I.

Introduction to Computers

A. Definition of Computer
What is a Computer?
A computer is a programmable machine. It allows the user to store all sorts of information
and then ‘process’ that information, or data, or carry out actions with the information, such
as calculating numbers or organizing words. It is an electronic device, operating under the
control of instructions stored in its own memory, that can accept data, process the data
according to specified rules, produce results, and store the results for future use.
Computer components are divided into two major categories namely hardware and
software. Hardware is the machine itself and its connected devices such as monitor,
keyboard, mouse etc. Software are the set of programs that make use of hardware for
performing various functions.
Data and Information - computers process data into information. Data is a collection of
unprocessed items, which can include text, numbers, images, audio, and video. Information
conveys meaning and is useful to people.
As shown in Figure 1-2, for example, computers process several data items to print
information in the form of a cash register receipt.
Information Processing Cycle - computers process data (input) into information (output).
Computers carry out processes using instructions, which are the steps that tell the computer
how to perform a particular task. A collection of related instructions organized for a
common purpose is referred to as software. A computer often holds data, information, and
instructions in storage for future use. Some people refer to the series of input, process,
output, and storage activities as the information processing cycle. Most computers today
communicate with other computers. As a result, communications also has become an
essential element of the information processing cycle.

B. Characteristics of Computers
1. Speed: - As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds
for calculations that we take hours to complete. You will be surprised to know that
computer can perform millions (1,000,000) of instructions and even more per
second.
Therefore, we determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond (10-6 part
of a second) or nanosecond (10 to the power -9 part of a second). From this you can
imagine how fast your computer performs work.
Some calculations that would have taken hours and days to complete otherwise, can
be completed in a few seconds using the computer. For example, calculation and
generation of salary slips of thousands of employees of an organization, weather
forecasting that requires analysis of a large amount of data related to temperature,
pressure and humidity of various places, etc.

2. Accuracy: - The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every

calculation is performed with the same accuracy. The accuracy level is 7.
Determined on the basis of design of computer. The errors in computer are due to
human and inaccurate data. Errors that may occur can almost always be attributed
to human error

3. Diligence: - A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue,

etc. It can work for hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are
to be performed, a computer will perform every calculation with the same accuracy.
Due to this capability it overpowers human being in routine type of work.
Unlike human beings, computers are highly consistent. They do not suffer from
human traits of boredom and tiredness resulting in lack of concentration.
Computers, therefore, are better than human beings in performing voluminous and
repetitive jobs.

4. Versatility: - It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work.

You may use your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it
 for inventory management or to prepare electric bills. Computers are capable of
performing any task as long as it can be broken down into a series of logical steps.
The presence of computers can be seen in almost every sphere – Railway/Air
reservation, Banks, Hotels, Weather forecasting and many more.

5. Power of Remembering: - Computer has the power of storing any amount

of information or data. Any information can be stored and recalled as long as you
require it, for any numbers of years. It depends entirely upon you how much data
you want to store in a computer and when to lose or retrieve these data.
6. No IQ: - Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without
instruction from the user. It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with
accuracy. It is you to decide what you want to do and in what sequence. So a
computer cannot take its own decision as you can.

7. No Feeling: - It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and

experience. Thus it does not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not
distinguish between users.

8. Storage: - Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the computer
and also retrieved whenever required. A limited amount of data can be stored,
temporarily, in the primary memory. Secondary storage devices like flash memory,
floppy disk and compact disk can store a large amount of data permanently.
Today’s computers can store large volumes of data. A piece of information once
recorded (or stored) in the computer, can never be forgotten and can be retrieved
almost instantaneously.

C. Capabilities of Computers

First, computers are capable of doing repetitive operations. A computer can

perform similar operations thousands of times, without becoming bored, tired, or even
careless.

Secondly, computers can process information at extremely rapid rates. For

example, modern computers can solve certain classes of arithmetic problems millions of
times faster than a skilled mathematician. Speeds for performing decision-making
operations are comparable to those for arithmetic operations but input-output operations,
however, involve mechanical motion and hence require more time. On a typical computer
system, cards are read at an average speed of 1000 cards per minute and as many as 1000
lines can be printed at the same rate.

Thirdly, computers may be programmed to calculate answers to whatever level of

accuracy is specified by the programmer. In spite of newspaper headlines such as
‘Computer Fails’, these machines are very accurate and reliable especially when the
number of operations they can perform every second is considered. Because they are man-
made machines, most instances when the computer fails, it is due to human error and is not
the fault of the computer at all.

In the fourth place, general-purpose computers can be programmed to solve various

types of problems because of their flexibility. One of the most important reasons why
computers are so widely use today is that almost every big problem can be solved by
solving a number of little problems one after another.

Next, the computer can store large amount of data and information. Like hard drive
and even USB.

Another thing that computers’ capabilities is, it can restore or bring back the works
that you have done. You may reproduce or edit or change the things that you made with
the help of computer.

In terms of multitasking, you can perform this also because of the computer because
computers are able to open two or more programs at the same time. You may work with
the first one while You minimize or hide the other program.

Then, a computer is automatic, we don’t have to wait long for a computer to do a

certain job. Like when you click the power button, the computer processor will do the rest
of the work.

While when your computer doesn’t function properly anymore, the solution was
not throwing it away because a computer can be improved and upgrade. All you have to is
to find a computer technician to do installation and repair work f your computer.

Finally, a computer, can suddenly find the answer to a problem without working
out too many of the details, a computer only proceeds as it has been programmed to.

D. Limitations of Computers

In the first limitation of computer is its dependency. Computers are dependent upon
human beings. Meaning, computer has no capability to take any decision by itself, like a
human being, it cannot judge by itself for any valid or non-valid data. Computer can only
do what you tell it to do.

Second, computers do not have their own Intelligence and hence cannot think for
example, a computer can create music but cannot tell its quality. In other words, computer
has no brain. Meaning a computer is not a magical device. It can only perform tasks that a
human being can. The difference is that it performs these tasks with unthinkable speed and
accuracy. It possesses no intelligence of its own. It I.Q. is zero, at least today. A computer
cannot take its own decision in this regard.

Third, computer can detect only syntax error, it cannot detect flaw or error in logic.
Meaning if ever that you will fee it with a wrong data, a computer will also give you wrong
information.

Next, computers have no feelings and no emotion because they are machine.

Then, computer does not have intuition and cannot draw conclusion without going
through all the intermediate steps. Meaning if you gave a wrong instruction or function
from keyboard or mouse, the computer cannot correct it but it can only stop functioning as
you chose functions that can make it stop. Then the computer will depend on you to correct
your mistake.

Another thing is that, computers don't learn from experience, since they are already
programmed. And since they are built in machine, meaning they are capable of getting full
or to have no memory left, in taking more data or files. And once a computer has a full
memory, its program processor has a tendency to be slow.

Lastly, Computer is prone to viruses that may cause for the user to not retrieved his
or her files or works done anymore.

E. Data Processing Cycle

What is Data Processing?

Data processing is simply the conversion of raw data to meaningful information

through a process. Data is manipulated to produce results that lead to a resolution
of a problem or improvement of an existing situation. Similar to a production
process, it follows a cycle where inputs (raw data) are fed to a process (computer
systems, software, etc.) to produce output (information and insights).

Stages of the Data Processing Cycle

1) Collection is the first stage of the cycle, and is very crucial, since the quality of
data collected will impact heavily on the output. The collection process needs to
ensure that the data gathered are both defined and accurate, so that subsequent
decisions based on the findings are valid. This stage provides both the baseline from
which to measure, and a target on what to improve.
Some types of data collection include census (data collection about everything in a
group or statistical population), sample survey (collection method that includes
only part of the total population), and administrative by-product (data collection is
a byproduct of an organization’s day-to-day operations).
 2) Preparation is the manipulation of data into a form suitable for further analysis
and processing. Raw data cannot be processed and must be checked for accuracy.
Preparation is about constructing a dataset from one or more data sources to be used
for further exploration and processing. Analyzing data that has not been carefully
screened for problems can produce highly misleading results that are heavily
dependent on the quality of data prepared.

3) Input is the task where verified data is coded or converted into machine readable
form so that it can be processed through a computer. Data entry is done through the
use of a keyboard, digitizer, scanner, or data entry from an existing source. This
time-consuming process requires speed and accuracy. Most data need to follow a
formal and strict syntax since a great deal of processing power is required to
breakdown the complex data at this stage. Due to the costs, many businesses are
resorting to outsource this stage.

4) Processing is when the data is subjected to various means and methods of

manipulation, the point where a computer program is being executed, and it
contains the program code and its current activity. The process may be made up of
multiple threads of execution that simultaneously execute instructions, depending
on the operating system. While a computer program is a passive collection of
instructions, a process is the actual execution of those instructions. Many software
programs are available for processing large volumes of data within very short
periods.

5) Output and interpretation is the stage where processed information is now

transmitted to the user. Output is presented to users in various report formats like
printed report, audio, video, or on monitor. Output need to be interpreted so that it
can provide meaningful information that will guide future decisions of the
company.

6) Storage is the last stage in the data processing cycle, where data, instruction and
information are held for future use. The importance of this cycle is that it allows
quick access and retrieval of the processed information, allowing it to be passed on
to the next stage directly, when needed. Every computer uses storage to hold system
and application software.

F. Data Processing Operations

Recording - Recording refers to the transfer of data onto some form of documents.
It relates to the documentation of intermediate figures and facts and resulting from
calculations. For example, in computing gross pay, the numbers of hours worked
are multiplied by the hourly rate to arrive at gross pay. Gross pay is an intermediate
step which is retained temporarily for late use.
Verifying - Since recording is usually a manual operation, it is important that
recorded data be carefully checked for any errors. This operation is called verifying.
For example, punched card and type reports are reread for correctness.

Duplicating - It is sometimes necessary or desirable to copy or duplicate data. This

operation consists in reproducing data unto many forms or documents. Duplicating
may be done while the data are being recorded manually, or it may be done
afterwards, by some machine. For example, one may record by typing it, at the
same time duplicating it using carbon paper. On the other hand, one may record a
sales transaction by punching the data unto a card, and may then duplicate the card
by using a duplicating machine.

Classifying - This operation separates data into various categories. Identifying are
arranging items with like characteristics into groups or classes is called classifying.
Sales data taken from a sales ticket may be classified by product sold, location of
sales point, customer, sales clerk, or any other classification that the processing
cycle may require. Classifying is usually done by shortened, predetermined method
of abbreviation known as coding. The three types of codes used are: a) numeric – a
person’s social security number or student id number, b) alphabetic – grades as A,
B, and C or names of persons, and c) alphanumeric – automobile license plate or
course and year.

Sorting - Arranging data in a specific order is called sorting. After the data are
classified, it is usually necessary to arrange or rearrange them in a predetermined
sequence to facilitate processing. Sorting is done in an alphabetic or a numeric order
and the data item which determines the sorting is called the key. Numeric sorting
usually requires less time than alphabetic sorting in machine-based processing
systems and is therefore generally used. This operation is familiar in everyday life.
As an example, the names in a telephone book are sorted into alphabetical order,
employee records may be sorted according to employee’s last name or ID number.

Calculating - Arithmetic manipulation of the data is known as calculating. It is a

crucial phase of data manipulation, because the outcome of this operation becomes
part of the output. In the calculation of an employee’s pay, for example the total
number of hours worked multiplied by the hourly wage rate would give the taxable
gross earnings. Payroll deductions such as taxes, medicare, union dues and other
deductions are then computed and subtracted from gross earnings to leave net or
take-home earnings.

Summarizing and Reporting - In this operation, a collection of data is condensed

and certain conclusions from the data are represented in a meaningful format. To
be of value, data must often be condensed or sifted so that the resulting output
 reports will be clear, concise and effective. Reducing masses of data to a more
usable form is called summarizing.

Merging - This operation takes two or more sets of data, all sets having been sorted
by the same key, and puts then together to form a single sorted set of data. As an
example, sales reports from different store branches are merge to form an overall
sales report for the whole business establishment.

Storing - Placing similar data into files for future references is storing. Storage is
done by any of the following methods: a) manual-such as in a ledger book, b)
electromechanical-in the form of punched cards, and c) electronic-by magnetic
tape, disk and main memory of the computer. Data should be stored only if the
value of having them in the future exceeds the storage cost.

Retrieving - Recovering stored data and/or information when needed is the

retrieving step. Retrieval methods range from searches made by file clerks to the
use of quick-responding inquiry terminals that are connected directly to a computer.
The computer, in turn, is connected directly to a mass-storage device that contains
the information.

Feedback - Feedback is the comparison of the output(s) and the goal set in advance;
and discrepancy is analyze, corrected, and fed back to the proper stage in the
processing operation. The feedback step permits businesspersons to follow up on
essential information and to attain worthwhile goals.

G. Types of Computers

A computer is a programmable electronic device for storing and processing data,

according to instructions given to it in a variable program. Computers differ based
on their data processing abilities. They are classified according to purpose, data
handled and capacity/size.

1. According to purpose

 General-purpose computers
These computers are used for various purposes like playing games,
watching videos, doing research, performing calculations etc. Most
computers in use today are general purpose computers — those built for a
great variety of processing jobs. They have the ability to store numerous
programs, but lack in speed and efficiency. Computers that are used in
homes, schools and business centers are general purpose computers.
Personal computers like notebooks, desktops and tablets are also examples.
  Special-purpose computers
These computers are designed for performing a single task. The instructions
that control it are built directly into the computer, which makes for a more
efficient and effective operation. As these computers have to perform only
one task, therefore, they are fast in processing. A drawback of this
specialization, however, is the computer’s lack of versatility. It cannot be
used to perform other operations. traffic lights control system, navigational
system in an aircraft, weather forecasting, satellite launch / tracking, oil
exploration, and in automotive industries.

2. According to data analysis – type of data they process/ manage

The data required for processing may be obtained either as a result of counting
or through some measuring device. Data obtained through counting is known
as discrete data, while that obtained through measuring instruments is known
as continuous data. An example of discrete data is the number of marks obtained
by a student in an examination, while the constant monitoring of the Electro-
Cardiogram of a patient is an example of continuous data.

 Analog Computers
These computers operate by measuring rather than counting. An analog
computer measures continuous electrical or physical magnitudes like
voltage, pressure, water flow etc. It is used on the control systems and
aircraft for scientific purposes.

 Digital Computers
These computers operate directly on decimal digit that represents either
discrete data or symbols. It converts the data into digits and then all
operations are done on these digits at extremely fast rates. Examples are
calculator, adding machine, counting machine, etc.

 Hybrid Computers
These computers utilize the best qualities of both analog and digital. They
can be used for both counting and measuring. Modern computers are based
on Hybrid Computers.

3. According to capacity/ size

 Super Computers
These computers are capable of executing more than 10,000 million
instructions per second and have storage capacities of millions of bits per
chip. They are most expensive of all the computers. They are used for highly
calculation- intensive tasks such as weather forecasting, climate research,
molecular modeling, etc.
  Mainframe Computers
These computers are larger and can handle multiple users at a time. They
can access and handle the massive amount of data and used by large
companies including government organization, institutions and industries.
A typical application is the airline system.

 Mini Computers
They are smaller version of the mainframes. The most important advantage
of a is that it is cheaper, smaller, and reliable. They are used in local
government word processing etc., in business involving stock payroll etc.
and as server system on networks.

 Micro Computers/ Personal Computers

These computers are designed for personal use of individual or individual
small business units’ office automation unit or professionals.
 Types of Micro Computer or personal computers
 Desktop Computers
 Laptop Computers
 Palmtop Computers, Digital Diaries, Notebooks

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