Chapter 7 - A Lesson with Czerny: Tempo Rubato

Czerny recommended performers listen to ‘great Artists on all instruments, particularly

distinguished Singers’1 to assist in developing the cultivated taste required to apply

expressive tempo modification in a ‘tasteful and intelligible manner.’2 Carl Czerny in his

Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano Forte School describes changing of time as

‘perhaps the most important means of Expression.’3 He provides a detailed account of

this means of expression with musical examples specifically composed to highlight its

varied applications. Czerny commences his discussion of tempo rubato by establishing

the need for a performer to be able to maintain a steady rhythm so the use of tempo

flexibility is controlled and structurally sound.

Before everything else, we must consider it as a rule, always to play each piece of music,
from beginning to end, without the least deviation or uncertainty, in the time prescribed
by the Author, and first fixed upon by the Player. But without injury to this maxim, there
occurs almost in every line some notes or passages where a small and often almost
imperceptible relaxation or acceleration of the movement is necessary, to embellish the
expression and increase the interest.4

From the above statement two important characteristics of tempo modification are

established:

• It is a necessary and regularly occurring form of expression

• It can occur “without the least deviation or uncertainty in the time”

1
Carl Czerny, Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano Forte School Op. 500, 3 vols. (London: 1839),
3/3/31.
2
Ibid.
3
Ibid.
4
Ibid.

219
The second point raises the question of what Czerny was referring to in respect to the

words ‘deviation’ and ‘uncertainty’. He seems not to be implying a metronomic approach

to tempo but as highlighted in point one above, a tempo where flexibility is managed by

the performer in a clear and coherent manner that does not damage the structural logic of

the music. When tempo flexibility is introduced it happens with a control and organic

logic that seems quite natural, becoming almost ‘imperceptible’ to the listener. Czerny

clarifies that it is not just the piece as a whole, but each single passage, that has the

possibility of expressing a changed emotive state.

He first lists a number of such passages where a slight holding back in the tempo would

be appropriate, including those with the following characteristics:

• ‘Gentle persuasion,

• A slight degree of doubt, or wavering hesitation;

• Tender complaining;

• Tranquil assent.

• Transition from a state of excitement to a more tranquil one.

• Refusal on reflection.

• Sighing and grief,

• Whispering a secret,

• Taking leave’5

5
Ibid.

220
Czerny concludes this list with the qualifier ‘and innumerable other sentiments of this

sort.’ Attention is thus drawn to the breadth of opportunities that exist for applying this

expressive use of tempo flexibility. Czerny then recommends that passages where

acceleration or hurrying onward would be appropriate and natural, including such

emotive states as:

1. Sudden cheerfulness,

2. Hasty or curious interrogations,

3. Impatience

4. Incipient anger

5. Fixed and powerful resolution

6. Unwilling reproach,

7. Pride and ill temper,

8. Timid flight,

9. Transition from a state of tranquillity to one of excitement6

These changes may or may not be indicated by the composer:

Players, who are no longer impeded by the mechanical difficulties of a musical piece,
will easily discover those passages, (often consisting only of a few single notes), in which
any such feelings are contained by will of the Composer, or where they be conveniently
expressed.7

The mandate is clearly given to the performer to apply such expressive devices as they

deem interpretively appropriate. To what degree these modifications were applied is not

immediately apparent. The suggestion that the player must first play from the beginning

6
Ibid., 3/3/31, 32.
The original Czerny did not use numbering for this list; this has been added for convenience of the analysis
of the Sor example provided on pages 229 and 230.
7
Ibid., 3/3/31.

221
to end of a piece without the least deviation or uncertainty could be interpreted as

suggesting an interpretive practice which aligns closely to the contemporary practice, that

is the use of minimal tempo flexibility. However, later in the chapter Czerny gives more

specific guidance as to an appropriate degree of application of tempo modification.

Besides, we must take care not to overdo such accelerando, ritardandos, & etc: and make
such passages unintelligible by spinning them out to excess; nor distort them, by hurrying
on the time too much; a very small, gradual, and equal progressive degree suffices, so
that the prescribed time is scarcely varied by a ! or 1/6 part.8

If a metronome speed of ! = 80 is chosen and varied within the ranges that Czerny sees
as acceptable, the following range of tempos result:

MM ! = 80 with tempo changes rounded to the nearest MM speed

+! ! = 100
-! ! = 60
+ 1/6 ! = 92
- 1/6 ! = 66

Figure 7-1 - Proportional tempo changes recommended by Czerny

The changes in tempo identified in the above table would not be considered ‘almost

imperceptible’ by contemporary performance standards. If this were an acceptable range,

the warnings by Czerny and other writers of the period not to overdo tempo changes

would appear to be applying to changes outside the above ranges, which would

unquestionably be considered extremely excessive when viewed from within a

contemporary context.

8
Ibid., 3 /3/33.

222
Terms such as 'almost imperceptible'9 were often used in methods in the early nineteenth

century to caution against abuse of tempo modification and other interpretive practices.

Along with Czerny's use of the term imperceptible quoted above, Türk also used the term

in relation to accenting the first of a group of slurred notes, commenting that the first is

'very gently and (almost imperceptibly) accented.'10 In reference to the use of tempo

modifications he introduces another modifying term 'sparingly', noting that such

interpretive devices are effective 'when used sparingly and at the right time...'11 These

terms can be easily misinterpreted in a contemporary context and perceived to equate in

contemporary terms with the word minimal.12 In relation to tempo flexibility this would

mean virtually no use of this expressive device, thereby being almost imperceptible

within a contemporary performance practice. Czerny's comments 'very small, gradual',

and '[the] prescribed time is scarcely varied'13 also could be interpreted in the same

manner. But on this occasion the author has given actually fractions as a guide. The

argument as to whether the important issue is to maintain the relative concept of

'imperceptible' as its meaning might translate across historic periods, i.e. it must still

remain 'almost imperceptible' to a contemporary listener, or whether more importantly

the proportional changes recommend by Czerny are maintained, is a key interpretive

dilemma for the contemporary performer. Kivy argues that the composer’s intentions

9
Ibid., 3/1/6.
10
Daniel Gottlob Türk, School of Clavier Playing, or, Instructions in Playing the Clavier for Teachers and
Students, trans. Raymond H. Haggh (Lincoln & London: University of Nebraska Press, 1789), 344.
11
Ibid., 359.
12
Imperceptible is defined in Oxford English Dictionary as: 'That [which] by its nature cannot be perceived
or discerned; naturally incapable of affecting the perceptive faculties. So slight, gradual, subtle, or
indistinct as not to be perceptible.' http://dictionary.oed.com.
This does not imply that the contemporary performer would apply such a stringent approach to tempo
flexibility but rather that the contemporary approach to tempo flexibility is closer in spirit to the definition
from the Oxford English Dictionary than to that proposed by Czerny.
13
Czerny, Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano Forte School Op. 500, 3/3/33.

223
would only be truly realized when they were expressed in terms of their contemporary

equivalents noting:

Indeed it is not following them to the letter at all, because in order to follow literally
someone's wishes and intentions, whether musical or any other kind, one must interpret
them, and to interpret them one must reunderstand them relative to the conditions under
which they are now to be realized.14

Czerny also notes that tempo changes happen in a gradual and progressive manner. The

example below is the first provided by Czerny. It is an informative exercise to play this

passage in the various ways suggested, with particular note given to version three, the one

recommended by Czerny as being the most effective in its use of expressive tempo

flexibility.15

Figure 7-2 - Czerny’s musical example for the application of expressive tempo
modifications16
Czerny then provides a commentary on each of the four proposed versions.

Interpretive Version 1

14
Peter Kivy, Authenticities: Philosophical Reflections on Musical Performance (Ithaca, NY: Cornell
Univ. Press, 1995), 45.
15
See Appendix 7 for an arrangement for solo guitar with recommended tempo modifications added.
16
Czerny, Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano Forte School Op. 500, 3/3/32.

224
Czerny notes that this version would leave the addition of expression solely to the

dictates of the notated instructions, insufficiently expressive by Czerny’s interpretive

standards. He further qualifies this view with the comment:

The character of the passage is soft, tender and extremely timid. The first way, in strict
time will not suffice for this expression…17

Interpretive Version 2

Czerny notes that of particular merit is the protracted duration of each note in the

crescendo, which gives more significance to the melody and the chords.

Interpretive Version 3

Czerny proposes the third version as being the most expressive and consistent with the

character of the music:

It gives to the two first ascending bars more life and warmth, and the rallentando which
follows makes the last two bars so much more pleasing.18

Recording 7-1 (Track 15) – Czerny: Andante; Version 3, the favoured interpretation

Interpretive Version 4

The fourth version with its holding back of time until an Adagio tempo is reached is seen

as too languishing. It is worth noting the extent of tempo change that is considered

excessive, in this case from an Andante to an Adagio, resulting in a complete change of

musical character. It becomes clear that the degree of tempo change seen as being in a

‘tasteful and intelligible manner’ is quite pronounced, only becoming excessive when the

17
Ibid.
18
Ibid., 3/3/33.

225
change of tempo results in the music taking on a completely new character not suggested

in the score. This again would suggest that a far greater degree of tempo flexibility was

considered appropriate and in ‘good taste’ than would be found acceptable in a

contemporary context.

To study Czerny’s exercise while applying his interpretive suggestions provides a useful

performance practice study in the application of tempo flexibility. Czerny, in his own

context, was intending to espouse a correct and acceptable manner of performance

commonly applied by the finest instrumentalists and singers of his period. For the

contemporary performer this opens the door to new expressive possibilities.

Czerny and the Ritardando

Czerny recognises the ritardando as being the most commonly applied method of

expressive tempo modification. He lists a series of circumstances where he considers its

use to be effective:

a. ‘In those passages which contain the return of the principal subject

b. In those passages which lead to some separate member of a melody

c. In those long and sustained notes which are to be struck with particular emphasis,

and after which quicker notes are to follow

d. At the transition into another species of time, or into another movement, different

in speed from that which preceded it

e. Immediately after a pause

226
 f. At the Diminuendo of a preceding very lively passage; as also in brilliant

passages, when there suddenly occurs a trait of melody to be played piano with

much delicacy

g. In embellishments, consisting of very many quick notes, which we are unable to

force into the degree of movement first chosen

h. Occasionally also, in the chief crescendo of a strongly marked sentence, leading

to an important passage or to the close

i. In very humorous, capricious, and fantastic passages, in order to heighten the

character so much the more

j. Lastly, almost always where the Composer has indicated an espressivo; as also

k. At the end of every long shake which forms a pause or Cadenza, and which is

marked diminuendo.’19

The following extended example provided by Czerny is worth examining in detail as it

enables the frequency with which Czerny applied tempo modifications to be viewed

within a broader, more musically complete context (fig. 7 - 3). It is again profitable to

play through the exercise, applying Czerny’s recommendations.20

19
Ibid., 3/3/33,34.
20
An annotated guitar arrangement of this composition with the addition of Czerny's interpretive
recommendations can be found in Appendix 8.

227
Figure 7-3 - Extended application of expressive tempo modifications21

Recording 7-2 (Track 17) – Czerny: Andantino espressivo; Guitar Arrangement

21
Czerny, Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano Forte School Op. 500, 3/3/34.

228
Czerny then provides the following interpretive commentary22:

Figure 7-4 - Czerny’s commentary on the extended application of expressive tempo

modifications

22
Ibid., 3/3/35.

229
In a total of sixteen bars of music only four are recommended to be played in strict time,

leaving every bar in the remaining two thirds of the piece in some way affected by the

use of expressive tempo flexibility.

Czerny follows this detailed description of the application of tempo modification and

expression with the following two notes:

1. ‘Although in almost every bar of this Thema a ritardando is introduced, yet the

whole, (particularly in the left hand), must be played so naturally, consecutively,

and unornamented, that the hearer shall never be left in doubt as to the proper

time, or be annoyed by the uncertainty of it.

2. As each part is to be played twice, on the repetition, the expression and therefore

each ritardando may be somewhat more marked [emphasis added], by which

means the whole will gain in interest.’23

In point one above, Czerny remarks that the ‘hearer’ shall be in no doubt as to the ‘proper

time’ and observes that the left hand plays an important role in this respect. This might

suggest that the left hand (accompaniment / bass) maintains strict time while the right

hand is free to vary tempo subtly around this. The differentiation between early rubato

and late rubato outlined by Richard Hudson assists in putting Czerny’s comments into an

interpretive context. (See Chapter 6 pgs. 187 and 188) Leopold Mozart is referring to the

23
Ibid.

230
first form of tempo flexibility when he discusses the manner of accompanying a soloist in

a concerto:

Many, who have no idea of taste, never retain the evenness of tempo in the
accompanying of a concerto part, but endeavour always to follow the solo-part. These
are accompanists for dilettanti; and not for masters … when a true virtuoso who is worthy
of the title is to be accompanied, then one must allow oneself to be beguiled by the
postponing or anticipating of the notes, which he knows how to shape so adroitly and
touchingly, into hesitating or hurrying, but must continue to play throughout in the same
manner; else the effect which that performer desired to build up would be demolished by
the accompaniment.24

I have particularly chosen this quote as it may suggest that Mozart only used the micro-

expressive form of tempo modification. While evidence may suggest this, it does not

preclude Mozart’s use of the macro-expressive form of tempo modification as it is quite a

different expressive effect, applied under different interpretive circumstances.

Czerny notes that if the macro-expressive form of tempo modification is handled poorly

and the effect crudely exaggerated, the listener will hear the ‘gears grinding’ and the

effect will seem disruptive to the musical flow. Done in a progressive manner such

tempo fluctuations seem to occur naturally and in an ‘imperceptible’ manner as the

expressive effect moves hand in hand with the flow of the music. The beats expand

(move apart) and contract (come closer together) in an organic manner, having a

malleable, elastic character.

24
Quoted from: Sandra P Rosenblum, Performance Practice in Classic Piano Music (Bloomington
Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1988; reprint, 1991), 374.

231
In referring to the tempo ranges proposed in Figure 7 - 4 Czerny notes:

And as is the cres. and dimin: must be executed by degrees, and with a well calculated
increase or decrease in power, so also it is with the acceler. and rallent. A sudden change
in slowness or quickness in single notes would in this case spoil the whole effect.25

The micro-expressive and the macro-expressive forms of tempo flexibility co-existed and

were used as quite different expressive devices. The macro-expressive form of tempo

flexibility did not evolve during the nineteenth century from the micro-expressive form.

The degree to which these two forms of expressive tempo flexibility were applied varied

significantly from performer to performer and their use remained an individual

interpretive decision.

Czerny continues with still further examples of circumstances where tempo modifications

can be effectively applied. Of particular note amongst these is the combination of a

crescendo and a ritardando in a progression of chords that highlights ‘the modulations of

the chords’.26 Czerny recommends a ritardando in bars two, three and four in the

example below to achieve this end. He also suggests a ritardando in bars six, seven and

eight to give greater effect to the return of the original tempo in the brillante passage

commencing in bar nine (fig. 7 - 5).

The following example has been annotated with the recommendations for the application

of flexibility listed by Czerny in Figure 7 - 6.

25
Czerny, Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano Forte School Op. 500, 3/3/33.
26
Ibid., 3/3/37.

232
233
Figure 7-5 - Czerny’s expressive use of ritardando

Figure 7-6 - Czerny’s expressive use of ritardando – Remarks referring to the above
example (fig.7 - 5)27

27
Ibid., 3/3/36.

234
Sudden transitions into another key are also singled out as needing to be highlighted by a

tempo change (fig. 7 - 7).

Figure 7-7 - Czerny's use of expressive tempo modifications to highlight a modulation28

The modulation in bar seven in the above example should be played with a ‘somewhat

more tranquil degree of movement.’29 A passage in a new key that is to be played forte

must be in strict time or indeed played at a slightly faster tempo. A final word of advice is

given: ‘From this the Pupil will gather that, all the rules of expression must be applied

with judgement, and according to circumstances.’30

28
Ibid., 3/3/37.
29
Ibid.
30
Ibid., 3/3/38.

235
Summary

For Czerny, the use of tempo flexibility was the most expressive of all interpretive

devices and he recommended its application frequently during the course of a

performance of a composition. Czerny’s list of suitable musical situations where the

application of tempo flexibility is appropriate provides an invaluable guide to the

contemporary performer. Of particular note in the extended examples provided by

Czerny, are the few times that expressive tempo modifications are indicated in the score.

In the example in Figure 7 - 5 Czerny suggests tempo modifications for two thirds of the

bars in the piece, yet not one such instruction is found in the score to indicate that this is

required.

In the following example by Fernando Sor, I have suggested how a number of Czerny’s

ideas of tempo flexibility may be applied (figs. 7 – 8 and 7 - 9). The keys below apply the

lettering used for the application of ritardandi provided by Czerny and given in their

entirety on pages 216 and 217.

a. In those passages which contain the return of the principal subject.

b. In those passages which lead to some separate member of a melody

e. Immediately after a pause

g. In embellishments, consisting of very many quick notes, which we are unable to

force into the degree of movement first chosen. 31

31
Ibid., 3/3/33,34.

236
Suggestions for accelerandi are drawn from the list provided by Czerny of possible

circumstances where a performer might apply this interpretive device. The list is

given in its entirety on page 212. Czerny did not list these attributes by number or

letter so in this example I have given each of the selected attributes a number that

corresponds with their original position on the Czerny list.

1. Sudden cheerfulness

2. Hasty or curious interrogations,

3. Impatience

4. Incipient anger

5. Fixed and powerful resolution

237
Figure 7-8 - Fernando Sor: Souvenirs d’une Soirée à Berlin Op. 56; Introduction; pg.132

32
Fernando Sor, The Complete Works for Guitar, ed. Brian Jeffery, 9 vols. (London: Tecla Editions, 1982),
Vol.7 Pg.12.

238
Figure 7-9 - Fernando Sor: Souvenirs d’une Soirée à Berlin Op. 56; Introduction; Pg.2

Recording 7-3 (Track 17) - Fernando Sor: Souvenirs d’une Soirée à Berlin Op. 56;
Introduction

239