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Chapter 13 - Giuliani, Italian Opera and the Bel Canto

When Mauro Giuliani arrived in Vienna in 1806, it was at a time when public interest in

both the new six-string guitar and Italian Opera was at a peak. He was welcomed into the

salons of the aristocracy and soon was in demand as a performer and composer by the

city’s culturally elite. Giuliani’s name was to become associated with other leading

figures of the Viennese musical establishment including those of Beethoven and

Hummel. Giuliani brought to the guitar the ideal combination of instrumental virtuosity

and a lyrical style of playing that had its roots deeply in the Italian bel canto operatic

tradition. To further refine the image of Giuliani the composer and performer, and to

more fully understand the style of playing that solicited so many glowing reviews from

the Viennese press of the day, the following aspects are explored as key drivers of his

style:

1. Instrumental virtuosity

2. The Italian Opera and the bel canto and its interpretive characteristics:

• tempo rubato, (tempo flexibility)

• articulation

• timbre

344
Giuliani and the Tempo Rubato

As discussed in chapters six through nine, the use of tempo modification was a

significant interpretive practice during the lifetime of Mauro Giuliani. This is also

supported by an article by Carl Maria von Weber (1786-1826) in which he gave

metronome markings for Euryanthe while informatively noting that ‘the beat, the tempo,

must not be a controlling tyrant nor a mechanical, driving hammer; it should be to a piece

of music what the pulse beat is to the life of man.’1

The opportunity to make expressive use of tempo flexibility in the music of Giuliani is

frequent. Sometimes this is clearly indicated in the score and sometimes stylistically

implied. Various notational indications of tempo rubato can be identified in the music of

Giuliani:

1. The fermata often associated with an extemporare cadenza

2. Use of indicative terms

3. Vocal/Operatic figuration

1
Quoted from: William S. Newman, Beethoven on Beethoven (New York: W.W. Norton & Company,
1988), 112.
Newman sees this comment as exceptional for the period and equates it with the emerging new ‘Romantic
spirit’. This conforms to the accepted view that rubato in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries
was aurally almost ‘imperceptible’ gradually becoming a more noticeable interpretive characteristic as the
nineteenth century progressed. As seen in the exploration of tempo flexibility and tempo rubato in
Chapters 6 – 9, there was nothing about Weber's comments that took him outside the accepted mainstream
practices of his time and that his interpretive views were clearly within the context of the performance
practices of the early nineteenth century.

345
1. The Fermata/Extemporare cadenza

The extracts below from Giuliani’s concerti Op. 30, i / 149 and Op. 70, i / 142 are not

exceptional occurrences. They illustrate the inclusion by Giuliani of quite extensive

passages with a high degree of rhythmic freedom in his compositions. Both of these

passages grow out of fermatas, which suggest that to include similar passages where

other fermatas occur, would be stylistically appropriate; in fact not to include such

cadenzas could be viewed as stylistically inappropriate. In the Concerto Op.30 the

cadenza is accompanied by the term a piacere (at your leisure) (fig. 13 - 1).

Figure 13-1 - Mauro Giuliani: Concerto Op. 30; i /148 – Cadenza on the Fermata2

Recording 13-1 (Track 32) - Mauro Giuliani: Concerto Op. 30; i /148 – Cadenza on the
Fermata

2
Mauro Giuliani, Mauro Giuliani - the Complete Works in Facsimiles of the Original Editions, ed. Brian
Jeffery, vol. 39 (London: Tecla Editions, 1986), Vol.26.

346
Figure 13-2 - Mauro Giuliani: Concerto Op. 70; i /142 – Cadenza on the Fermata3

An interesting stylistic ‘experiment’ is to remove Giuliani’s cadenzas from the above

extracts and note the resulting aural effect. After becoming accustomed to the cadenzas,

the movement to, in both cases, the second subject, without the cadenzas seems

breathless and somewhat rushed. Based on the above, an argument for the inclusion of a

cadenza at bar 64 of the second movement of Op. 30 can be made. This bar precedes the

change to the tonic major. The effect of the cadenza is to create a smoother transition to

this key and enhance its musical effect. The Italian musicologist Carlo Barone4 also

advocates an increase of tempo at this point to further highlight the key change. The

pianist and composer Carl Czerny, in his Piano Forte School of 1839, noted a similar

effect in reference to the use of the accelerando when there is a “transition from a state of

tranquillity to one of excitement” or a passage that exhibits “sudden cheerfulness”.5 (See

also Chapter 7 ‘A Lesson with Czerny’)

3
Ibid., Vol. 31.
4
Personal communication
5
Carl Czerny, Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano Forte School Op. 500, 3 vols. (London: 1839),
31, 32.

347
2. Indicative notation

a. a piacere (Op. 30 / 1 / 148) – see Figure 13 - 2 above

See the discussion of fermatas and extempore passages early in the chapter.

6
b. on occasions dolce (Op. 30 / 1 / 246)

Figure 13-3 - Mauro Giuliani: Concerto Op. 30; i / 242 – 257 – Use of term dolce (dol)7

In the extract above the passages that are to be played dolce (dol) are of a gentle lyrical

nature and occur between more assertive passages marked f.

A slower tempo helps highlight the expressive character of the dolce passages and

emphasises the contrast between the more lyrical sections and the more assertive and

6
The term dolce, which occurs frequently in Giuliani's music, may be understood on many occasions to
imply a vocal, bel canto style of performance, with its associated use of tempo rubato. In Diabelli's Sonata
Op, 29 # 2, the Allegro risoluto tempo is interrupted by a dolce at bar 28, this is followed 8 bars later by an
a tempo, indicating clearly that Diabelli associated the dolce passage with a tempo change. In this case the
new tempo is slower, and is ushered in by a rit. which follows a fermata on a crotchet rest.
7
Giuliani, Mauro Giuliani - the Complete Works in Facsimiles of the Original Editions, Vol.26.

348
rhythmic sections that surround them. This is an interpretive feature often lost in

contemporary performances where dolce is interpreted as purely a timbral contrast

achieved through the use of a sweeter tone and lighter attack. This interpretive approach

is clearly suggested by both Türk and Czerny. ‘Compositions in which two characters of

opposite types are represented, especially provide a suitable opportunity for a gradual

slowing of tempo.’8 The new idea is therefore introduced at a slower tempo. When there

is a transition from a state of excitement to a more tranquil one, Czerny also suggests a

slower tempo would be appropriate.9

Recording 13-2 (Track 33) - Mauro Giuliani: Op. 30; i / 242 – 257

The introduction of the second subjects in the concerti Op. 30 (1/157) and Op. 36 (1/149)

is also accompanied by the word dolce (dol), suggesting that these sections may also be

taken at a slower tempo, and performed in a more expressive and lyrical style (fig. 13 -

4).

Figure 13-4 - Mauro Giuliani: Concerto Op. 30; i / 159 - 165– Use of term dolce (dol.) in
second subject10

8
Daniel Gottlob Türk, School of Clavier Playing, or, Instructions in Playing the Clavier for Teachers and
Students, trans. Raymond H. Haggh (Lincoln & London: University of Nebraska Press, 1789), 361.
9
Czerny, Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano Forte School Op. 500, chap. 3 pg. 36.
10
Giuliani, Mauro Giuliani - the Complete Works in Facsimiles of the Original Editions, Vol.26.

349
Figure 13-5 - Mauro Giuliani: Concerto Op. 36; i / 149 - 152 – Use of term dolce for the
second subject11

c. slargandosi a poco a poco

Figure 13-6 - Mauro Giuliani: Concerto Op. 36; iii / 298 – 30212

Recording 13-3 (Track 34) - Mauro Giuliani: Concerto Op. 36; iii / 298 – 302

11
Ibid., Vol.28.
12
Ibid.

350
Figure 13-7 – Mauro Giuliani: Concerto Op. 30; ii / 76 - 8013

Recording 13-4 (Track 35) – Mauro Giuliani: Concerto Op. 30; ii / 76 - 80

The extract from Op. 36 (fig.13 - 6) is an example of an extended slargandoso that leads

to the final statement of the rondo theme. The length of the slargandoso would indicate a

change of tempo, in this case to a rather free one. In contemporary practice slargandoso

is often interpreted as a progressive slowing down. This clearly cannot be the case in the

above example as to progressively slow down through such an extended passage would

result in the tempo becoming excessively slow.14 A similar situation is found in

Giuliani’s concerto Op. 30 (fig.13 - 7), where at the conclusion of the second movement,

a protracted slargandosi allows the tempo to broaden with the music settling into a

slower more relaxed mood, reminiscent of an improvised cadenza.

13
Ibid., Vol.26.
14
Grove Music Online also notes that as in allargando, slargandosi can indicate a change to a fuller and
more majestic style of performance.

351
The Bel Canto

Giuliani was born into a musical world dominated by opera and the bel canto.

Raymond Grew notes in his contribution to the Short Oxford History of Italy: ‘Opera

remained the cultural experience in which the nation most broadly shared.’15 Servadio in

his biography of Rossini notes, ‘Stendhal and Byron alleged that opera had become the

opium of Italian inventiveness.’16

Barletta, the town in which Giuliani grew up, had a theatre that presented operas and

instrumental ‘academies’ and supported an orchestra of 16 musicians17. It would be

reasonable to expect the young Giuliani to have taken an interest in the performances at

the local theatre and to have become familiar with the operatic repertoire presented. The

bel canto style of singing was to have a significant effect on the musical aesthetic of the

young musician.18 To understand the music of Giuliani one must understand the aesthetic

of the bel canto. Rodolfo Celletti in his history of the bel canto helps distil the essence of

the style: ‘...for a style of singing that called for agility, flexibility, nuance, and a pellucid

and languorous tone.’19

15
Raymond Grew, 'Culture and Society 1796 - 1896', in Italy in the Nineteenth Century, ed. John A Davis,
Short Oxford History of Italy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 222.
16
Gaia Servadio, Rossini (London: Constable and Robinson Ltd, 2003), 65.
17
Thomas F Heck, Mauro Giuliani: Virtuoso Guitarist and Composer (Columbus: Editions Orphee, 1995),
17.
18
Giuliani was inculcated with an aesthetic far removed from that experienced by his contemporary
Fernando Sor. Sor's initial training was in the thorough Germanic tradition. Both composers however were
to become familiar with, and indeed composed in, the other's style but with both composers the 'native
tongue' of their youth always dominated.
19
Rodolfo Celletti, A History of Bel Canto, trans. Frederick Fuller (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1983), 8.

352
How aptly the above description of the bel canto style compares to the description of

Giuliani’s playing presented in the previous chapter. It is informative at this point to

revisit a review that appeared in the Diario de Roma in 1820:

It is impossible to describe with what harmony, precision, agility, and sweetness he


[Giuliani] is able to draw forth any sound, loud or delicate, or robust or tender, from an
instrument… combining modern caprice with the ancient rules of harmony, travels the
path of true refinement.20

This is close in character to the sentiment of Carl Maria von Weber in his review of

Giuliani’s performance of his Concerto Op. 30.

...his playing [Giuliani’s] was marked by such an agility, a control, and a delicacy that he
often achieved a real cantabile…

Weber and Giuliani would have made a formidable team. Weber himself, as noted earlier

in the chapter, expressed a preference for a freer approach to tempo.21 This flexible

approach to tempo was so essential to expressing the vocal character of the bel canto, the

quality that Weber admired so much in Giuliani’s playing.

Celletti summarises the key characteristics of the bel canto when he itemises its

component parts, and thus creates a more complete picture of its aesthetic world.

By now the goals and the components of the bel canto are all known to us and can be
itemized. The aim [of the bel canto] is to evoke a sense of wonder through unusual
quality of timbre, variety of colour and delicacy, virtuosic complexity of vocal display,
and ecstatic lyrical abandon.22

In his discussion of the rebirth of the bel canto in the mid-twentieth century, Celletti

provides a further trenchant insight into the characteristics that underpin the bel canto

style of singing.

20
Heck, Mauro Giuliani: Virtuoso Guitarist and Composer, 107.
21
See page 343.
22
Celletti, A History of Bel Canto, 9.

353
(a) the re-establishment of varied, analytical phrasing calculated, through gradations of
stress and colour, not only to interpret the composer’s expression signs but to give the
meaning of the words a great psychological boost through an extremely subtle interplay
of chiaroscuro contrast and subtle nuance23 – whether the subject matter was a recitative,
an aria, or a duet…24

(b) the return of true virtuosity, which consists of giving expression to coloratura and
revealing in it what Rossini defined as ‘the hidden accents…’25

(c) the revival of cantabile singing, whether Romantic or pre-Romantic, executed with a
soft-edged tone, purity of legato, continuity of sound, outpouring of pathos or elegiac
expression , intensity of lyrical effusion.”26

It is informative to look at these characteristics of the bel canto and see how the music of

Giuliani mirrored them.

Lyrical Virtuosity

‘Lyrical virtuosity’ is a term I have used to describe an aspect of Giuliani’s style of

composition, and by inference his playing, which is deeply embedded in the bel canto

aesthetic. In this aesthetic context melody reigns supreme and is supported by a simple,

judiciously chosen accompaniment that allows the melody to sing unfettered. With

reference to Celletti’s point (c), Weber’s comment that Giuliani ‘often achieved a real

cantabile’27 is of note as it further reinforces the perception that Giuliani was bringing

new lyrical and expressive possibilities to the guitar.

23
This focus on contrast and subtle nuance reflects the detailed phrasing structures discussed by Manuel
Garcia in his vocal method and referred to in Chapter 4, pg.118. The recordings of Carlo Barone
demonstrate a comparable approach on the guitar. An analysis of Barone's approach is found in Chapter 3
when reviewing his recording of Giuliani's Grand Overture Op.61.
24
Celletti, A History of Bel Canto, 205.
25
Ibid.
26
Ibid.
27
Heck, Mauro Giuliani: Virtuoso Guitarist and Composer, 74.

354
Examples of the bel canto style with its train of embedded attributes abound in the guitar

works of Giuliani. The Siciliana from the Concerto Op. 30, from the point of entry of the

solo guitar, provides one of many possible examples. The accompaniment from this

point supports the soloist harmonically but allows the necessary freedom needed for a

dramatic, operatic style entry (fig. 13 - 8).

355
Figure 13-8 - Mauro Giuliani: Entry of soloist in the Siciliana Op. 30; ii / 9 – 19; Lyrical
freedom for soloist accommodated by light accompaniment28

The main structural pulses in the solo line at bar 12 are reinforced by sforzandi (sf)

allowing the soloist to give emphasis to these pivotal points and at the same time

allowing the necessary freedom for a lyrical and vocal style of phrasing with changes of

inflection. The first sf (ii / 12 / 1 / dotted quaver)29 consists of an e minor chord over a

28
Mauro Giuliani, Primo Concerto in La Maggiore Per Chitarra E Orchestra Op. 30, ed. Ruggero Chiesa
(Milano: Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, 1977), 80, 81.
29
Refer to the 'Introductory Notes' for the bar numbering system employed throughout this thesis.

356
tonic pedal, but the second sf, while retaining the tonic pedal, relates to the chord 117c (ii

/ 12 / 2 / dotted quaver). This chord is the dominant seventh of the relative major of G

major, that is D7 (in guitaristic terms a simple yet effective device). This chord then

resolves back to the tonic of e minor in ii / 13 / 1 & 2 / pulses 1 - 4, descending down an e

minor arpeggio.

So the greatest moment of musical tension is the 117c chord over the tonic pedal. The sf

associated with this beat is thus clarified30. How one deals with this is another issue. A

heavy accent would be inappropriate at this point as the sf falls on the weaker second

dotted crotchet beat of the bar. An emphasis of a different kind that draws on vocal

practices would seem more effective.

There are a number of ways this can be achieved:31

a. A slight hesitation before the chord is plucked, in the manner of a singer taking a

breath;

b. Arpeggiate the chord, thereby delaying the melody note, in this case highlighting

both the chord and the upper melody note;

c. An effect similar to point b. is achieved by ‘breaking’ the chord with the bass note

preceding the upper notes of the chord.

30
Curiously Ruggero Chiesa in his edition of the Giuliani concerto Op. 30 (Suvini Zerboni S. 7838 Z.)
changes the second of these 'sf' to an 'f' seemingly reducing the significance of this moment.
31
Chapter 4 'Contemporary Approaches to Early 19th C Performance Practice' gives a number of practical
examples of the various ways sforzandi can be applied.

357
Figure 13-9 - Notated examples of various interpretations of the sforzando in Mauro
Giuliani: Concerto Op. 30; ii Siciliana; bar 12

Whichever expressive technique is applied, the important structural points (ii / 12 / 1 & 3)

of the bar remain rhythmically steady in the accompaniment, thus giving the soloist a

steady framework within which to apply expressive tempo flexibility. A standard practice

of Giuliani throughout this movement is to reduce the accompaniment’s level of

complexity when the soloist needs a greater degree of melodic freedom. Such

accompaniments can also be indicators of where tempo rubato can be applied. Two

further examples help to reinforce this point. At bar 29 in the second movement of

Giuliani’s Concerto Op. 30 where the soloist is moving in even semiquavers, no

accompaniment is included, giving the soloist the opportunity to interpret the phrase with

Celletti’s ‘intensity of lyrical effusion’32, ‘analytical phrasing’33 and ‘an extremely subtle

interplay of chiaroscuro contrast and subtle nuance.’34

32
Celletti, A History of Bel Canto, 205.
33
Ibid.
34
Ibid.

358
Figure 13-10 - Mauro Giuliani: Concerto Op. 30; ii / 2935

To play these notes as even semiquavers with the requisite accentuation of compound

duple time would run contrary to the aesthetic of the bel canto.

A sublime moment is found in the same movement in bars 67 and 68 when the key has

moved to E major. On this occasion Giuliani requires the soloist to perform dol (dolce)

supported by a simple pizzicato accompaniment in quavers in the celli. The use of the

word dolce again implies not just a sweet tone colour but also a highly legato vocal style

of playing and, by inference, the possibility of an expressive use of tempo rubato. The

simple nature of the accompaniment also supports this interpretive approach. This is an

example of Celletti’s ‘soft-edged tone, purity of legato, continuity of sound, outpouring

of pathos or elegiac expression.’36

35
Giuliani, Primo Concerto in La Maggiore per Chitarra E Orchestra Op. 30, 83.
36
Celletti, A History of Bel Canto, 205.

359
Figure 13-11 - Mauro Giuliani: Concerto Op. 30; ii / 65 - 6837

Recording 13-5 (Track 36) - Mauro Giuliani: Concerto Op. 30; ii / 65 - 68

In bars 67 and 68 the soloist may apply expressive tempo flexibility to the passage work

while the celli maintain a steady pulse, in this case not following the soloist but providing

a structurally underpinning framework. The soloist however would still clearly state the

main dotted crotchet beats on quaver pulses one and four. This recalls the rubato referred

to by Leopold Mozart when he discussed the need for the accompaniment to remain

steady so as to allow the soloist the steady base on which to be freely expressive.38

Other passages in the same movement attest to the music’s bel canto roots. Bar 22

includes some carefully notated rests; it is possible that these were specifically requested

by the composer as they would have taken the typesetter some additional effort to

include. It is unlikely that the printer would have undertaken this additional work

37
Giuliani, Primo Concerto in La Maggiore per Chitarra E Orchestra Op. 30, 88.
38
Quoted in Chapter 7 page 222

360
unsolicited. A reasonable conclusion is that there was some specific interpretive outcome

desired (fig. 13 - 12).

Figure 13-12 - Mauro Giuliani: Concerto Op. 30; ii / 22 & 2339

The notes following the semiquaver rests are the principal melody notes delayed by a

semiquaver, giving the effect of a ‘breath’ like delay.

This appears to be no more than a stylised, notated version of tempo rubato. When played

in a vocal fashion with the slightest of breaths before each of the melody notes, a series of

delicate sighs results which resolve onto the tonic chord of e minor at the beginning of

bar 23. The exact placement of the delayed principal melody notes, one semiquaver into

the pulse, is not necessarily the intended realisation but rather a hesitant, expressive

delay. The principal structural pulses on quavers 4, 5 and 6 of this bar are placed in a

precise fashion, laying a supporting bed for the rubato above.

39
Giuliani, Mauro Giuliani - the Complete Works in Facsimiles of the Original Editions, Vol.26.

361
In bars 70 and 71 of the Siciliana, Giuliani uses some florid passagework to join the

principal melody notes (fig. 13 - 13). These passages are reminiscent of the florid notated

passage in Rossini’s vocal lines and suggest the characteristic bel canto ‘flexibility’ and

‘agility’ described by Celletti in relation to the execution of such passages in Rossini’s

compositions (fig. 13 - 14). The accompaniment supports a degree of freedom in the solo

line, with the soloist and accompaniment only needing to align at the pivotal metrical

points of dotted crotchet beats one and two.

Figure 13-13 - Mauro Giuliani: Concerto Op. 30, Siciliana; ii / 70 & 740

Giuliani’s writing is reminiscent of Rossini’s florid vocal lines as illustrated by Celletti:

40
Giuliani, Primo Concerto in La Maggiore per Chitarra E Orchestra Op. 30, 88.

362
Figure 13-14 - Rossini’s figuration (Celletti)41

The chart below summarises the key descriptors of the bel canto as outlined by Celletti,

and can be used as a resource for developing interpretive approaches to the music of

Giuliani and the music of many other early nineteenth century composers and guitarists.

BEL CANTO DESCRIPTORS 42


• agility
• subtle nuance
• flexibility
• pellucid and languorous tone
• unusual quality of timbre
• variety of colour
• varied, analytical phrasing
• delicacy
• virtuosic complexity
• vocal display
• ecstatic lyrical abandon
• subtle interplay of chiaroscuro
contrast

41
Celletti, A History of Bel Canto, 153.
42
Drawn from Celletti's descriptions of the bel canto

363
Throughout this chapter a range of techniques used by Giuliani to emulate the vocal

characteristics of the bel canto style have been explored. The situations for applying these

expressive techniques in the works of Giuliani and other composers of the early

nineteenth century are many and varied. An understanding of the characteristics of the bel

canto style assists significantly in identifying such interpretive opportunities. Not to

include these stylistic influences can reduce many passages in the music of Giuliani to

little more than gratuitous technical display. A lack of understanding of these stylistic

influences may well have been a contributing factor to the marginalisation of the music of

Giuliani throughout much of the twentieth century, resulting in only a few of his

compositions being incorporated into the mainstream repertoire. To resurrect the

embedded bel canto style is to allow the resurrection of one of the most substantial

repertoires that was composed for the early nineteenth century guitar.

364

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