle groups used to move the arms and legs for propulsion
should be strengthened. Third, muscles that balance the actions of the prime movers
or maintain the integrity of joint structures should also be strengthened. The first
priority is usually satisfied by using body weight exercises (i.e. sit-ups, pull-ups, dips,
etc.), cross-training, and swimming drills. The second and third priorities are usually
combined by selecting exercises that involve resistance through a full range of
movement. The shoulder joint is of major concern because its' configuration favours
a full range of motion, but the joint is particularly sensitive to injury. Therefore,
attention should be given to strengthening the muscles in the upper back that act to
stabilise the joint.
Gym programs should not be so complex as to detract from the main focus of training,
which is the work done in the pool. A basic program that incorporates 10-15
exercises during any one session would normally be sufficient. The coach can add
variety to an exercise program by rotating similar exercises that load the same muscle
or muscle groups. Specialist strength training manuals, textbooks, and other reference
materials are available to assist the coach in planning. Exercise programs must also
be flexible and tailor made to suit the individual swimmer. If specific strength
deficiencies exist, then remedial exercises should be prescribed. Sometimes
consulting a physiotherapist can be useful to identify specific needs for a swimmer.
Stretching
Stretching the muscles primarily used in swimming is a valuable activity because:

• it enhances a full range of motion,
• it contributes to warm-up effects (muscle temperature, etc.),
• it helps to maintain the elasticity of connective tissue.
Flexibility will contribute to movement efficiency, but flexibility must always be

combined with muscular co-ordination and joint stability. Muscular co-ordination is
achieved by correctly learning, refining, and practicing ideal stroke technique. Joint
stability is maintained by improving the strength and endurance of muscles. A
swimmer's flexibility is partly determined by body structure and natural
characteristics, and partly by the nature of training. Swimmers must be encouraged to
develop good stretching habits early in their swimming career and carry those habits
forward by stretching before (and sometimes after) other types of training. Stretching
does not have to be a time consuming activity if it's done frequently; 10-15 minutes
may be enough if the exercises are done properly. There are a number of stretching
techniques, each having advantages and disadvantages.
Static stretching involves voluntarily positioning a muscle at the extreme in its range
of motion and then holding that position for a minimum of 10 to 60 seconds. The

93
muscle should remain relaxed if possible. After holding for a few seconds the
position is released before the stretch is applied again. Static stretching should be
gentle and slow, never stretch to the point of pain. It should also be repetitive; several
stretches should be performed before moving on to another stretching exercise. Static
stretching is a safe method if done properly and is suitable for most swimmers.
Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (also called the contract - relax technique)

is another stretching method commonly used by swimmers. The stretch begins by
placing the muscle in a lengthened position. The muscle is then gradually contracted
isometrically for 6-15 seconds. The person stretching may need assistance from a
partner to 'push' (i.e. during the isometric contraction) against, sometimes a stationary
object (i.e. wall or post) can be used to help hold the stretch position. A brief period
of relaxation follows and the stretch is repeated. With each stretching repetition the
starting position of the stretch is changed to lengthen the muscle slightly. This
technique stimulates a number of neurophysiological mechanisms that will allow a
greater range of motion. However, the partner must be careful to never overextend
the range of movement to the point of pain.
Ballistic swinging of the limbs is another way of stretching. Swings should be gentle
and always under the control of the person performing the stretch. This technique
uses the momentum developed by the movement of the arms or legs to place the
muscles under stretch. Swimmers must be careful to not exceed a normal range of
motion and minimise any risk of injury.
There are numerous educational resources available on stretching that will assist the
coach in developing a program. Professional advice may be sought from a
physiotherapist or strength and conditioning consultant.

94
CHAPTER 11
PLANNING TRAINING
Training plans evolve from general objectives through a series of stages to the most
specific objectives. All stages of the planning process should be written down and
reviewed from time to time to assess what progress has been made. Planning must
take into account a number of variables that may, or may not, be under the direct
control of the coach. Considerations such as access to training facilities and the
developmental needs of squad members will differ from one program to the next.
However, the general planning process remains the same for beginning or elite
coaches and usually follows similar stages.
Season Outline
Based upon the requirements of each training squad a rough outline of the complete
season is constructed. The beginning coach may find it difficult to estimate overall
requirements for training volume, but experience and a properly documented program
will help with future planning. The yearly outline may be as simple as an overview of
when to begin, evaluate, or change the focus of a particular training emphasis. It may
also contain bits of information that help to explain why the program cycles are
constructed as they are, these elements might include identifying school holiday
periods, major/minor competitions, training camps, or transitional periods when the
swimmers are out of the water. Two generic plans are shown to illustrate the
differences in seasonal planning based upon squad make up and program goals.
Similar outlines would be prepared for other training groups.
Training Phases
Within each season's training program there will be several intermediate objectives
that are usually based upon attainment of a certain level of fitness or strength. The
period of time a coach devotes to achieving these objectives will vary. For example,
four fundamental objectives to be achieved through a concentrated phase approach
might be: (1) improvement of swimming technique, (2) increased aerobic fitness, (3)
improvement of speed, and (4) greater sustained speed or specific race speed.
Sometimes common-language terms such as ‘endurance’, ‘quality’, and ‘race
preparation’ are used to describe the physiological adaptations desired during various
times in a season. There is also a ‘taper phase’ that is actually a summation of earlier
adaptations designed to bring the swimmer to peak performance. While many
training objectives will receive simultaneous attention during each training phase,
greater attention or weight may be given to a single or limited number of objective(s).
Chapter 11 Planning Training

95
EXAMPLE of Yearly Training Outline for Junior Squad (approximate age 12 yrs. ± 1 yr.)
Long-Course Preparation SEPT OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
Training Week (accumulative) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3
Training Phase Endurance Quality Race-Qual. Endurance ⇒ Quality
Assessment or Test Set Data Collection • • • • • •
Number of Training Sessions Planned this Week 7 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 8 6 6 5 4 5 5 6 6 6 5 4
Volume of Training (kilometres per week) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
8 2 4 0 2 4 6 0 4 0 0 2 6 8 4 5 2 4 6 0 6 4 0
Adaptation Week
Competition ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗
Championship Competition (State) S S
School Holiday
Training Camp C C
Out of Water Strength Training Cycle 2 x 20min Gym Session per Week
Team Meeting or Function • • • • • • • •
Short-Course Preparation MAY JUN JUL AUG

2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Training Week (accumulative) 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Training Phase Endurance Quality ⇒ Race
Assessment or Test Set Data Collection • • • •
Number of Training Sessions Planned this Week 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 7 6 5 6 6 6 5 4
Volume of Training (kilometres per week) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1
0 2 7 8 0 6 8 5 8 0 4 4 4 0 5
Adaptation Week
Competition ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗
Championship Competition (State) S S
School Holiday
Training Camp C
Out of Water Strength Training Cycle 3 x 20min Gym / Wk 2 x 20min Gym
Team Meeting or Function • • • •
Summary:
• 38 week program -- approximately 200 pool sessions and 60 gym sessions
• 900 km completed in training
• 11 regular competitions, plus State Championships

96
EXAMPLE of Yearly Training Outline for Age-Group Squad (approximate age 13-15yrs ± 1yr)
Long-Course Preparation SEPT OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Training Week (accumulative) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Training Phase Endurance – part 1 Endurance – part 2 Endurance ⇒ Quality Quality ⇒ Race
Assessment or Test Set Data Collection • • • • • • • •
Number of Training Sessions Planned this Week 6 8 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 6 7 9 7 5 6 6 5 7 7 6 7 7 7 7 6 5
Volume of Training (kilometres per week) 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 3 3 5 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 2
8 7 8 1 5 8 0 0 2 0 5 3 5 0 5 5 0 2 6 5 7 9 5 8 8 5 8 3
Adaptation Week
Competition ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗
Championship Competition (State, National Age) S S N
School Holiday
Training Camp C C
Out of Water Strength Training Cycle 2 x 30min Gym/Week 3 x 25min Gym/Wk 3 x 30min Gym/Week
Team Meeting or Function • • • • • • • • • • • •
Short-Course Preparation MAY JUN JUL AUG

2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Training Week (accumulative) 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Training Phase Endurance Quality Quality ⇒ Race
Assessment or Test Set Data Collection • • • • •
Number of Training Sessions Planned this Week 5 6 6 7 7 7 6 7 7 9 6 7 7 6 7 7 6 4
Volume of Training (kilometres per week) 3 3 3 4 4 4 3 4 4 5 3 4 3 3 4 3 3 2
0 6 9 3 5 8 5 3 0 0 5 3 8 5 3 7 1 7
Adaptation Week
Competition ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗
Championship Competition (State, National SC) S S N
School Holiday
Training Camp C
Out of Water Strength Training Cycle 2 x 1 hr Gym/Week 3 x 45min Gym/Week
Team Meeting or Function • • • • • • •
Summary:
• 46 week program -- approximately 300 pool sessions and 95 gym sessions
• 1650 km completed in training
• 13 regular competitions, plus State and National Championships

97
Within each large training phase there may be two or more training cycles (i.e. repeated
patterns in the training plan), each lasting several weeks. For example, during early-
season training it’s advantageous to place more emphasis on establishing desirable stroke
characteristics and building a sound fitness base. This might take 8-12 weeks in total,
accomplish by programming two or three four-week cycles of training. Each cycle might
be similar in structure, but building in a manner to allow the application of successively
greater training loads.
The planning outline illustrates how volume and intensity build-up and then reduce to
facilitate overload and then adaptation effects. Note that when training cycles are
repeated, the total training load is slightly greater than the previous cycle.
Sample Plan for ‘Endurance Phase’

Age-Group Swimmers (13-16 yrs)
Week(s) Sessions Training Notes on Major & Minor Training Test Sets
Per Week Volume/Wk Objectives
1 6 30 km Aerobic Base and Endurance, work on Stroke ICS Test over 100 & 200m,
Technique and Pacing Descend 50’s Test
2-3 7-8 38-45 km Aerobic Endurance and CS training, HVO’s four 3000m Test and 5 x 200m
times per week Step Test, CS Test
4 9 55 km Aerobic Endurance and CS, HVO’s five times, two ICS Test over 100 & 400m
sprint sets, one La Tolerance set
5 7 43 km Recovery Week – Aerobic Base, continue HVO’s Individual Consultation and
Assessment of Progress
6 8 50 km Range of Aerobic Work, plus HVO’s and three 5 x 200m Step Test, Descent
sprint sets 50’s Test
7-8 8 or 9 55-60 km (as per week 4) 3000m Test
9 7 48 km Recovery Week – Aerobic Base, continue HVO’s Intra-Squad Competition or
Time Trials
During the major competitive period of the year there will be grater demands for race
performance. Training must change to meet these demands, but training must never focus
so closely on one fundamental that all others are neglected. Training units, whether
individual sessions or blocks of weeks, are always a mixture of many things. If the coach
has prepared effectively during phases where immediate competition results are not the
major objective, then performance gains can be built upon for more specific race results.
Weekly Training Cycles
Within a large training cycle most coaches plan a week's training as a measurable unit.
Some coaches may use slightly smaller units; for example, a 4-day cycle. Other coaches
may select longer units; for example, 10-14 day cycles to construct their plans. Each
training day, or session, should be constructed so that it contributes to the objective of the
unit, which in turn supports the objectives of the particular training phase (which in turn
support the objectives of the season). Planning training programs within units of time
allows the coach to control the application of the stress-recovery-adaptation sequence of
events on a day-to-day basis.
It would be impossible to illustrate every possible weekly training cycle because the
influences of age, maturity, and ability must be considered. However, based upon the
principles outlined in this text a few examples of weekly training plans are presented,
along with notes regarding the type of swimmers most likely to use the training plan.
Daily training examples having two rows indicate both morning and afternoon sessions.

98
Definitions of the individual types of training (i.e. Aerobic Base, Critical Velocity, Sprint,
Speed, etc.) are included in the Training Methods chapter.
Weekly Training Cycle for 10 Years/Under – General

(Primary and Secondary Objectives noted on each example)
Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat
1. Stroke 1. Stroke 1. Aerobic 1. Race
Tech & Tech & Practice
Skills Skills Endurance Swims
2. Aerobic 2. Race 2. Max 2. Aerobic
Base Con- Speed Speed Base Con-
ditioning 1. Aerobic 1. Stroke ditioning
1. Max Base Technique
Speed & Skills
As mentioned earlier, young swimmers have fairly simple training demands. There are
four basic components of training for young swimmers: (1) technique & skill
development, (2) aerobic conditioning, (3) maximum speed development, and (4)
sustained, or race specific speed development. The emphasis on all four components is
relatively constant throughout the training year. Training variables will be manipulated
slightly during the season to first build endurance (using good technique) and then
maintain that endurance with additional speed (also using good technique). The basic
weekly model does not change too much. Training is generally conducted once per day,
in the afternoon, but individual circumstances will dictate the exact weekly schedule. An
additional session (sometimes a morning session) may be added during school holiday
periods.
Weekly Training Cycle for Swimmers 11-12 Yrs (± 1) – Endurance

Rest 1. Aerobic
Day
Endurance
2. Stroke
Technique
& Skills
1. Aerobic
Base
1. Aerobic 1. Sprint 1. Max 1. Sprint
2. Aerobic Speed 2. Aerobic
Endurance Base 2. Aerobic Base
2. Max 1. Max Base 1. Stroke
Speed Speed 1. Stroke Technique
1. Stroke Technique & Skills
Technique & Skills
& Skills
Once again, this example includes primarily afternoon training sessions and may vary
according to pool availability. Whenever possible it’s advantageous to program sessions
for young swimmers in the afternoon because this allows more complete recovery and/or
regular sleeping patterns. However, weekend sessions are a good way to introduce early
morning training. As swimmers get older the demand for additional training volume will

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require more frequent sessions, including morning and afternoon training on the same
day. The example above shows how combinations of training objectives are prioritized.
The number one primary objective always receives the greatest time and emphasis.
During this endurance week there are also training sets that contain very fast swimming.
However, the weekly training volume is weighted toward aerobic level conditioning.
Secondary training objectives are occasionally compromised slightly if time and space
requirements are tight.
Weekly Training Cycle for Swimmers 11-12 Yrs (± 1) – Quality

1. Sprint Rest Day
1. Aerobic or
Base Swim Meet
1. Aerobic 1. Sprint 1. Max 1. Sprint 1. Race

2. Aerobic Speed 2. Aerobic Practice
Endurance 2. Aerobic Base 2. Max
2. Stroke Base 1. Stroke Speed
Tech & 1. Stroke Endurance Technique 1. Stroke
Skills Technique 1. Aerobic & Skills Technique
1. Max & Skills Base & Skills
Speed
Once sufficient endurance is achieved the program begins to concentrate more on

developing specific race speed. Sessions are sometimes manipulated to incorporate race
practice, such as Club competitions, as part of the regular training schedule. As the end
of the season approaches morning training sessions may be reduced to allow for
additional rest, but some morning swimming should be retained to assist in preparing for
championship competition heat swims (usually scheduled in the morning). During school
holidays swimmers can expect to recover more completely and twice-daily training, or
concentration of sessions in a training camp format, may be an effective scheduling tool.
Remember that swimmers at this age have high energy levels and usually recover quickly,
but school and other factors must be considered. There is minimum change to the
training plan during the week prior to most competitions, except that some training
volume may be sacrificed to allow more complete recovery between sessions. Note that
training sets of aerobic intensity are still plentiful, but primary objectives focus on sprint
and maximum speed conditioning.
One of the characteristic features of a quality phase is the amount of race-speed specific
training. Overall training volume is maintained so that accumulated fitness is not lost;
this is accomplished by frequent scheduling of aerobic base training objectives. The
pattern of training applications allows for two successive sessions (i.e. morning-afternoon
of the same day or afternoon-morning of consecutive days) then a break to establish a
stress-recovery-adaptation sequence.
During a taper period it’s important for age-group swimmers to keep the volume of low-
to-medium intensity aerobic work at a reasonable level, probably not less than 60% of
peak volume achieved earlier in the season. Age-group swimmers usually swim multiple

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events during championship meets and maintaining fitness while racing requires
continued aerobic swimming.
The number and complexity of training sessions increases for older age-group and open
swimmers. Age-group swimmers who are slow to adapt to the program, or do not wish to
commit to a full-on training load, will probably remain at 7 sessions per week. It’s
common for late developing swimmers to delay their increase in total workload (i.e. as
defined by the number of training sessions per week) and still continue to improve their
performance. Older swimmers will add some very intense aerobic work as part of their
endurance preparation. Individual training sessions usually extend to 2 or 2½ hours.
Weekly Training Cycle for Older Age-Group and Open Swimmers – Quality
1. Critical Rest 1. Aerobic Rest 1. Sprint 1. Aerobic
Velocity Base 1. Aerobic
2. Aerobic 2. Max Base Base
Base Speed 2. Max 1. Stroke
1. Stroke Speed Technique
Technique & Skills
1. Sprint 1. Max 1. Sprint 1. Critical 1. Peak Rest and/ or
2. Aerobic VO2 or 2. Stroke Velocity Lactate modify
Lactate Technique 2. Aerobic and/or Saturday
Endurance Tolerance Base Race Pace program for
1. Max 1. Aerobic 1. Stroke 1. Aerobic Comp-
Speed Base Technique Base etition
The composition of successive training sessions is used to build up an overload stress,

and then recovery is used to stimulate adaptation. In the above example, if the week ends
without a scheduled competition the application of training loads will follow a 2-3-4
pattern (i.e. 2 sessions and a break, then 3, then 4 at the end of the week), with Sunday as
a full day to recover. If a Saturday or Sunday competition is scheduled, then the primary
training objective planned for Friday afternoon (i.e. Peak Lactate or Race Pace) is moved
to Friday morning and the afternoon session focuses on active recovery. The training
load then takes on a 2-3-2 pattern.
Although 9 sessions per week (plus competition) appears to be a demanding training load,
it’s necessary during the advanced stages of a swimmer’s career. This level of work is
certainly not appropriate for junior swimmers or the majority of young age-group
swimmers, regardless of their talent. Only a few young age-group swimmers (particularly
13-14 year old girls) may be mature enough to take on such a concentrated program.
Elite swimmers may train 10 or 11 pool sessions per week and include specialist gym
sessions on top of that. As you can see, the complexity in planning appropriate stress-
recovery cycles is enormous.
Swimmers of all ages use high velocity swimming (i.e. greater than race pace for very
short distances) in their program throughout the season. However, with older swimmers
it’s desirable to program high-velocity sets as secondary training objectives. The
accumulated volume of high velocity work must be carefully monitored because it can
hasten the depletion of muscle glycogen. Therefore, maximum speed training and sprint

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training are used somewhat differently. Max speed training is done frequently, but
accumulates to a small volume (i.e. perhaps 400-600m) while quality sprint sets are
performed less frequently because of their greater accumulated volume and residual
fatigue.
Individual Training Sessions
The final stage of planning involves a determination of what components fit into each
training session. Based upon the planning outline each training session will be structured
to reflect the desired outcomes within the broader framework. The majority of training
sessions will probably contain only one or two core components contributing to the major
or minor objectives of the session. Common activities, such as warm-up routines, are
also incorporated into every training session because they’re used to prepare the swimmer
for other types of training. It’s an advantage to construct warm-up activities so they
address general fitness and skill related objectives, often these are the minor focus of the
session. The main body of the training session will focus on specific performance
objectives and therefore, training sets must contain the desired balance of volume and
intensity. Training sets are individual training structures designed with a specific
physiological, psychological or tactical objective. To allow sufficient recovery between
major or major/minor training sets the coach should program active recovery. Most
coaches will have a collection of recovery sets as part of their repertoire, and swimmers
will understand exactly how these sets should be performed (i.e. with regard to
technique). Recovery sets are low-intensity aerobic loads, but may contain complex skill
components. The traditional swim-down fits into this category.
Care must be exercised to construct training sets that complement each other and
contribute to the overall session, rather than detract from it. Training sets are constructed
to define a specific training stress; therefore, the coach should always have a good idea of
how swimmers respond to the plan in terms of their training pace. If swimmers do not
respond to the training plan as expected, the coach should be in a position to speculate
why and then propose changes as required.
Training Objectives
The planning process outlined above makes reference to 'training objectives' at every
stage. Successful planning incorporates all the concepts of training presented in other
chapters of this manual. The greatest mistake made by swimming coaches is their failure
to look at the total picture and keep that picture in perspective with the age (which
includes maturation factors) and ability of their swimmers.
Planning a training program for very young swimmers (i.e. most swimmers under the age
of 10 years) is therefore very clear, because the primary objectives of training are very
narrowly defined. Skill development, aerobic capacity, and having fun are the primary
objectives, maintaining natural speed and developing race skills are the secondary
objectives. The complexity of the objectives (or lack of complexity in this case)
determines the amount of detail that the coach needs to plan. There will be only small
variations in the training plan form one macrocycle to the next, because the need for well
developed anaerobic energy sources does not exist. Good advice for coaches working

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with very young swimmers is to devote most of your planning to skills and general
fitness.
During periods of rapid physical change, such as physical growth, the complexity of
training variables will change. Consolidation of technique and increase in aerobic
capacity are still the most important objectives, but factors such as muscle strength to
body weight ratio, speed and acceleration, and training volume and intensity must also be
addressed more carefully. Yet, there are still training variables reserved for the older age-
groups and senior swimmers. Coaches often overestimate the progress of swimmers from
ages 10-12 (± 1 year) and begin to train them like 'small adults'; resulting in the
application of an unrealistic program and possible loss of many swimmers to other sports.
Training objectives for girls (approximate age 12 and above) and boys (approximate age
13+) begin to change dramatically because their needs are more complex. Provided that
earlier training has given these swimmers the correct background (i.e. skills and aerobic
capacity) there are many new training objectives which must be included in the coach's
plan. The emphasis on training volume and intensity, and how they interact, must be
carefully planned at this stage of a swimmer's career. Anaerobic capacity begins to take
on greater importance and subtle changes (yet still not the major changes reflected in
programs for mature swimmers) are brought into the complexity of the training plan. The
coach must be able to recognise signs of maturity and adjust his/her program for both
advanced as well as late maturing individuals.
Planning training for age-group swimmers of 14-15 years and older is similar to planning
training for senior swimmers; with the exception that recovery mechanisms are still very
robust for the younger swimmers. As a general rule, these 'middle age-groupers'
(particularly girls) will be able to absorb large volumes of work. Planning the desired
emphasis of training volume and training intensity becomes the greatest challenge for the
coach. The more talented swimmers will now be getting ready to make the transition to
higher levels of competition; at this time the coach must be able to assess if there are
significant weaknesses present. In fact, at every stage of a swimmer's development the
coach must assess the relative strengths/weaknesses and plan to fill the gaps left from
earlier stages or correct potential problems (i.e. before they become problems). Training
complexity is again expanded because competition objectives begin to narrow. During
the early years of a swimmer's career there is relatively equal emphasis on the
development of all strokes and most competition distances; from the mid-teen years the
swimmer begins to specialise more. The coach must respond with more specific
programs every year, this requires more detailed planning.
The complexity of objectives in the training program for senior swimmers and/or elite
swimmers is enormous. Higher levels of competition create different demands on the
swimmer in every aspect of performance (i.e. nutrition, mental skills, strength/flexibility,
physiological preparation, technical preparation, etc.). Although most coaches
(particularly beginning coaches) do not train elite level swimmers, the training plans
designed for these elite athletes are usually the ones every coach wants to study and
emulate. Learning from the success or experience of others is important, but learning
why and how those results were achieved is perhaps most important. Almost every elite
swimmer can trace his/her training history through a similar process of training objectives
set out by the coach. Planning, and seeing the whole picture, is the key to a coach's
success.

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Examples of Session Plans
It would be impossible for this text to adequately represent the infinite variety of
individual session plans that are possible. As mentioned earlier, plans must be consistent
with the age/ability of the swimmer, the phase of training preparation, and the specific
objectives of the training activities. The training activities themselves must be sequenced
for optimum affect on technical, physiological and psychological performance factors.
The previous chapter provided some definition for each type of training used to stimulate
adaptation along the energy supply continuum. Every coach will develop a unique way
of articulating the components of a session plan; this may vary from simple notes to
complex sets of instructions and alternatives. Only two examples follow.
Example # 1 – Training Session (Quality Phase)

Junior Squad (ages 10-12 yrs)
25m Pool
Warm-Up 200m FS swim
(22 min) 8 x 50m medley order, work on technique and turns @1.10
2 x 100m IM @2.15 (second swim faster than first)
8 x 25m choice of stroke → sprint to mid-pool then go easy @30sec
Main Set 3 x [(8 x 50m) / 150m recovery] →

(Sprint) first cycle FS @1.30 (range of performance ≈ 38-44sec),
(51 min) recovery “slide” drill with strong 6-beat kick
second cycle Formstroke @ 1.40 (range of performance ≈ 40-50sec),
recovery – alt. 25’s of FS and butterfly “push & breathe” drill
third cycle Choice of Stroke @ 1.45 (range of performance ≈ 38-50sec),
recovery – BR arms with dolphin kick (work on ‘wave action’)
Aerobic Base 2 x 400m FS pull, rest 30sec between

(15 min)
OR
HVO’s 24 x 25m → sprint 15m and easy 10m @40sec (follow with 200m easy)
(16 min)
Skills practice 3 ‘perfect’ dives starts to complete the training session
3.4 km
Notes: Select a ‘Secondary Set’ based upon how most swimmers in the squad
are performing.
The first example of an individual training session is taken from a quality training cycle
for a young squad of swimmers. This session is scheduled for 90 minutes, and every
minute is organised according to a timeline. This helps the coach stay on track and
accomplish the planned training volume. The warm-up activities plus the recovery swims
(included as part of the main set) represent low-intensity aerobic work totalling about
one-third of the session’s volume. The coach has listed two alternatives as a secondary
objective of this session. It’s possible to boost the aerobic-loading of the session by
giving the 2x400m swims, or increase the sprint content of the session with the HVO set.
Note that skill work is integrated into the various sets through the use of linking drills. A
short swim-down is provided if the HVO option is used, otherwise the session ends with a
low-level aerobic swim (i.e. 400m).

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Example #2 – Training Session (Endurance Phase)

Age-Group Swimmers
50m Pool
Warm-Up 200m swim, choice of stroke
10x50m Kick/Swim @ 55sec. (i.e. 25m kick w/o board & 25m swim)
5x100m Free ‘Checking Speed’ (time / stroke-count per 50m / heart-rate)
Swimmer: 1.23 / 32-33 Swimmer: 1.21 / 30-34
#1 1.23 / 33-34 #2 1.21 / 34-35
1.22 / 33-34 / 145 1.22 / 34-35 / 145
1.22 / 32-33 1.25 / 34-35
1.22 / 31-33 /140 1.25 / 33-34 / 150
Main Set 16x200m Free 4 at each interval → @3.20 / 3.00 / 2.50 / 2.45
(Aerobic Endurance) Swimmer #1 Swimmer #2
1.22-1.22 2.44 1.22-1.22 2.44 @3.20
1.19-1.19 2.38 1.18-1.18 2.36
1.18-1.17 2.35 1.18-1.15 2.33
1.20-1.17 2.37 1.19-1.15 2.34
1.19-1.15 2.34 (40) 1.18-1.15 2.33 (35) @3.00
1.18-1.16 2.34 (40) 1.18-1.15 2.33 (35) (stroke-rate)
1.18-1.17 2.35 (39) 1.18-1.16 2.34 (37) 3rd 50m
1.17-1.16 2.33 (39) 1.17-1.16 2.33 (37)
1.17-1.15 2.32 1.16-1.16 2.32 @2.50
1.16-1.16 2.32 (41) 1.16-1.16 2.32 (38) (stroke-rate)
1.16-1.15 2.31 (42) 1.16-1.15 2.31 (38) 4th 50m
1.15-1.15 2.30 1.16-1.16 2.32
1.15-1.16 2.31 (37) 1.15-1.16 2.31 (39) @2.45
1.15-1.16 2.31 (39) 1.16-1.16 2.32 (39) (stroke-rate)
1.16-1.14 2.30 (40) 1.16-1.15 2.31 (40) 3rd 50m
1.15-1.15 2.30 (40) 1.16-1.16 2.32 (39)
HR≈165 (max = 196) HR≈170 (max = 200)
Drill Set 30x50m @55sec Butterfly Drill 4-4-2 (i.e. right-left-full stroke)
Breathe only once during 4 single-arm strokes.
Recovery Set 3x400m BK 30sec. rest between, swim at HR≈50 bbm
7.1 km
Notes: 100m Checking Speed → time / stroke-rate / heart-rate (from pre-test)

Swimmer #1 1min 22sec / 33 strokes per min / 140 beats per min
Swimmer #2 1min 23sec / 34 strokes per min / 150 beats per min
Estimated Individual Anaerobic Threshold Pace (from pre-test)
Swimmer #1 1.15 (stroke-rate 39) HR≈165
Swimmer #2 1.16 (stroke-rate 38) HR≈175
The second example of an individual training session is taken from an endurance training
cycle and illustrates several general points that are worth discussion. First, it would be
impossible for the coach to collect individual performance data on every swimmer in a
training squad during every session. However, much of this responsibility can be taken-
on by the swimmer; a plastic board and a wax-pencil can be used to record specific data
during a session. Swimmers can take their time from a pace clock and check heart-rate
(electronic heart-rate monitors can be positioned at the end of each lane). The coach may
need to help out by monitoring split times and provide stroke-rate information. This
information can be transferred into the coach’s logbook after the session. Second, a
major objective of this session is to focus on endurance outcomes, but the total training
volume must fit into an allocated 2-hour session. This requires a planned approach to
smoothly coordinate each activity. Third, results from recent performance tests serve as

105
individual benchmarks for different types of work. This gives the coach and swimmer an
expectation of the training pace required. Achieving the desired training pace should
make coach and swimmer feel good about achieving the desired outcome. Finally, in this
session plan drills serve a dual function of skill development and aerobic base training.
Training Objectives
The planning process outlined above makes reference to 'training objectives' at every
stage. The complexity of training objectives is directly proportional to a swimmer’s age
and experience. Therefore, planning a training program for very young swimmers (i.e.
under the age of 10 years) is comparatively straightforward because the primary
objectives of training are very narrowly defined. Skill development, aerobic capacity,
and having fun are the primary objectives, maintaining natural speed and developing race
skills are the secondary objectives. Young swimmers do not require large variation in the
training plan form one cycle to the next because their training needs are simple. Good
advice for coaches working with very young swimmers is to concentrate the plan on
developing skills and general fitness. This means learning how to construct many
training sets that look different, but achieve the same physiological and skill objectives.
During the years when swimmers experience their most rapid physical maturation (i.e.
growth spurt and puberty), the complexity of training variables will change.
Consolidation of technique and continued improvement in aerobic capacity are still the
most important objectives. However, factors such as muscle strength-to-bodyweight
ratio, speed and acceleration of limb movements, and training volume/intensity become
more important. At every stage in the age-group swimming progression there are some
training variables held in reserve for introduction at the next level of development or held
back until the swimmer reaches ‘open’ level competition. For example, pre-maturation
swimmers will increase their aerobic capacity through growth/maturity and appropriate
amounts of sub-maximal endurance training. It’s not necessary to expose these
swimmers to MaxVO2 sets, but they will be introduced to the training concept of critical
speed training. Finally, when a swimmer reaches his/her mid-teens the range of training
options is expanded to include MaxVO2 and lactate tolerance sets into the training matrix.
Another aspect of the total training package is the development of muscle strength and
power, particularly through the use of land based exercise programs. Young swimmers
will improve their swimming speed by first perfecting technique, neuro-muscular
patterning, and core body strength. These objectives must be met before more
concentrated land-based strength programs are introduced. Senior age-group or open
swimmers who have experienced a sequential progression of endurance, strength, and
speed development will be ready to benefit from more specific, and complex, training
programs.
Large volumes of high intensity (i.e. lactate producing) training generally wears down
age-group swimmers and so these training objectives should be withheld until the
swimmer progresses to a high state of preparation. It’s simply not an efficient use of
training time to have young swimmers (i.e. 10-12 years ± 1 year) training like 'small
adults'. This is not to say that high quality sprinting is overlooked, all aspects of the
program should remain balanced.

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Provided that earlier training has given swimmers the correct background (i.e. skills,
aerobic capacity, neuro-muscular patterning) there are several new training objectives
following puberty. The interaction of training volume and intensity must be carefully
reviewed at this stage of a swimmer's career. Anaerobic capacity begins to take on
greater importance and subtle changes are brought into the complexity of the training
plan. Some training concessions may be necessary to accommodate certain individuals
who are late maturing physically. Most 13-15 year-old swimmers will be ready to take a
major step up from earlier training patterns. However, only a small percentage of these
swimmers are ready to take on the training demands of senior swimmers. This means that
coaching adolescent swimmers represents a critical transition in the training progression.
More demanding training programs must be structured, but there must also be room to
progressively increase and upgrade the training load each season for the next 3-5 years.
The coach must be able to recognise when adjustments should be made that lift or reduce
the program for maximum stimulus or additional recovery.
The greatest differences in planning training programs for older age-group and senior
swimmers, as compared to younger age-groupers, are the amount of intense swimming
and the length of recovery time. As a general rule, older age-groupers (particularly girls)
will be able to absorb larger volumes of work. Planning the right emphasis of training
volume and training intensity becomes a key challenge for the coach. Talented age-group
swimmers will also be participating in a mixture of open and age competition. Another
challenge for the coach is to identify specific competition needs. For example, the ability
to work out suitable race strategies for heats / semi-finals / final-swims must be learnt.
Gaps in the swimmer’s training profile need to be filled before they become limitations at
senior level. Training complexity also increases because competition objectives narrow.
During the early years of a swimmer's career there is relatively equal emphasis on the
development of all strokes and most competition distances, but from the mid-teen years
onward the swimmer begins to specialise. The coach must respond with more specific
programs each year, and this requires more detailed planning.
Higher levels of competition create different demands on the swimmer in every aspect of
performance (i.e. nutrition, mental skills, strength/flexibility, physiological preparation,
technical preparation, etc.). Although most beginning coaches do not train elite level
swimmers, their training plans are designed to ultimately develop elite athletes by
providing a pathway. Almost every elite swimmer can trace their training history through
progressive stages of development.
Early Season Considerations
At the start of any season the coach must build a solid physiological base from which
more specific work can be constructed. This also requires the consolidation of techniques
and skills acquired at earlier stages and an assessment of general strengths or weaknesses.
Stroke technique and skills are a primary objective during any phase of training, but
perhaps more emphasis is placed on these at the start of a season. Increasing aerobic
fitness will be the primary physiological objective, with pure speed and race speed as
secondary objectives. Therefore, the types of training used most often during the early
stages of a season should be aerobic base, aerobic endurance, and critical speed (primary
objectives); maximum speed and sprint (secondary objectives).

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The early season phase might consist of several training progressions. For example, a
stepped approach, such as 2-3 weeks of increasing volume followed by one week of
reduced volume (i.e. recovery), repeated several times. Once the majority of swimmers
begin to show signs of adaptation to general fitness training a more specific endurance
training period would follow. The pattern of increasing the overall training stress during
successive small units of time may stay the same or a slightly different stress-recovery
pattern could be used. Although endurance remains the main focus of the program, the
relative amount of each type of training will change to meet the build-up or recovery
demands within that cycle. Early season training will always include an appropriate
amount of high-velocity and sprint training sets, even though competition speed is not a
primary objective. For older age-group and senior swimmers the early season program
might last 10-12-weeks and incorporate one or two physiological objectives. Naturally
the length of any phase of a training season is dependent upon the length of the total
training season and the rate of adaptation of the majority of swimmers. Having a high
level of fitness at the start of a season will generally reduce the length of any preparation
phase.
How do we know if the primary and secondary training objectives are being achieved?
Repeated testing of various physiological capacities, along with race times, helps us to
monitor the training program. A practical and useful system is to administer ‘test sets’
that are specific to the training objectives. The topic of effectively monitoring training
will be addressed in a later chapter.
The coach should administer relevant tests to document improvements in training
performance for each of the performance objectives. If performance characteristics on
secondary objectives decline substantially, then the coach may have placed too much
emphasis on a single type of training. In the case of early season endurance training it’s
unrealistic to expect top sprint performance, but it’s equally important that a high
percentage of pure speed is maintained because of the neuro-muscular patterning
involved. A simple test of maximum speed, such as 6 x 25m on a 2 minute interval (easy
swimming between efforts) can be administered regularly during endurance training
periods.
Mid-Season Considerations
Mid-season might be loosely defined as the second major phase of the season, consisting
of one or more large training cycles. The key to successful progression in the program is
maintaining all the performance gains of earlier cycles while building performance gains
in other areas. During mid-season swimmers will participate more regularly in
competitions. Depending upon the season's objectives, the coach must plan training
around or through these competitions. The characteristic feature of mid-season planning
is the way the coach manipulates volume and intensity within shorter (i.e. weekly)
training cycles. It's very likely that training volume from week-to-week will be sustained
at a level somewhat below the peak volume reached when endurance was the focus.
However, the overall training stress during mid-season is usually greater because volume
and intensity variables have shifted their weighting. Adaptation weeks will allow a
reduction in total volume / intensity to consolidate training effects. The number of
progressive loading cycles will depend upon the ability of swimmers to recover
sufficiently before stepping-up to higher training loads. The composition of training
during an adaptation week may also change to reflect competition objectives. As a

108
general rule the volume of work during a recovery cycle is set at 50-60% of the volume of
previous loading cycles, but the content of the program is such that residual fatigue is
greatly reduced or eliminated. The adaptation week will still contain high quality training
sets, but the overall amount of stress is reduced because the stress-recovery ratio has
changed.
Mid-season objectives are evaluated from competition results as well as test sets. It’s
valuable for coaches to record more information than just overall race time to assess
progress in various technical and tactical areas. Race specific variables may be broken
into components, such as: (1) time from the starting signal until the swimmer's head
passes the 15m mark, (2) stroke-count and stroke-rate during each 25m or 50m segment
of a race, (3) split times to evaluate pacing ability, (4) turn time – from head passing
under the backstroke flags until the same point on the return lap, (5) time and distance
underwater at the start and off each turn (this is particularly important for breaststrokers),
and (6) finish time from the flags to the wall.
Because the intensity of training increases during the mid-season phase, the coach must
be acutely aware of how day-to-day training objectives build up. Some training outcomes
will produce residual fatigue, and if repeated too often these high stress training methods
may overcome the swimmer’s ability to recover. This is not to say that full recovery is
always desirable from one training session to the next, otherwise the progressive overload
principle is not fully applied. However, coaches must monitor short-term recovery while
scheduling training loads that will stimulate long-term adaptation to higher levels of
performance.
Late Season Considerations
Naturally, the overall focus of any season's training is the performances achieved at the
end. The final phase of a season consists of a training cycle specifically designed to bring
all physical and psychological components to a peak. This phase is known as a ‘taper’
because the training focus is very narrow and specific to one’s competition events.
The structure of a taper may include 1 to 4 weeks of training that allows the athlete’s
body to 'over-compensate' because rest is more complete than during earlier cycles. The
swimmer will also mentally focus on peak performance. As mentioned earlier, young
age-group swimmers should follow a very simple pattern of training objectives.
Therefore, it's probably not necessary for the coach to plan a long or detailed taper for
swimmers under the age of 10 years. During the rapid growth years (usually ages 10-12
for girls, possibly a year older for boys) the taper cycle may be more of a rehearsal for
future years than a specific benefit to the current state of competition readiness.
Swimmers at this age generally recover so quickly that relatively short periods of reduced
training load are sufficient to allow peak performance. Long taper periods used on junior
athletes effectively reduce the amount of training time available for physiological
improvement. It’s better to use the available time during the season to lengthen either the
preparation or specific training phases.
Older age-group and senior swimmers participating in the full taper process will require
progressively more rest during each week of the taper. The coach must be cautious that a
reduction in total training volume does not represent the elimination of lower intensity

109
aerobic swimming because fitness must be maintained throughout the taper. Excessive
reduction in aerobic loads may result in the proportion of high intensity swimming
becoming too great (as part of the total training load) and this may defeat the purpose of
the taper. High intensity or ‘quality’ swimming must remain in the taper program, but in
proportion the overall volume so that recovery becomes complete from one maximal
effort to the next. Although the coach has given detailed attention to stroke technique and
race strategy throughout the season, these skills are refined during the taper. Some
elements of the training program, such as specific strength training exercises, are
eliminated completely during the taper because their adaptation affects have already been
realised. Other elements, such as stretching and mental skills training, continue at the
same pre-taper loading. Key training sets involving very-high intensity swims are either
reduced in volume or modified so that recovery is enhanced. Swimmers who train twice
daily may progressively reduce the number of training sessions attended per week. In
many cases the frequency of early morning training sessions is reduced to allow more
rest. This is a good strategy, provided the swimmer doesn't compensate by staying up late
at night or sacrificing the quality-rest opportunity that a full recovery morning presents.
In the lead-up to big competitions it's necessary to be able to swim fast in the morning
heats and therefore, complete elimination of morning training sessions may be
counterproductive. The taper should be used to build confidence and reinforce the mental
skills practiced during the earlier phases. The practice of ‘shaving down’ (i.e. shaving
hair off the exposed body surfaces) has also been used as a means of boosting physical
and psychological awareness.
Transition Between Seasons
At the end of a season or following a championship competition, a transition period

exists. Current evidence suggests that complete rest (i.e. no swim training at all) is a less
effective option for maintaining fitness gains than a specific transition-training plan. The
greatest stress experienced during a major competition is psychological, not physical.
The physiological adaptations made during a season will gradually be lost if no fitness
work is done. Therefore, the primary training objective must be to mentally refresh the
swimmer while providing a sufficient physical training load. Remember that once a high
level of aerobic fitness is achieved, the training load required to retain minimum race
fitness is reduced. During a post taper period the coach should schedule 1-2 weeks of low
intensity aerobic work, mixed with sets of short sprints. The number of sessions per week
will be only 50-60% of the peak season load. This becomes the most effective transition
into the next training cycle. The psychological needs of the swimmer can be addressed
by introducing novel and interesting alternative training activities. If swimmers require a
more complete break from the pool, the coach may introduce cross-training as an
alternative or in combination with limited pool training.
Summary
The integrated training model conceptualises five areas affected by training. The model
directs the coach to plan effective and efficient training activities.
1. Development and application of optimal stroke technique and competition skills

begins at the earliest stages of training and continues throughout a swimmer’s career.

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2. Energy supply comes from aerobic and anaerobic pathways; each responds to
different training demands, but both must be continually developed and maintained.
3. Stress factors are accumulative, this means that both physiological and psychological
stress interact. The coach must manage stress so that adaptation continues to occur.
4. Volume and intensity determine the training load, the way each impacts upon the
other makes this an interactive processes.
5. Two applied principles influence the net result of a training program: (1) stress-
recovery-adaptation sequence, and (2) progressive overload.
The Integrated Training Model
The coach can effectively plan training if he/she has a model to follow. The integrated
training model conceptualises five ways in which a swimmer's individual abilities are
affected by training. The model directs the coach to plan training activities with:
1. an ever-present concern for the development and application of optimal stroke
technique and competition skills (i.e. starts, turns, etc.),
2. the realisation that energy supply comes from three metabolic pathways; each
responds to different training demands and all three must be developed and
maintained,
3. a knowledge that physical and psychological stressors interact and neither can be
ignored or separated from the other,
4. an understanding of the changes which occur within the body as a response to the type
and amount of stress (i.e. volume / intensity interactions),
5. acceptance of two basic principles (1) the stress-recovery-adaptation sequence, and
(2) progressive overload.

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CHAPTER 12
MENTAL SKILLS
Mental skills training is a program area (similar to nutrition education) where the coach is
not expected to be a technical expert, but an expert practitioner of the basic concepts.
Teaching your swimmers how to cope with training and competition is just as important
as teaching the technical skills necessary to perform well. Since mental skills training
often relies on subjective evaluations, perceptions, and the coach’s skilful communication
to deliver an effective program; the exact method of implementation may differ from
coach to coach. This chapter will outline basic concepts; the coach will have to work out
practical strategies for implementing mental skills training.
Coaching Style
The way a coach influences the attitudes and behaviours of swimmers reflects a personal
style of coaching. Every coach will have a unique way of expressing him/herself based
upon basic values and beliefs, such as: (1) work ethic, (2) confidence, and (3) goal
orientation.
Coaches expect (some even demand) that swimmers demonstrate a strong work ethic; that
is, the ability to persevere and work to the best of one's ability. Every day the coach must
demonstrate the same qualities in his/her actions and attitudes. Coaches must have a
sense of personal discipline and long-range commitment as part of their rationale for
coaching. The work ethic of a coach shows in many ways, such as planning, enthusiasm,
loyalty, recognition, and honesty.
Nothing takes the place of confidence, it's often the most important means a coach has of
communicating ideas and attitudes to athletes. Confidence comes from the coach
knowing that hard work has been shaped by sound scientific principles and best-practice
policies. A coach who does not believe in his/her program, has little hope of transferring
that feeling to swimmers.
The final aspect of a coach's style is the way goals are identified, shared and finally
achieved. The coach must have a clear idea of what all parties (i.e. coach – athlete –
parents) are trying to achieve. The coach should have both long and short-term goals for
the program as well as the athletes. Goals should be developed within these guidelines:
• some goals should be specific while other should be general,
• all goals should have measurable outcomes,
• goals should be achievable, yet challenging, and
• goals should be evaluated regularly and adjusted if necessary.
Communication
To achieve the program goals you've set, the coach must become a master communicator.
Effective communication is more that just being able to verbally express an idea, it's
being able to listen, evaluate, and understand the needs of others. Here are a few tips for
making communication effective.
Chapter 12 Mental Skills

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• The message must be direct, know who should be receiving it.

• The message should be simple and specific.
• The message must be consistent in both content and delivery.
• The message must be relevant in the context of time and place.
• There should be feedback and evaluation resulting from the message. This may be
verbal or observational feedback.
• Reinforcement of the message should always follow.
The coach, due to his/her position of leadership and authority is usually a significant
figure in the life of the athlete. The swimmer learns to trust and have confidence in the
messages communicated by the coach and will generally accept comment and respond
positively. However, there will be instances when the message is misinterpreted by the
swimmer, this may lead to conflict. Conflicts or differences that arise between coach and
athlete are not necessarily negative. Conflict resolution is relatively ease if the swimmer
knows that it’s acceptable to evaluate critically, as long as the criticism is not directed at
the swimmer as a personal attack. The swimmer's self-esteem, as well as confidence in
the coach, must never be compromised. Being empathetic to the needs and emotions of
athletes, particularly children or adolescents, is part of the art of communication.
Applied Approach
Coaches are often confused or overwhelmed by the language and terminology used in the
field of sport psychology and this deters them from implementing a plan. The underlying
success of any coach will depend upon an awareness of basic human needs (and
emotions) and the ability to communicate. Using simple strategies, understanding the
motivations of others, and applying common sense are three of the best ways to achieve
your program goals. The coach should use a problem solving approach when assessing
the needs of individual swimmers and generally adopt strategies that maximise the use of
positive reinforcement. If the coach identifies that a swimmer has a major psychological
problem, then professional advice/support should be sought.
Selecting the appropriate psychological strategy is often a matter of identifying what

motivates an individual to participate in a competitive swimming program. Numerous
studies on young athletes have identified a few common reasons or motivations for
participation; the mental skills that swimmers put into practice should support these
beliefs:
• to enjoy the activity (i.e. excitement and fun),
• to improve personal skills and learn new skills,
• to increase physical and mental capacities, and
• to succeed (i.e. sometimes this is 'winning', but it's always striving to do one's best).
It's obvious that a swimmer's self-esteem either supports (i.e. high self-esteem) or detracts
(i.e. low self-esteem) from all of these motivations. How can the coach make use of this
knowledge about what motivates young athletes? First, the coach-swimmer relationship
must be developed upon trust and honesty. This supports a sense of security within the
young athlete and from that a sense of enjoyment ensues. Second, the coach should use
frequent positive reinforcement and teach swimmers to do the same by using positive self
talk and imagery. Third, the athlete should acquire a feeling of self-worth that supports

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and encourages participation in a swimming program, but is not controlled by it. In other
words, the swimmer must have many goals in his/her life that become ways of rewarding
one's self, not just swimming. Self esteem is enhanced when athletes can see that they are
improving their skills and physical capacities. Fourth, the swimmer will develop
confidence if he/she really believes that participation will lead to success (remember that
‘success’ is more than just winning races).
Can a swimmer ever have fun or enjoy the competitive swimming experience if they are
anxious or fearful? Certainly not, that's why the coach must teach every swimmer to
value the process as well as the outcome. This also influences the approach taken by the
coach to achieve 'optimal' level of arousal. Fear (i.e. unspecified anxiety) often inhibits
an athlete's performance. Yet unjustified fears may exist if the wrong outcome has been
stressed (i.e. 'win' at any cost approach). Optimum arousal is achieved when the
swimmer learns to keep performance in the proper perspective. Therefore, it’s essential
for swimmer/coach to evaluate performance based upon objective criteria (i.e. training
sessions attended, type and amount of work done, level of skill acquired, etc.). The coach
teaches this by effectively communicating the right messages and providing opportunities
for the swimmer to express ownership of their program. Swimmers should ‘want’ to
attend all training sessions, rather than being ‘forced’ to attend.
Psychological Skills
Success in a physical task often depends upon mastery of a number of non-physical skills;
such as concentration, emotional control, and positive thought. Although some athletes
seem to acquire one or more of these skills naturally, they are skills that can be taught and
mastered by anyone. The first step in developing a mental skills training program is taken
when the coach and swimmer establish a series of goals for the swimmer. Goals relate to
performance, and performance includes both physical and mental components. The
swimmer now has something to work toward. Goals must be evaluated regularly to
determine if the swimmer is on track. Mental skills training isn’t a process that takes
place at the end of a season, it must be an integral part of the program all the time and
setting goals is the first step.
Concentration is the ability to focus mentally in support of physical tasks, this may
include the ability to selectively receive and process both internal and external signals.
Swimmers must be able to focus on performing physical skills that are both complex and
repetitive, under stressful conditions. Stress may come from external sources, such as the
presence of a crowd; or internal sources such as metabolic stress or subconscious thought.
The training environment should simulate many of the actual race experiences a swimmer
will encounter. In training, as well as in competition, swimmers must learn to focus on
their own actions because they have little or no control over the actions of those around
them. For example, if a swimmer is focused on the actions of competitors, rather than a
race plan, it's very likely that he/she will be unable to execute the race plan. This may
result in a slow reaction to the start, or incorrect pacing, or errors in technique during the
race. The solution is to teach this swimmer to selectively focus on some things and
totally exclude irrelevant input. To start shaping the swimmer’s sensory perception the
coach must help the swimmer focus on small aspects of race strategy, such as stroke
count. Then add one additional task at a time until a complete sequence of events is
mastered. The swimmer is now ready to execute the full race strategy.

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Another example of how concentration can affect performance is evident when a

swimmer is too internally focused on 'winning'. This swimmer is so intent on making
things happen that they do not let things happen. The solution is to teach swimmers to
relax and focus on the process (i.e. race plan and execution) rather than the outcome. It’s
a matter of redirecting thoughts or mental focus. Various techniques, such as
visualisation, self-talk, and disassociation are employed to help put a swimmer in the right
frame of mind.
Emotional control is exercised by achieving the right balance between arousal and
relaxation. It's well known that athletes perform better when they are aroused or
stimulated to a level where their mental energy contributes to their physical energy. Part
of this excitement or arousal is created by the environment or conditions created by
competition. However, if the level of arousal is too high, sporting performance may
actually decline. Finding the 'optimal' level of arousal is the key to consistent success.
Consequently, relaxation techniques are used to lower arousal or to control the build-up
of emotional energy. When emotions are controlled the swimmer experiences a state of
'flow'. This has often been described as a state of mind and body where the hardest
physical effort becomes easy, technique falls perfectly into place, and the swimmer
simply allows a peak performance to happen. The coach can assist swimmers in finding
their optimal level of arousal and then monitoring the situation during each competition.
Sometimes the swimmer must be reminded to ‘fire-up’ and at other times to ‘chill-out’
and relax before a big event. Setting the right level of arousal will allow performance to
flow. The following points will help the coach understand the balance between arousal
and relaxation:
• Swimmers are more likely to express emotional control if they have confidence in
their physical and technical preparation prior to competition.
• Swimmers should focus their attention on the process of competition by executing
technical skills to the best of their ability. The coach should reinforce this message
and provide frequent opportunity for every swimmer to practice a technically
complete race plan.
• Swimmers should keep their thoughts on the present and not worry about past or
future race outcomes. If distracting thoughts enter the mind, swimmers must learn to
exercise skills such as mental imagery or focusing on positive cues to redirect thought
processes.
• Swimmers should learn to relax the body, yet remain mentally alert. Relaxation
should not lead to lethargy; it should be a state of well-being and control. Techniques
such as controlled breathing and mental imagery create a calm and focused state of
mind.
• Swimmers should develop routines or behaviour patterns to reinforce the process of
getting into the 'flow'. Coaches can help this process by providing structure to the
pre-race routine.
• Finally, if pre-race events don't go to plan (i.e. the team bus is late, the warm-up pool
is crowded, the favourite goggles are broken, heat swim is seeded in lane 8), all is not
lost. Details should never detract from the overall desired performance goal. When a
swimmer’s mental state is under their personal control, irrelevant or distracting events
become insignificant.
Because every athlete is different, the coach must develop a collection of methods, then
experiment to find out what works best in each case. Again, this depends upon
establishing effective communication with each swimmer. Getting the results you want

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as a coach depends upon so many factors; the mental aspects of training should never be
left to chance.
Strategies
Three generalized mental skills have been identified above; goal setting, concentration,
and emotional control. The way we implement a positive change in behaviour is by
applying a plan of action, or strategy, that’s specific to our desired outcome. Every
swimmer wants to achieve their goals, how does the coach facilitate this outcome? First,
the coach may need to assist the novice swimmer in setting realistic goals (more
experienced swimmers may be able to do this on their own). Next, it’s necessary to list
all the actions that must be taken to achieve the goal. The swimmer and coach must agree
that fulfilling all the action statements is essential to achieving the end goal. For example,
if the swimmer sets a goal of achieving a State or National Qualifying Time; what actions
will be required? A sample list of action statements may include the following:
• attend at least seven session per week throughout the season,
• make positive stroke corrections that allow for greater swimming efficiency and
then maintain those improvements,
• perform all training sets to the best of my ability (don’t hang back and then excel
on the final two or three repeat swims),
• maintain a healthy lifestyle (sleep, diet, use of recovery techniques), etc.
The list of action statements may be as short or as long as necessary. Now the coach must
help the swimmer monitor their progress toward fulfilling the action statements. If the
swimmer keeps a training log or diary most of the information can be recorded and
evaluated there. From time-to-time the coach may need to remind the swimmer that
he/she is either on track or drifting away from what’s necessary. Also, when a goal is
achieved, another goal must be set.
There are a number of practical strategies that apply to achieving the desired level of
concentration and/or emotional control. Focusing one’s physical and mental responses
can be a good way to improve concentration or emotional arousal. One useful technique
is to concentrate on controlling breathing and/or heart rate to steady one’s physical state.
By achieving a steady physical state the swimmer can then achieve a calm state for the
intended purpose of mental (as well as physical) relaxation. Instead of concentrating on
breathing, the swimmer can focus on a single cue (this may be a word repeated in one’s
mind or a focus on some external stimuli, such as music) to help sharpen mental focus.
Using self talk (i.e. that little voice inside your head) and mental imagery (the video
played within your mind) are two very powerful techniques used to create a positive
mental environment. Positive self talk can be practiced on a daily basis as a means of
self-motivation and emotional control. Mental imagery of one’s desired race performance
is a powerful way to reinforce those techniques. The coach and swimmer must also
realise that mental techniques are used to support and reinforce sound training
methodology; they are not a substitute for hard work.

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CHAPTER 13
HEALTH and INJURY PREVENTION
In addition to keeping swimmers psychologically motivated to continue in a training

program, the coach must ensure they stay healthy and free from injury. Swimmers will
face all the health and injury risks that a normal population is exposed to, as well as the
specific stress of training. As pointed out in previous chapters, the body adapts to a
training load gradually. Coaches are always trying to present their athletes with the
greatest possible load to produce the fastest and most efficient level of adaptation.
However, there are potential risks; the coach should understand and manage health and
injury risks to provide a safe and effective training program.
The Overtrained State
Much has been said about swimmers being overtrained; this is usually a rationale offered
when continual poor performances occur. Because performance is influenced by so many
factors there are numerous areas to evaluate. The term overtraining refers to a state where
physical and emotional stressors have exceeded the individual's ability to absorb or adapt
to that accumulative stress. This produces a long-term decline in performance that is not
reversed by short-term rest and recovery methods. The overtrained state is quite different
from the day-to-day or short-term accumulation of fatigue that may depress performance
in the short-term until the stress-recovery-adaptation cycle is complete. Proper
application of the overload principle to a training program will mean that swimmers
experience some accumulated fatigue as well as acute fatigue. However, this reduced
state of readiness will not last more than a few days or a few weeks at most. The
swimmer then responds to recovery methods and is ready to absorb more training stress.
Because the overtrained state occurs over a period of time (sometimes many months or
even years) there are certain markers that will help the coach to identify a potential
problem and be able to reverse the trend. Remember that overtraining is an accumulation
of many stressors; therefore, the coach must look for both physical and psychological
symptoms. The search for specific biochemical markers to define the overtraining state
has not produced clear-cut answers. Certain athletes may show some symptoms and not
other symptoms as they progress toward a state of overtraining. Generally, there are
changes in the body's ability to fight off minor illness, including respiratory tract
infections. The body's response during the overtrained state is in contrast to the general
response of the body's immune system during normal exercise intensity. If the swimmer
is adapting well to the training load he/she actually strengthens many of the body's
immune responses. The coach can reduce the risk failing adaptation by following these
recommendations:
• Understand the structure of a challenging, yet well balanced training program. The
intensity of training (i.e. energy cost) is always linked to the volume of intense
training. The body responds to the training stress during periods of recovery.
Sometimes recovery is in the form of reduced workload, and sometimes passive rest.
• Coaches who test their swimmers regularly on performance measures, and keep a
record of these results, are more likely to notice changes that signal poor adaptation.
• Swimmers should keep logbooks that include a range of physical and psychological
data relevant to performance, including a subjective rating of effort and post exercise
Chapter 13 Health and Injury Prevention

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reaction (i.e. muscle soreness, lingering fatigue, etc.). Coaches should keep a record
of training volume and the relative intensity planned for each training activity.
Physiological and Psychological Symptoms Indicating a State of Overtraining
Physiological
During Periods of Rest During Submax Training After Maximal Exercise After Any Training
increased heart rate increased O2 uptake decreased performance general fatigue

reduced body weight increased ventilation depressed lactate muscle tension
reduced body fat increased heart rate production chronic muscle soreness
increased blood increase lactate decreased max heart delayed return to resting
pressure production rate heart rate
abnormal ECG T-wave reduced muscle strength loss of muscle co- increase incidence of
patterns feeling of heaviness ordination infections
decreased lymphocyte loss of appetite gastrointestinal distress slight nausea
count reduced iron stores
Psychological
insomnia and disturbed sleep patterns / anorexia / depression / chronic 'run-down' feeling / irritability /
loss of motivation to train / general apathy / sensitivity to emotional stress / changes in personality /
loss of concentration / feeling of low self-esteem
Coaches should regularly check logbooks and discuss training adaptations with their
swimmers. If the coach sees trends that indicate the swimmer is not adapting well, the
first action should be to review the current training program. If the training indicators
remain poor, the coach should suggest that the swimmer undergo a physical examination,
including a blood analysis.
Recovery Process
The term recovery includes a number of situations, such as: (1) the immediate response
between exercise stimuli, (2) the reduction of a training load below the point of overload,
and (3) the extended periods after a training session or block of sessions. Recovery may
be passive; that is, complete rest or absence of any training stimuli that may be considered
a load. Recovery may also be active; that is, a reduced training load directed at
regeneration of tissue or energy supply. Several examples have been given in the chapter
on nutrition to illustrate how recovery is enhanced with the application of specific eating
and hydration strategies. Mental skills are also used to actively promote relaxation and
regeneration. Effective periodisation of training is the best means of adjusting the total
training stress so that some performance components are allowed to recover or regenerate
while other components are still subject to stress.
A wide range of physical therapies are available to promote recovery. For example,
simple therapies include the use of spa, contrasting temperature baths, hydromassage, and
sauna. More complex therapies such as exposure in a barometric chamber, use of float
tanks (i.e. for relaxation), and electrotherapies are often used under the direction of a
specialist. The most commonly used recovery method is muscle massage. Sports
massage uses a combination of the five basic massage techniques: stroking, kneading,

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shaking, percussion, and friction. In addition to the proven benefit of massage in

stimulating the repair and regeneration of muscle tissue following trauma, there are other
benefits. First, massage helps to warm-up the muscle by stimulating blood flow. This
will also hasten the removal of lactic acid from the muscle. Second, massage has a
positive psychological effect; athletes respond by feeling relaxed. Third, massage reduces
the muscle tension and therefore helps to relieve neuromuscular fatigue. In most training
situations the coach will not have access to a masseur. However, self-massage techniques
and contrast temperature showers are two simple methods that swimmers of any age can
use. With a little organisation on the part of the coach, and some help from a qualified
physiotherapist or massage therapist, team sessions can be scheduled to teach the required
techniques. Swimmers who practice recovery management techniques and monitor their
training responses are less likely to progress into a state of physical/mental decline. The
use of stretching exercises is also considered to be a good recovery technique.
The components of recovery change with the components of training. For example,
during periods of stressful endurance training, one's recovery demands are different than
during periods of intense speed training. It's important for coaches to realise that
psychological recovery is just as important as physical recovery. In addition to the
traditional techniques used to enhance relaxation, the coach should be aware of how
positive team dynamics help to maintain a high level of motivation. Constant
communication with swimmers and parents of age-group swimmers will help the coach
assess the overall impact of the training program. There are times, such as during school
exams, when the coach intentionally programs reduced or different types of training to
reduce the overall stress loading.
Priority of Recovery Components Under Different Training Stress
Endurance Training
Priority Type of Training Stress Recovery Requirements
1 nutritional continued, long-term replacement of muscle
glycogen and fluids
2 neuromuscular massage, stretching, etc. - reduce central and
peripheral nervous system fatigue and muscle
soreness
3 psychological relaxation, cross-training or recovery training -
plan activities that reduce stress
Specific Speed/Strength Training

1 neuromuscular massage, stretching, hydrotherapy and rest - greater
muscle trauma (i.e. muscle fibre tears) and build-up
of lactic acid; delayed muscle soreness
2 psychological quality sleep, relaxation, recovery training - high
intensity training requires high motivation to
maintain the required level of work
3 nutritional post exercise replacement of glycogen and fluids

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Health Considerations
The stress of swimming training and competition may impact on the health status of
athletes. Swimmers can not give their best effort in training if they are ill. Therefore, it's
often necessary for the coach to reduce, or modify, training when swimmers come down
with common illnesses. Complete rest is sometimes warranted, but many times total rest
will not be required. Respiratory illnesses seem to be the most common complaint among
swimmers. The coach can use a number of strategies to minimise the frequency and
impact of respiratory illness. First, there is a link between good nutrition and good health.
Swimmers who eat well (i.e. obtaining the vitamins and minerals they require) and
rehydrate will help their immune system to function effectively. Second, swimmers who
follow the recommended recovery strategies (including adequate sleep/rest) will be less
likely to have their natural defence mechanisms depleted. Third, swimmers should adopt
common sense hygiene practices such as never sharing another swimmer's drink bottle.
In cold climates, swimmers should insure that body temperature does not fluctuate too
much. Fourth, psychological or emotional stress contribute to the overall level of stress
(i.e. which is linked to one's susceptibility to illness); these factors can often be
controlled.
Asthma is also a respiratory condition which affects many athletes and must be managed.
Asthma attacks cause a narrowing of the airways which restricts one's ability to deliver
oxygen to the working muscles. The inflammation can be triggered by respiratory
infection, pollen, air pollutants, food allergens, sudden change in temperature, or other
stress related factors. Exercise induced asthma is characterised by symptoms which
appear as a result of moderate to severe bouts of exercise. The symptoms exhibited by
swimmers are usually moderate, compared to other sporting activities, because swimmers
are inhaling warm air that has high moisture content and most swim training is based
upon intervals of work/rest which helps the asthmatic athlete recover. Aerobic exercise
will actually help to improve the overall health status of asthmatics, and swimming is one
of the best activities in this regard. Medical practitioners often advise parents of
asthmatic children to take them to the pool; many elite level swimmers started their
swimming careers in this way. If medication is required to manage asthmatic conditions,
there are a number of 'permitted medications' (i.e. not on the banned list of medications)
which can do the job. Practical things that coaches can do to minimise the incidence or
severity of exercise induced asthma attacks included: (1) allow an adequate warm-up
period prior to stressful work, (2) be aware that cold conditions may cause some
problems, (3) build aerobic fitness over a long period of time (and then try to maintain
fitness), and (4) encourage the proper use of any medications.
Female athletes are often self-conscious about menstruation and possible performance
implications. Menstrual cramps and muscular spasms may occur due to sensitivity of
nerves in the pelvic area; the degree of discomfort may vary from one individual to
another. The coach should be aware of the athlete's discomfort, but research evidence
indicates that training of low to moderate intensity may actually help relieve menstrual
pains. Water retention may make the female athlete feel slightly heavy during
menstruation, and weight gain of 1-2 kg. is common. This weight gain is temporary and
not associated with changes of body composition (i.e. accumulation of body fat). Female
swimmers who regularly monitor changes in bodyweight should also track their menstrual
cycle. Intense training and menstruation both place a high demand upon the body's iron
storage capacity; if the individual's iron stores are already low there may be a reduction in

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performance; although this may differ from one swimmer to another. Generally, training
and competition performances are not significantly altered during any phase of the
menstrual cycle. Perception of effort and 'comfort level', however, may change during the
menstrual cycle.
Young females who train regularly and/or intensely may experience a delay in the onset
of regular menstruation; this means these athletes are slightly older than non-athletic
peers when menstruation first begins. This is often a concern to both female athlete and
parents, but it does not represent a health risk. It's common for athletic young females to
begin menstruation 0.5-1.5 years later than the general population. Past the age of
menarche, intense training may have two other affects: (1) dysmenorrhea, which is a
condition of increased sensitivity and discomfort, or (2) amenorrhea, which is the
cessation of menstruation. There are usually no significant health risks, however, if these
conditions continue over several successive months the athlete should consult a physician.
Swimmers often try to achieve the right result in the wrong way. This is particularly true
of misguided attempts to attain favourable body composition or reduce body weight.
Swimmers should never resort to dangerous practices that have implications for sustained
good health; eating disorders present a serious health risk. There are two commonly
reported concerns: (1) anorexia nervosa, and (2) bulimia. Anorexia is a disorder which
involves many psychological factors; the individual has an intense fear of being fat and
will literally starve him/herself. The physical signs are obvious (i.e. extremely low body
fat, low energy level, etc.), but the psychological signs may not be immediately
recognised. Coaches who suspect this disorder should consult with the athlete, parents,
and seek professional help; it will require a team effort to manage or overcome this
problem. Bulimia is characterised by recurrent episodes of binge eating (or normal
eating) followed by purging (i.e. self-induced vomiting). Bulimic athletes may not show
excessive weight loss, but they increase the risk of numerous health problems; such as
loss of essential nutrition, gastric disorders, dehydration, dental problems, and depression.
The coach must approach the treatment of eating disorders with compassion and
understanding.
Injury Considerations
Injuries present another set of potential problems that reduce the effectiveness of a
training program. If a swimmer is injured, he/she will not be able to train or compete up
to their potential. There are three reasons why swimmers sustain injury: (1) muscular or
skeletal abnormality or imbalance, (2) repeated application of poor technique, and (3)
inability to absorb the training stress. Almost all of these potential injury risks can be
eliminated if the coach plans and delivers an appropriate training program, tests
swimmers regularly, and insists upon correct technique at all times. Problems that
develop from skeletal or muscular imbalance usually do not show themselves as a current
problem, but with the added stress of training they soon lead to injury. The coach will be
able to identify swimmers at risk of injury by first looking at their standing and sitting
(i.e. using the sit and reach test) posture. Abnormal curvature of the spine, knees that turn
inward or outward too much, hunched shoulders, poor forward flexion at the pelvis, or
forward tilting neck are all signs of poor body alignment. Sometimes the potential
problem is related to the skeleton and sometimes it's muscular; correction is usually a
matter of prescribing exercises which strengthen and balance muscles or increase muscle

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and joint flexibility. The coach should consult additional references to determine the type
of remedial exercises to use, a physiotherapist should also be consulted. Poor application
of technique is the second major cause of injury. When you consider the thousands of
strokes swum during each training session and the number of sessions per week over
years of training, then you can imagine how overuse injuries result. The coach must
continually evaluate swimming technique and adjust individual stroke patterns to fit
his/her stroke model. If the coach observes that technique changes dramatically when a
swimmer increases intensity or speed, then a potential problem usually exists. There is
also a potential injury risk if total training volume or accumulated (i.e. over a 3-4 week
period) training intensity is increased too rapidly or to a level beyond the capability of the
athlete. The shoulders, lower back, hip and knee are the most common areas where
injuries occur. Some injuries are more common to a specific stroke, such as sore knees in
breaststroke, which is usually the result of a technique problem or a muscular balance
problem (i.e. muscles on the front side of the leg become much stronger than muscles on
the back of the leg). The following guidelines will help the coach create an injury free
environment, or at least minimise the risk of injury to his/her swimmers.
• Identify key sports science specialists who may be able to help your program.
Specifically, a physiotherapist, massage therapist and nutritionist who can provide
advice and support. Learn from these specialists how you can implement remedial
and rehabilitation programs into your regular training program. These professionals
can not be expected to provide their services for free, but you can arrange a suitable
referral arrangement in exchange for some basic educational information.
• Prevention is always better than cure; test the flexibility and muscle strength of your
swimmers regularly (i.e. about every two months). The coach can do some simple
diagnostic screening, based on posture and flexibility analysis, to spot potential injury
risk. Then have a program of remedial exercises that you can prescribe.
• Teach every swimmer the value of stretching and how to use the proper stretching
techniques. Review techniques often (i.e. every 3-4 weeks) because your swimmers
will forget.
• Muscle strength and balanced muscular development are both important. Don't
neglect the muscles of the trunk, upper and lower back, and abdominal region.
• Teach all the swimming strokes to every swimmer and program some training in each
stroke on a regular basis, this helps to develop overall muscular development. This is
particularly good advice for coaches of age-group swimmers.
• Educate swimmers and parents so they understand the importance of recovery skills
(such as massage, hydrotherapy, etc.).
• Learn more about injury risk (what to look for), injury prevention (what to do and not
do), and injury rehabilitation (how to fix things that have gone wrong).
Injured athletes also need psychological and social support during their period of
rehabilitation and recovery. Competitive swimmers are dedicated to their sport in such a
way that absence from the social environment that surrounds a squad or team may be
difficult to accept. The coach should apply a three point strategy to assist the athlete
during rehabilitation: (1) actively listen to the injured swimmer without making
judgements, try to understand the sense of loss in not being able to train or compete, (2)
provide emotional support, the vast majority of injury problems can be resolved with the
swimmer returning to training and competition, and (3) help the swimmer set short and
long-term goals, challenge the athlete to achieve those goals. Most injured athletes suffer
a loss of self-esteem; they feel useless because they can't do what they were once capable

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of doing. The coach should try to refocus the injured swimmer's attention onto other
activities (i.e. school word, hobbies, and other sports); this will help to restore self-
esteem.

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CHAPTER 14
NUTRITION
The contribution of nutrition to sporting performance can not be ignored. Not only does
proper nutrition provide the required fuels for energy production; but aspects of nutrition
are linked to resistance to illness, recovery from fatigue, psychological well being (i.e.
maintaining appropriate body proportions), and many other performance factors. It would
be inappropriate for a beginning swimming text to try to detail everything about nutrition;
volumes of print material exist that may be consulted. This chapter will serve to
encourage the coach to view nutrition as an important component of the total training
program, worthy of the time required to teach basic principles and practices to the
swimmers under our care.
Objectives
What contribution does nutrition make to swimming performance? Good nutritional

practices are another positive way that athletes interested in achieving their maximum
potential can work toward that goal. A healthy lifestyle will contribute to well-being as
well as performance; in particular coaches should promote these objectives:
• The ability to make food selections that contain the nutrients needed for normal
growth, development, and maintenance of good health. On top of this, an awareness
of the additional energy demands of training.
• An understanding of why and how a desirable level of lean and fat tissue (i.e. body
composition) is maintained, while still satisfying the high energy needs of training and
competition.
• Acquisition of dietary practices that assist recovery from training. This includes the
replenishment of carbohydrate stores and fluid lost during training.
• An understanding of the long-term benefits of good nutritional practices. This
includes developing habits that promote a healthy lifestyle, responsible use of alcohol
(when legally entitled to consume alcohol), and the proper use of vitamin or food
supplements.
• Implementation of successful eating strategies on race day.
Everyday Diet
Frequent training sessions create the demand for increased energy supply. Most of this
energy will come from carbohydrate sources. Carbohydrates are broken down to
glycogen, which is stored in the muscle and the liver for use during exercise. There are
various estimates regarding the ideal percentage of energy intake (kilojoules) that should
come from carbohydrate sources; these range from about 55% to as much as 70%.
Traditionally, carbohydrate foods have been classified as either simple or complex.
Simple carbohydrate foods include sugars, while complex carbohydrate foods include
starches. The nutritional value of carbohydrates is judged by a combination of factors;
including the vitamin and mineral content of the food source, the amount of fibre, or the
amount of protein and fat associated with the carbohydrate source. Both simple and
complex carbohydrates have a role to play in a swimmer's diet. It's all a matter of how
much carbohydrate you eat as a proportion of the total food intake. Eating a variety of
Chapter 14 Nutrition
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foods to supply the total carbohydrate need will also provide essential vitamins and
minerals.
A food pyramid is a concept that serves as a model when we think of what types of food
and how much we should eat. The foods you eat most are the complex carbohydrates that
represent the wide base of the pyramid. High protein foods are consumed in less quantity
and therefore, are represented as the middle of the pyramid. Foods that are high in fat are
at the tip of the pyramid and represent the smallest quantity of food consumed each day.
One concern held by nutritionists is the excessive amount of kilojoules supplied by fat in
the average Australian's diet. Some food energy and nutritional requirements (such as
vitamins that are fat soluble) must come from fats. However, the body treats fat as a
secondary energy source during most of the training intensities used during swimming.
Carbohydrates are the body’s primary fuel source when available. There is also the
potential for excessive gain in body weight if fat contributes a large proportion of total
daily energy intake. About 15-20% of the kilojoules consumed each day should come
from fats. Remember that fats are energy dense foods; it doesn't take much quantity to
meet the nutritional requirements. Reductions in fat intake are achieved by adopting a
low fat diet; however, it's unwise to reduce fat intake below 10% of the total energy
intake.
The specific protein needs of swimmers are increased somewhat with training. A normal
healthy diet should supply any extra needs of hard training, so protein supplements are
seldom required. The general recommendation is that about 1.2-1.5g of protein per
kilogram of body weight should be consumed daily. Adolescents may require slightly
more because of additional growth demands. Thus, protein intake will represent about
15-25% of the total kilojoules consumed each day.
Tips on Food Selection
Eating a variety of foods and observing a few simple guidelines for good nutrition will
allow swimmers to have all the energy they need and keep their body weight at an
acceptable level while enjoying their meals.
• Without variety any diet will become boring and poor food choices usually result. Be
prepared to try different foods to meet nutrition needs. For example; try bread made
from different grains, varying rice or pasta based dishes, and enjoying a variety of
fresh fruit and vegetables. Make the most of fruits and vegetables that are in season
as an excellent source of vitamins and minerals.
• Base meals around high carbohydrate and low fat, foods. The focus of each meal
should be the foods that provide the energy for training. Select carbohydrate sources
that also contain fibre and are low in added sugar (particularly processed foods).
Starchy vegetables (such as potatoes, corn, peas, beans etc.) are an excellent
carbohydrate source that provide the kilojoules required when training; while salad
vegetables (such as lettuce, cucumber, capsicum, etc.) are an excellent source of
vitamins and minerals but are not particularly good as an energy source. Therefore,
select a wide range of vegetables, each satisfying a different nutritional need.
• Enjoy sweetness from a variety of fruits. Remember that cakes, puddings, chocolate,
and ice cream can be high in fat. Look at the total amount of sugar in the daily diet;
don't try to eliminate sugar completely but limit high sugar foods to about 10% of the
total energy intake.
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• Take care to rehydrate after training by consuming fluids that fit into your total
nutritional requirements. Most people do not drink enough water.
• Dairy products are a good source of calcium and they can usually be consumed as
'low fat' products. To further reduce fat intake be aware of the way food is prepared
(i.e. baked rather than fried) and try to select lean cuts of meat and chicken.
• Foods that supply iron are essential, but the body absorbs iron better from red meat
sources than from green vegetable or cereal sources. Consuming a vitamin C rich
food along with plant sources of iron (i.e. cereal products) will increase the
absorption.
• Don't skip meals or dehydrate the body as a means of weight control. Learn to
restructure eating habits if weight loss is desired, but maintain the fuel sources needed
for training and competition.
Fluid and Glycogen Replenishment
As mentioned in the discussion on energy production, glycogen is an important fuel

source that is stored in the muscle and liver. Training and competition will deplete
muscle glycogen. The body is most sensitive to glycogen replacement following
exercise. Consuming some carbohydrates in a form that quickly converts to glucose can
promote a more rapid replenishment and therefore helps the muscle to recover from
exercise. A fluid containing some carbohydrate in the form of a simple sugar (i.e. glucose
or sucrose) is useful immediately following a training session. In addition, within the
next two hour period the consumption of a complex carbohydrate source will assist the
glycogen replenishment and keep blood glucose and insulin levels balanced. Even when
adequate amounts of carbohydrate are eaten during regular meals, if muscle glycogen is
severely depleted during training it may take 12-24 hours for the muscle glycogen stores
to return to normal.
Training and competition environments also impose a heat stress on the swimmer, this
results in fluid loss. Coaches should encourage their swimmers to consume water before,
during, and after training. The level of fluid loss depends on many factors, such as: (1)
the air temperature and humidity, (2) water temperature, and (3) intensity and duration of
work (most of the energy released during exercise is in the form of heat). Whether
training or waiting to compete, both indoor and outdoor pools are hot and humid
environments and fluid loss will always be a consideration. It's often convenient for
swimmers to have a sealed drink bottle at poolside so that small amounts of water (or
water containing a dilute carbohydrate source) can be consumed throughout a training
session. The coach must enforce standards of hygiene; never allow swimmers to use
someone else's drink bottle. Alternatively, the coach can provide a central water source
and allow breaks at various points during a training session.
Tips for Maintaining Body Weight
Body mass and body composition are important factors in the mechanics of swimming
propulsion. Some of the characteristics of physique will be impossible to change;
however, our nutrition objectives include the acquisition of positive attitudes and
behaviours that encourage body proportions suitable for swimming performance. The
coach should never pressure or bully athletes, particularly young females, about their
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body weight or body fat. Encouragement, support, understanding, and education are the
tools the coach should use to change behaviours and habits so that many nutritional
objectives are realised.
Body composition can be assessed indirectly by measuring the amount of fat stored below
the skin. A pinch test that uses callipers to measure subcutaneous fat is sometimes used.
It's important that the coach not misuse this test by setting arbitrary or unreasonable
targets, or making comparisons from one swimmer to another. Because any test requiring
the use of instrumentation is subject to test error, suitable test protocols must be followed
to ensure results are reliable. In most cases the swimmer and coach should be able to
visually assess if body proportions are appropriate for optimum swimming performance.
When a loss of body fat is desirable these tips may be useful:

• Find ways of increasing energy expenditure; this may mean a greater low-intensity
aerobic training load. If supplementary training is used; such as running, be careful to
avoid stress related injury.
• Reduce the amount of fat in the diet, but keep the carbohydrate intake at a suitable
level (i.e. small reduction in carbohydrate intake, not a crash diet).
• Avoid letting yourself get too hungry between meals; smaller and more frequent
meals may be required.
• Change eating habits; eat slowly, drink plenty of fluids (i.e. water), eat fresh fruit for
the bulk and fibre rather than drinking fruit juice, etc.
• Evaluate emotional control and eating habits. Most people eat when they're unhappy;
find ways of making yourself feel good that don't depend upon eating.
Vitamins and Minerals
Vitamins and minerals are essential to good health and sporting performance. However,
it's a mistaken belief to assume that excessive quantities produce better performance.
Vitamins do not provide energy as a fuel source; they act as catalysts during metabolic
reactions to assist the repair of tissue and the synthesis of muscle proteins. Minerals,
particularly iron and calcium are involved in oxygen transport and the chemistry of the
muscle cell, respectively. Vitamin and mineral deficiencies will certainly inhibit
swimming performance, but there is no clear evidence that excessive amounts of vitamins
and minerals will improve performance.
The swimmer's everyday diet should provide the recommended levels of vitamins and
minerals. However, when a deficiency is suspected, the coach should refer the swimmer
to a qualified dietician or physician. Swimmers are more likely to experience deficiencies
in vitamins or minerals if they are on special diets; for example, vegetarians are prone to
iron problems. Young female athletes must also cope with changes in their iron storage
capacity due to menstruation. As a general rule, if swimmers follow the food selection
guidelines they will also meet their other nutritive requirements. Taking a multivitamin
and mineral supplement probably won't hurt, but large doses of vitamins and/or minerals
should only be taken under expert medical advice.
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Competition Day
Swimmers should only use small variations to their everyday diet on race day. Practices
of eating extra protein or carbohydrate loading may have a place in other sports, but not
swimming. Swimmers should be more concerned with the timing of meals, following
replenishment techniques, and avoiding foods that may upset the stomach during
competition. On race day, eat about 2-4 hours before competition. This should be a high
carbohydrate and low fat meal, with a small amount of protein. A low protein meal will
be digested very fast and the swimmer may feel hungry before racing. If the swimmer is
preparing for morning heat swims a normal breakfast should satisfy these requirements.
Plan to have a complex carbohydrate snack available before and after competition. It's a
mistake to take a high dose of sugar as a snack because this triggers a release of insulin
that may actually lower the blood glucose level at the time of competition. After a
morning heat swim the swimmer should ensure that fluids are replaced and another
carbohydrate snack should be available if required. Lunch and the evening meal must be
scheduled around rest and preparation for the finals. The meal pattern is the same,
although the food selection may change. Avoid eating fatty or spicy foods as they may
upset the stomach. Some swimmers may also experience stomach discomfort due to
nervousness; it may be helpful to substitute a liquid meal supplement that is easily
digested.
Alcohol
Alcohol does not contribute to improved sporting performance; however, it's a part of the
lifestyle of some older athletes. Use of alcohol also has social implications and therefore
a responsible attitude should be taken to its' use, or misuse. These facts about alcohol use
should be understood. First, alcohol is not a good fluid replenishment drink; in fact, it has
a diuretic affect and contributes to dehydration. Second, although some alcoholic drinks
(such as beer) are made from high carbohydrate foods, the alcohol actually inhibits
glycogen replenishment in the muscle. Third, alcohol delays the overall recovery process
after strenuous exercise. Consumption of alcohol is not warranted before or during
competition and certainly will reduce the next day's performance if taken after training or
competition.
In many cultures the consumption of small quantities of alcoholic beverage is a cultural

norm (i.e. small glass of wine with the evening meal). The sensible approach is to
educate young swimmers about the nutritional limitations of consuming alcohol, within
the context of any social or ethnic influences. When swimmers reach the age where
obtaining alcohol is a matter of personal choice, the coach must decide how to approach
the subject. A simple 'no alcohol' policy is one way of dealing with the situation.
Another approach is to reinforce the points made above and these additional points: (1)
small to moderate consumption is better than binge drinking, (2) avoid alcohol 48 hours
before and during periods of competition, (3) choose low-alcohol drinks whenever
possible, (4) rehydrate to counter some of the negative effects of alcohol, and (5) treat
alcohol consumption as a luxury, overindulgence may have serious consequences.
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CHAPTER 15
DRUGS IN SPORT
Overview
The issue of drug use by athletes is a great concern to everyone who believes in the
doctrine of fair play and integrity in sport. In addition to ethical concerns, the use of
prohibited substances and performance enhancing methods may present both short and
long-term health risks to the athletes involved. In response to these concerns the
Australian Sports Drug Agency was created as an independent statutory authority. ASDA
has many roles and responsibilities; including liaison with sporting associations on policy
development, administration of drug testing, advice and assistance to government. As
outlined in National Drugs in Sport Framework every organisational level of sport and
everyone involved in sport, from athlete to coach to administrator, has a measure of
responsibility. At the very least everyone associated with organized sport should know
how the drugs policy is implemented and what regulations athletes are subject to.
There is a clear distinction between the use of substances as medications and the use of
substances to enhance performance or provide a competition advantage. It's the
responsibility of the athlete to comply with the rules regarding the use of any substances,
just as it's the responsibility of the athlete to comply with the technical rules of
swimming. The coach is often called upon for advice and guidance and must be aware of
the existing regulations to assist athletes and parents. The coach should also be proactive
in providing basic education; this includes making swimmers aware of State/National
policies related to drug use. Coaches may also wish to educate their swimmers regarding
the health risks of tobacco products, alcohol, and recreational drugs that may not be on a
banned substances list.
Banned Substances and Methods
There are currently seven categories of substances or methods which are banned from use
by the International Olympic Committee. While some banned drugs may not be directly
associated with the performance demands of swimming, and therefore it could be argued
they are not 'performance enhancing', if they are detected in a test sample taken during
competition a positive test may result. Positive tests indicate that a banned substance has
been detected in the urine sample of an athlete. In some cases it may be necessary for an
athlete to take medication under a physician’s direction that appears on the list of banned
substances to treat an illness. The athlete should check with a doctor (or check with
ASDA) to see if an alternative medication that is not on the banned list can be substituted.
When circumstances dictate that specific medications must be used to protect the health
of the athlete, the relevant State and National Sporting Organisations must be made aware
of the drug's prescribed use by a doctor prior to any competition testing.
The current categories of banned substances or methods are:

• stimulants - These drugs act on the central nervous system to speed up the response of
the body (i.e. heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature, etc.).
• anabolic agents - These drugs include anabolic androgenic steroids that are artificial
versions of the male hormone testosterone used to build muscle mass and speed
Chapter 15 Drugs in Sport

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recovery from training and injury. This group also includes the beta 2 agonists that
are commonly found in some medications used to treat asthma. When these
medications are used as ingredients in asthma inhalants they do not have anabolic
effects. Many types of asthma medication are not on the banned list, check with
ASDA or a doctor to be sure.
• diuretics - These drugs help the body to lose water, and pose the health risks of
dehydration and disruption of heart rhythm; they would act to inhibit swimming
performance.
• narcotics - These drugs decrease the sensation of pain and may cause a loss of balance
and concentration; they would have no positive affect on swimming performance
except to reduce specific sensations of pain (i.e. in the case of an injury).
• peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues - Hormones and analogues act as
messengers to tell the body to stimulate certain functions. Mimetics are substances
that imitate the action of other related drugs. These drugs are taken to increase the
size and strength of muscle and the production of red blood cells.
• agents with anti-oestrogenic activity – These drugs are legitimately used in the
hormonal treatment of some cancers. Some athletes might take these drugs to
counteract unwanted side-effects of anabolic steroid use.
• masking agents – These drugs are intended to impair the excretion of prohibited
substances or to conceal the presence of other drugs in the urine.
• enhancement of oxygen transfer - Blood doping is a method by which blood is taken
from the athlete's body and several weeks later reintroduced (prior to competition) as
a means of increasing the number of red blood cells. Other methods artificially
increase the volume of blood plasma as an attempt to mask the effects of
erythropoietin. Other chemicals are used to artificially enhance the oxygen carrying
capacity of blood.
• pharmacological, chemical and physical manipulation - This is a category that
includes all the agents or methods used to cover up the use of other banned
substances. This may include substitution and/or tampering with a urine sample.
• gene doping – This is the non-therapeutic alteration of genetic elements to enhance
athletic performance.
It's very important that coaches keep up-to-date with the status of what drugs are banned
and what drugs are not. The drug categories are constantly (i.e. at least on an annual
basis) being reviewed and substances added or deleted. Many drugs that were banned a
few years ago are now permitted because they do not affect performance. ASDA
publishes a Drugs in Sport Handbook, has a free hot-line telephone service, and an
extensive site on the internet to make athletes and coaches aware of banned substances.
Within Australia; the phrase "if in doubt - check it out" should be remembered and
followed.
Drug Testing
Drug testing involves the random selection of athletes who must provide a urine specimen
for analysis. There are strict protocols involved with the testing procedure to guarantee
confidentiality and safeguard both the testing agency and the athlete. ASDA produces
educational materials (i.e. video, print materials, etc.) to help the athlete and coach
understand these procedures. At this time, random testing is conducted only at National
Championships and national series events, but may become a regular part of State

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Championship competitions. Any athlete who takes part in these events is subject to
selection for a drug test. Therefore, athletes participating at these events should be
particularly careful about taking over-the-counter medications (for colds, flu, or
headache) that may contain stimulants or narcotic analgesics.
A second level of testing also takes place; this is called 'out of competition' testing.
Potential selection for testing is limited to elite athletes who have been identified by their
National Sports Association. Out of competition tests specifically look for the possible
use of anabolic steroids, hormone and analogue drugs, and masking agents. These drugs
have long term effects that may produce performance advantages, but also carry health
risks. Because tests are random and unannounced (i.e. only short notice is given) they act
as a deterrent to the use of these drugs. Out of competition testing for elite athletes does
not specifically target drugs that may appear in over the counter medicines for colds and
flu. However, any athlete subject to out of competition testing should be aware of the
contents of any medications or food supplements taken and avoid taking any products that
may produce a positive drugs test.
Why are Substances Banned?
Substances and methods are banned for health, ethical, and legal reasons. The improper
use of many drugs, particularly anabolic steroids, has been linked to serious long-term
health risks. In addition, these drugs may assist an athlete to develop beyond their natural
potential, this is considered cheating. Other drugs either stimulate or depress the body's
systems in the short-term to create a condition that may be advantageous during
competition. Use of these drugs to give an athlete an advantage is ethically wrong.
Sometimes, despite the best drugs education program and supervision, an athlete will test
positive during a competition to a banned substance that was taken without realising it. In
all cases of a positive drug test there will be an investigation. Taking any substance, with
or without knowing how it may affect the body, is ultimately the responsibility of the
athlete. The principle of strict liability is applied; the athlete must be responsible to the
rules established to govern sport (and the use or misuse of drugs). Ignorance is not
accepted as an excuse if a positive test is registered. Therefore, always be aware of what
medications or food supplements contain and ask questions if you're unsure. A number of
drugs are also banned because of legal reasons. These include the hard narcotics such as
heroin and cocaine, and the so called recreational drugs including some amphetamines,
barbiturates, and hallucinogenic drugs. There is no place for illegal drugs in sport.
Some drugs are also considered restricted substances; this means that while not being
totally banned, there are limits to the amount of the substance that may be taken. The best
known of these drugs is caffeine, which is a stimulant. Caffeine is present in many
common foods, including coffee, tea, cola drinks, and chocolate. To exceed the allowable
limits for caffeine would require a very large consumption prior to competition; for
example 8-10 cups of coffee or 3 large blocks of chocolate. This would represent a very
poor pre-race meal plan.

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Drugs Education
The role of the coach is to prepare athletes for competition; in doing this the coach has a
duty of care to prepare within the rules of the sport. The coach is also a role model and
educator to the swimmers under his/her direction. Therefore, a drugs education program
(or at least a knowledgeable referral system) should be a natural part of every coach's
program. Keeping swimmers healthy, safe, and within the rules for competition is the
coach's underlying objective. There may be a number of effective ways to distribute
information, educate, and shape the behaviours and attitudes of swimmers; these include:
(1) regular team meetings (or team/parent meetings) to discuss drugs issues, (2)
distribution of information through team bulletins or newsletters, (3) establishment of
team or club policies, and (4) use of outside experts or resources (guest speakers, video
tapes, promotional materials, etc.).
In addition to information related to the regulation of drug use in sport, coaches should
incorporate a drugs/health message that addresses the affects of tobacco products, alcohol,
and recreational drugs. It's a reality that these substances exist in our society and most
swimmers will become aware of drug use within the general community. For optimal
health, as well as for sporting performance reasons, the detrimental effects of these
substances, particularly tobacco and alcohol, should become clear to every swimmer. In
all Australian states and territories there are laws governing the sale and possession of
alcohol and tobacco products by persons not of ‘legal age’; and the possession of
recreational drugs is illegal, regardless of age.
The coach is the first line of defence in the war against drugs. However, the misuse of
drugs (including tobacco and alcohol) is a very sensitive and complex issue. The coach
may want to seek professional advice on how to deal with individual cases. As a general
guideline, the coach should try to incorporate these strategies.
• Drugs issues should be confronted by discussing the physical, ethical and legal
implications. The coach should listen to what the swimmer has to say and be
prepared to resource accurate information about drugs issues.
• All swimmers should understand the consequences of acting outside the rules of the
sport, whether illegal substances are taken in a deliberate or accidental way.
• If the coach has suspicions that a swimmer is using banned drugs or abusing alcohol
and/or tobacco, care should be taken not to jump to conclusions. The coach should
begin to discuss the issues with the athlete (and possibly the parents) to determine the
facts. The coach should try to be supportive and emphasise the goals of the program
and the ability of the swimmer. However, the coach can only do so much, and
ultimately the swimmer's actions and attitudes will determine the future course of
action. It may be necessary to seek help by referring the athlete/parents to health care
professionals.

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Ralph Richards is currently the Regional Program Manager for the Victorian
Institute of Sport. Prior to this appointment Ralph held these key positions in
Australian sport:
• Head Swimming Coach at the Western Australian Institute of Sport,
• National Coaching & Development Coordinator for Australian Swimming Inc.,
• Director of the National Sports Research Centre of the Australian Sports
Commission,
• Senior Women's Swimming Coach at the Australian Institute of Sport,
• Head Swimming Coach at the South Australian Sports Institute,
• Head Swimming Coach at Melbourne's State Swimming Centre.
During his senior coaching career Ralph placed swimmers on Olympic,

Commonwealth Games, World Championships, Pan-Pacific, Oceania, and World
University Games Teams. He served as Assistant Swimming Coach on Australia’s
1988 Olympic Team (Seoul), and Head Swimming Coach of the World University
Games Team in 1991 (Sheffield). He also contributed to Australia's altitude training
and applied research program in 1992 (Colorado Springs). Ralph coached
backstroker Nicole Livingstone throughout her age-group career and guided her to a
World Short-Course Record in the 200m and an Olympic Bronze medal in 1992
(Barcelona).
As a sports educator and administrator Ralph has worked actively with the
Australian Coaching Council to help implement the National Coaching Accreditation
Scheme. He continues to serve on various committees across the spectrum of sports
programming (participation, talent identification, elite, research, coaching education,
training methodology). In 1997 he received the Eunice Gill Award for his long-term
contributions to coaching education. In 2000 he received the Australian Sports
Medal for his service to the sport of swimming. Ralph has also been involved with
many international projects to promote coaching education and sport science in
swimming.
He completed a Doctoral Degree in exercise science in 1982 from Indiana University

(USA). From 1976 through mid-'82 Ralph also worked as a research and coaching
assistant under Dr James (Doc) Counsilman. Currently Ralph works in an
administrative capacity to facilitate elite and developmental sports programs in
regional Victoria as a member of the VIS staff. He has authored two books on the
coaching of swimming and continues to lecture and write on sports performance.

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COACHING SWIMMING

TEXTBOOK FOR ‘BRONZE COACHING LICENCE’

ISBN 0 000 00000 0

Front Cover photos taken by Ralph Richards

It would be impossible to list everyone having an influence on my professional

In this book, Dr Richards presents the information relevant to the coaching of

Ralph’s expertise is recognised internationally and his impact on the sport of

1 Improving Coaching Skills 1

3 Freestyle and Backstroke 18

4 Breaststroke and Butterfly 26

5 Starts, Turns, and Finishes 34

9 Long Term Swimmer Development 80

10 Strength and Flexibility 85

12 Mental Skills 111

13 Health and Injury Prevention 116

15 Drugs in Sport 128

Transition from Teaching to Coaching

Chapter 1 Improving Coaching Skills

Phases of Swimmer Development

Chapter 1 Improving Coaching Skills

Three Phases of Swimmer Development – Training Outcomes

TRAINING 1. TRAINING 2. COMPETITION 3. PERFORMANCE

Chapter 1 Improving Coaching Skills

Chapter 1 Improving Coaching Skills

Coaching Junior Squads

The composition of major Australian Swimming Teams (i.e. Olympics, World

Training is an ill-defined term during a swimmer's early years of development

Chapter 1 Improving Coaching Skills

Chapter 1 Improving Coaching Skills

Young swimmers need continuous mental reinforcement. This is accomplished in

Developing a healthy attitude toward competition is also a major objective for

Chapter 1 Improving Coaching Skills

Age-Group Training Model

Summary of Key Points

Chapter 1 Improving Coaching Skills

♦ Success encourages high self-esteem.

Chapter 1 Improving Coaching Skills

Chapter 2 Mechanics of Swimming

swimming is to present as large a surface area as possible to create a flow of water

Buoyancy and Gravity

Chapter 2 Mechanics of Swimming

Inertia and Momentum

Sometimes momentum is not generated in a linear direction. The example of the

Levers and the Kinetic Chain

Chapter 2 Mechanics of Swimming

Velocity and Acceleration

Chapter 2 Mechanics of Swimming

Acceleration is a positive change in velocity and is an important factor in every

Another principle that contributes to efficient swimming is the energy cost of

Propulsive forces in swimming must be thought of in a number of ways. Movement

Chapter 2 Mechanics of Swimming

Resistance forces counteract propulsion in several ways. First, because water is a

Chapter 2 Mechanics of Swimming

Explaining Swimming Movements

Chapter 2 Mechanics of Swimming

Chapter 2 Mechanics of Swimming

Optimum efficiency in freestyle

Chapter 3 Freestyle and Backstroke

Chapter 3 Freestyle and Backstroke

Armstroke – Propulsive Phase

Chapter 3 Freestyle and Backstroke

Armstroke – Recovery Phase

Chapter 3 Freestyle and Backstroke

Timing and Rhythm