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CHAPTER 4: ORGANIZING SOCIETY
I. INTRODUCTION
Summary
This chapter explores our membership in particular social groups, and brings us to the topic
of social structure, or the organized aspects of social life. At a smaller level, social structure refers to
the interrelationships between particular social groups in a society such as kinship and barkada. In
a broader sense, it refers to the interrelationships of the social institutions of a society. The chapter is
divided into two parts. Lesson 1 explores how society is organized and how social structure affects
one’s relationships and influence. Lesson 2 deepens the discussion on social structure by analyzing
various social and political institutions and how they interact with one another. Understanding how
society is organized helps us probe how social interactions influence the role we play and the power
we wield as an individual, a group, and a nation.

Lesson 1: Exploring Groups Within Society Specific Objectives

In this lesson, the learners are expected to do the following:
1. Explain what is a social group
2. Differentiate the different types of social groups
3. Evaluate how these groups relate to one another

Key concepts
Society is made up of social groups. A social group consists of two or more people who
identify with and interact with one another. People who make up a group share experiences,
loyalties, and interests. Examples of social groups are couples, families, circles of friends and
barkada, churches, clubs, businesses, neighborhoods, and large organizations (Macionis 2012: 146).
According to Macionis (2012), there are two types of social groups. The primary group is a
small social group whose members share personal and lasting relationships. These personal and
tightly integrated groups are among the first groups an individual experience in life. The most
important primary group in any society is the family. Friends who shape an individual’s attitudes,
behavior, and social identity also form one’s primary group.
The secondary group is a large and impersonal social group whose members pursue a
specific goal or activity. Unlike the primary group which is defined according to who they are in
terms of family ties or personal qualities, membership in secondary groups is based on what people
can do for each other.
Over time, a group may transform from secondary to primary, as with classmates or
neighbors who develop closer relationships. Moreover, while it is possible to identify some groups as
either primary or secondary, most social groups actually contain elements of both. For example, a
student organization may be larger and more anonymous, but its members may identify strongly
with one another and provide mutual support.
Through socialization, individuals develop the need to conform. To assess one’s own attitudes
and behaviors, individuals use a reference group, a social group that serves as a point of reference
in making evaluations and decisions (Macionis, 2012). Reference groups can be primary or
secondary, as well as groups that we do not belong to, as in the case of a person following fashion
styles described in a fashion magazine.
Besides reference groups, there is also the opposition of in-groups and out-groups. An
in-group is a social group toward which a member feels respect and loyalty, while an out-group is
a social group toward which a person feels a sense of competition or opposition (Macionis, 2012).
As groups grow beyond three people, they become more stable and capable of
withstanding the loss of one or more members. At the same time, increases in group size reduce the

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intense personal interaction possible only in the smallest groups. Larger groups are based less on
personal attachment and more on formal rules and regulations (Macionis, 2012).
A network is group containing people who come into occasional contact but who lack a
sense of boundaries and belonging (Macionis, 2012). Some scholars claim that networks are
nonhierarchical, value-free, and structure-less organizations, and that they are composed of
people working on similar tasks without necessarily knowing each other. This is illustrated by social
networking sites such as Facebook.

Lesson 2: Examining Cultural, Social, and Political Institutions

Firm up
Living in a society implies that we are governed by a set of rules. Some rules may be imposed
while others are negotiated. Regardless of how these were arranged, their importance in
understanding what is culturally, socially and politically acceptable cannot be denied. A social
institution “consists of all the structural components of a society through which the main concerns
and activities are organized, and social needs … are met” (Marshall 1998: 317–318). In addition to
this, there is also a tradition of the study of institutions as constraining. Douglass North defines
institutions as “humanly devised constraints that structure, political, economic and social
interactions” (North 1991: 97). These constraints come in the form of informal control such as taboos,
culture and tradition. Constraints are also manifested through the establishment of formal rules such
as law and constitution.
Generally, institutions evolve over time as a result of the changing relationship among groups
in society. There are institutions, however, that persist despite changes in the economic, social, and
political landscape. In Philippine society, some important institutions are family, religion, and civil
society. Other institutions such as market and economy, education, and health are also notable.

Key concepts
Family is a social institution found in all societies that unites people in cooperative groups to
care for one another, including any children (Macionis 2012: 418). The nuclear family is a family
composed of one or two parents and their children. It is also known as a conjugal family.
As an extended family is a family composed of parents and children as well as other kin. It is
also known as a consanguine family (Ibid). Shimizu (1991: 106) observed that while the nuclear
family is the basic form of household in the Philippines, the nuclear family is “not a closed, isolated
unit consisting of only the married couple and their unmarried children It has frequent and intimate
interactions with the families living nearby. It is not unusual to find elderly parents or elderly unmarried
siblings of the household’s head still living together in the same household.”
A reconstituted family is a family whose composition and form of emotional care differ from
those of the nuclear or extended family. One example is the female- headed transnational family,
a household with “core members living in at least two nation-states and in which the mother works
in another country while some or all of her dependents reside in the Philippines” (Parreñas 2001:
361). From Parreñas’s definition of a female-headed transnational family, we can define the
transnational family as one with core members living in at least two nation-states.
Kinship. Family ties are also called kinship, a “social bond based on common ancestry,
marriage, or adoption” (Macionis 2012: 418). A more traditional understanding of kinship follows the
idea that persons who extend duties and privileges to one another on the basis of consanguinity or
blood relations are considered members of the same kin group. Kinship relations around the world,
however, are organized differently and in ways that do not simply follow blood or biological
relations. There are several types of kinship relations within groups. For instance, some societies
organize themselves through a matrilineal descent, where people are regarded as members of the
mother’s group by birth and throughout their lifetime. Societies organized along a patrilineal
descent automatically consider people as members of the father’s group by birth and throughout
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their lifetimes. Societies with bilateral descent, such as many of the societies in the Philippines, trace
automatic membership to both sides of descent. Many societies share the idea that members of a
kin group help each other take care of a person’s welfare, protection, marriage, offspring, career,
and identity (Service 1962; Ember, Ember, and Perigrine 2011).
Ritual kinship refers to ritual parent-child relations such as the godparent-godchild
relationship established through the baptism ceremony of Roman Catholics. In the Philippines, this
is called the compadre system (Shimizu 1991: 118).
Bands. In many areas of the world, small groups of people connected mainly by kinship ties
organize themselves into a community. This form of organization is called a band. A band is usually
led by a headman who members of the community considered as either their best hunter or wisest
member. A band, which is by itself a politically autonomous organization and a type of society,
typically comprises about
100 persons and occupies a large local territory that serves as their hunting or foraging
ground. Members of the band either live within one community or scatter themselves across their
territory. Nearly all societies established before the development of farming some 10,000 years ago
organized themselves into bands. More recent nomadic and foraging societies also establish
themselves into groups that may resemble the anthropological description of band (Service 1962;
Ember, Ember, and Perigrine 2011).
Tribes. Some kindred groups from multiple localities integrate themselves into a larger unit of
relations. That integrated formation of multi-local kin groups can be referred as a tribal society or a
tribe. As a tribe, communities of kin form an informal structure especially in cases of outside threats
but breaks up and return to a state of self-reliance once that threat subsides. A tribe is rather fragile
as a political system but militarily and organizationally efficient in dealing with threats whether from
an external enemy or natural calamities. In the Philippines, some wrongly consider a linguistic group
as a tribal formation. Members of the same linguistic groups do link together for various reasons but
do not necessarily integrate themselves into larger political units in times of external threat and then
dissolve that integration when a threat has passed (Service 1962; Ember, Ember, and Perigrine 2011).
Chiefdoms. Some societies organize some form of formal structures that integrate several
communities into a political unit under the leadership of a council with or without a chief. These
societies are referred as chiefdoms. A chiefdom, however, is usually headed by a chief, a person
of higher rank as well as authority compared to other members of a council. The council that makes
up a chiefdom normally comprises the chiefs of a community or multiple communities (district).
Many chiefdoms have an established system of social stratification with some members, particularly
the chief and the district chiefs, being bestowed with a higher rank and accorded a status of
prestige. The primary role of the chief is to resolve conflicts, distribute goods, plan the use of
resources and public labor, supervise religious ceremonies, and command military affairs in
accordance with the interest of the chiefdom (Service 1962; Ember, Ember, and Perigrine 2011).
Weberian Types of Authority (Weber 1961: 173–179)
Max Weber’s work on social action showed one of the clearest links between individuals and
institutions. As defined by Weber, social action is one that individuals attach subjective meanings
to. In other words, social action is action that is meaningful.
Weber identified four types of social action.
Traditional action is determined by the actor’s habitual and customary ways of behaving.
Affectual action is determined by the emotional state of the actor.
Value rationality is determined by a conscious belief in the value of some ethical, aesthetic,
religious or other forms of behavior.
Means-ends rationality is determined by goal orientation.
These four types of social action form the bases of the structures of authority, or the legitimate
forms of domination. There are three types of authority according to Weber.
Traditional authority is associated with hereditary authority (example: monarchy).
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Charismatic Authority is associated with charismatic leaders whose authority comes from
followers’ belief in the leaders’ special personal qualities (example: cult leaders, benevolent
dictators).
Rational-legal authority is associated with leadership that is goal-oriented for the benefit
of society (example:duly-elected government officials; bureaucrats).The ultimate form of goal-
oriented action is the bureaucracy.
A bureaucracy is a large, rational organization, designed to perform tasks efficiently
(Macionis 2012: 153).
Weber identified the following as features of a bureaucracy:
Specialization: There exists a specialized division of labor.
Hierarchy of position:Jobs are structured from greater to lesser amounts of authority.
Rules and regulations: Formal rules and regulations guide a bureaucracy’s operations.
Technical competence: Bureaucratic workers are technically trained.
Impersonality: Rules and regulations, not personal whim, govern the treatment of both
clients and workers so that they are treated in the same way.
Formal, written communications: There is a reliance on records and files.

Economy is the “social institution that organizes a society’s production, distribution, and
consumption of goods and services” (Macionis 2012: 370). The economy has three sectors (Ibid:
372). The primary sector relies on raw materials from the natural environment. It is the most important
sector in low-income nations. Examples are agriculture, fishing, and mining.
The secondary sector is the manufacturing sector which transforms raw materials into
manufactured goods. This sector has a significant shareof the economy in low-, middle-, and high-
income nations. Examples are automobile and clothing manufacturing. The tertiary sector
produces services rather than goods. It is the dominant sector in low-, middle-, and high-income
countries. Examples are call center services, sales, and teaching.
Nonstate actors are organizations, groups, or networks that participate in international
relations and global governance.They are deemed to have sufficient power and influence to
advocate for and cause changes in international norms and development practices.They include
civil society, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and international NGOs (INGOs), economic
and social groups, including trade union organizations and transnational corporations, and the
private sector. In practice, nonstate actors include, among others, community-based organizations,
human rights association, universities and research institutes, and chambers of commerce.
Civil society is “the population of groups formed for collective purpose primarily outside of
the State and marketplace” (van Rooy 1998: 30).
Education is the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values and beliefs. There are many
competing ideas about education as an institution. For some, it is viewed as a socializing process
while others view education as a status competition. Finally, education can also be seen as a system
of legitimation, where it restructures entire populations, creating elites and redefining the rights and
duties of its members (Meyer 1977). Mass education, or public education, is an example of how
education can restructure entire populations and redefine the rights and obligations of citizens.
Religion. Giddens and Duneier (2013) cite Durkheim’s definition of religion as involving a set
of symbols that invoke feelings of reverence or awe, which are linked to rituals practiced by a
community of believers.

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CHAPTER 5: RANKING GROUPS IN SOCIETY
I. INTRODUCTION
Summary
This chapter explains the meaning of social stratification, social inequality, and poverty. It
provides various explanations for the existence of social stratification— from looking at the functions
it performs for the whole society to examining the accompanying social conflicts as it benefits only
a few in society. It also introduces a micro-level analysis of social stratification that emphasizes the
meanings attached to status symbols.
An article by Herbert Gans then identifies the functions of poverty in society, while pointing
out that while poverty is functional to society, there are ways to solve it. Within a country, there are
categories of people distinguished by physical or cultural difference that a society sets apart and
subordinates. The chapter thus examines gender and ethnic stratification and the issues of
prejudice, discrimination, and marginalization of minorities in a given society. The work of Rudy Rodil
shows how ethnic marginalization and social inequality unfolds in Philippine society. Rodil illustrates
how the enactment of land registration and titling legislations as well as policies that facilitated the
resettlement of farmers from Visayas and Luzon to Mindanao between the 1900s and 1960s
contributed to the minoritization of Moro and indigenous communities.
Since social stratification does not only involve people within a single country but is also a
worldwide pattern, the discussion turns to global stratification, in which some nations are far more
economically productive than others. The chapter examines two major explanations for global
inequalities—Modernization Theory and Dependency Theory—and the solutions they offer for
reducing the gaps between countries. Walden Bello’s article completes the discussion by pointing
out the repercussions of globalization on poorer countries, particularly the devastating effects of
free trade and monopolistic competition principles.

LESSON 1: Social and Political Stratification

Key Concepts
Social stratification is a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy
according to power, wealth, and prestige (Macionis 2012: 224). Power, wealth, and prestige are
referred to as social desirables, or rewards of social positions of statuses. Wealth pertains to
ownership or control of resource. Power is the ability to compel obedience or control a number of
people. Prestige refers to social recognition and deference. People in different positions have
different access to wealth, power, and prestige. These differences in society give rise to social
inequality.
Macionis (2012) points out that in certain societies, some people experience social mobility
or the change in position within the social hierarchy. Vertical mobility refers to the change from one
status to another that is higher or lower. Individuals who rose from modest beginnings to fame and
fortune experience upward mobility. Some people move downward because of business failures,
unemployment, or illness. In contrast, horizontal mobility is the change from one status to another
that is roughly equivalent. This is the case when people switch from one job to another at about the
same social level.
There are two types of social stratification systems. Closed systems allow for little change in
social position, while open systems, permit much more social mobility. Closed systems are called
caste systems, and more open systems are called class systems. A caste system is social stratification
based on ascription, or birth. India’s caste system and apartheid, or separation of the races in South
Africa, are examples of a caste system. A class system, in contrast, is social stratification based on
both birth and individual achievement. The system is common in industrial societies. In some
societies such as the United Kingdom and Japan, social stratification mixes caste and class
(Macionis 2012: 228).

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Theories of social stratification
A. Functionalist perspective
According to the structural-functional approach, social inequality exists because it plays a
vital part in the continued existence of society. Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore (1945) argue that
the more important a position is to society; the more rewards a society attaches to it. Rewarding
important work with income, prestige, and power encourages people to do these jobs and to work
better, longer, and harder.
B. Social conflict perspective Marxist social-conflict perspective
Social conflict analysis draws on the ideas of Karl Marx and Max Weber (Macionis 2012: 232–
234). Rather than viewing social stratification as benefiting society as a whole, it emphasizes how it
benefits some people and disadvantages others. According to Marx, social stratification is created
and maintained by one group in order to protect and enhance its own economic interests. Since
stratification is not essential in a classless society. As expected, the Marxist view is criticized for
denying the Davis-Moore theory: that a system of unequal rewards is necessary to place talented
people in the right jobs and to motivate them to work hard.
Weberian social conflict perspective
Max Weber claimed that social stratification involves three distinct dimensions of inequality:
class, social status or prestige, and power (Macionis 2012: 234–235). A public school teacher might
exercise great power as a source of knowledge and wisdom in the community yet have little wealth
or social prestige. Influenced by Weber’s ideas, sociologists use the term socioeconomic status (SES)
to refer to a composite ranking based on various dimensions of social inequality, and not only on
economic position or class as Marx argued.
C. Symbolic Interactionist perspective
The symbolic-interaction approach, a micro-level analysis and influenced by the ideas of
Weber, explains that we size up people by looking for clues to their social standing. We can know
about a person’s position in society through status symbol, anything than can give an idea as to
what stratum an individual belongs to. Among some groups, conspicuous consumption, or buying
and displaying products that make a “statement” about social class, happens. For Thorstein Veblen
(1953, orig. 1899, cited in Macionis 2012: 235–236; 546) who introduced the concept, conspicuous
consumption involves people buying expensive products not because they need them but to show
off their wealth.

Inequality
One important dimension of social stratification is income inequality. Poverty is a state in
which resources, usually material but sometimes cultural, are lacking. Relative poverty isthe lack of
resources of some people in relation to those who have more. Absolute poverty refers to a lack of
resources that is life threatening (Macionis 2012: 257).
Social ranking likewise involves gender and ethnicity. Minority refers to any category of
people distinguished by physical or cultural difference that a society sets apart and subordinates
(Macionis 2012: 303). In societies that give more power and other resources to men than to women,
gender is an important dimension of social stratification (Macionis 2012: 299). Gender is the meaning
a culture attaches to being female or male (see Chapter 3). Gender stratification is the unequal
distribution of wealth, power, and privilege between men and women. Often, as a result, women
increasingly join the ranks of the poor, giving rise to a phenomenon referred to as the feminization
of poverty.
Ethnicity is a shared cultural heritage based on common ancestry, language, or religion that
gives a group people a distinctive social identity (Macionis 2012: 320). People of a particular
ethnicity can be a target of prejudice, just like those of a particular social class, sex, sexual
orientation, age, political affiliation, or physical disability. Prejudice isa rigid and unfair generalization
about a category of people. A related concept, discrimination, is the unequal treatment of various
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categories of people. Macionis (2012: 323–324) clarifies that prejudice refers to attitudes while
discrimination involves actions. Both prejudice and discrimination can be either positive (favorable
views, providing special advantages) or negative (unfavorable views, creating obstacles). Also,
these biases may be built into the operation of society’s institutions such as schools, hospitals, the
police, and the workplace. This is referred to as institutional prejudice and discrimination.

Social reproduction of inequality

Sociologist Pierre Bourdieu (1990) points out that various linguistic and cultural competencies
that some parents pass on to their children are capital. He highlights the importance of family
background to one’s social status. Cultural capital refers to cultural advantages coming from a
“good home.”
Social capital refers to “features of social organization, such as networks, norms, and trust,
that facilitate coordination and cooperation for mutual benefit” (Putnam 1993:35). Putnam argues
the social capital embodied in norms and networks of civic engagement seems to be a
precondition for economic development, as well as for effective government. Many studies have,
however, documented how dynamics of social capital may result in social exclusion as
nonmembers of an organization or networks may not have access to the resources otherwise
available to members.
Symbolic capital refers to the resources available to an individual on the basis of honor,
prestige, or recognition. Graduating from a certain university, for example, may have symbolic
capital in the context of looking for a job. Bourdieu (1984) points out that symbolic capital can
come from the possession and appropriation of objects with a perceived or concrete sense of
value. For example, a watch worn by a Hollywood actress possesses symbolic capital because of
the prestige of the one wearing it, which in turn distinguishes the person wearing it.
Political capital refers to the goodwill that a politician or political policy can build up with the
public through the pursuit of popular policies. This goodwill can be then being mobilized to achieve
other objectives such as the passing of unpopular policies.

Global stratification and inequality

Social stratification involves not just people within a single country; it is also a worldwide
pattern with some nations far more economically productive than others.
One system of classifying countries is according to a Three Worlds Model:
The “First World” is made up of rich, industrial, capitalist countries, while the “Second World”
refers to less industrialized socialist countries. The non- industrialized poor countries comprise the
“Third World.” Macionis (2012) notes that in this model, the capitalist West (the First World) and the
socialist East (the Second World) are against each other, while other nations (the Third World) remain
more or less on the sidelines. Changes in Eastern Europe and the collapse of the former Soviet Union
in the early 1990s meant the end of the “Second World,” and the usefulness of the three worlds
model.
The revised system of classification is not based on ideology or political structure but on the
economic development of countries (United Nations Development Programme 2010 and the World
Bank 2011, as cited in Macionis 2012: 271).
High-income countries: The 72 high-income countries are those with the highest overall
standards of living. These nations have a per capita gross domestic product (GDP) greater than
$12,000.
Middle-income countries: The 70 middle-income countries are those with a standard of living
about average for the world as a whole. Their per capita GDP is less than
$12,000 but greater than $2,500.
Low-income countries: The remaining 53 low-income countries are those with a per capita
GDP less than $2,500, and a low standard of living. Most people in these nations are poor.
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Theories of global stratification
There are two major explanations for inequality among nations: Modernization theory and
Dependency theory (Macionis 2012: 280-281).
1. Modernization theory. Walt Rostow explains global inequality in terms of technological and
cultural differences between nations. Nations become rich by developing advanced technology,
a process that depends on a culture that encourages innovation and change toward higher living
standards. Rostow identifies four stages of development:
Traditional stage: People’s lives are built around families and local communities (Example:
Bangladesh)
Take-off stage: A market emerges as people produce goods not just for their own use but
also to trade with others for profit. (Example: Thailand)
Drive to technological maturity: The ideas of economic growth and higher living standards
gain widespread support (Example: Mexico)
High mass consumption: Advanced technology fuels mass production and mass
consumption as people now “need” countless goods. (Example: the United States of America)
How to address global inequalities? Rostow’s modernization theory highlights the role of
technology transfer and foreign aid. Accordingly, rich nations can help poor nations by providing
technology to control population size, increase food production, and expand industrial output and
by providing foreign aid to support economic development.
2. Dependency theory. This views global inequality as a result of the historical exploitation of poor
nations by rich ones. It maintains that colonialism created global inequality beginning 500 years
ago, giving rise to rich nations and underdeveloped poor nations. This process continues today in
the form of neocolonialism, or the economic exploitation of poor nations by multinational
corporations. Immanuel Wallerstein’s model of the capitalist world economy identified three
categories of nations:
Core: the world’s high-income countries, which are home to multinational corporations
Semiperiphery: the world’s middle-income countries, with ties to core nations
Periphery: the world’s low-income countries, which provide cheap labor and raw
materials, and a vast market for industrial products
How to address global inequalities? The dependency theory claims that three factors, namely
export-orientation, a lack of industrial capacity, and foreign debt, make poor countries dependent
on rich nations and prevent their economic development.
Andre Gunder Frank’s dependency theory argues that countries in the Periphery must cut
the “umbilical cord” that connects them to the Center, if they were to become developed
countries themselves.

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CHAPTER 6: MAKING SOCIETY BETTER
I. INTRODUCTION
The final chapter focuses on cultural, social, and political change, or the transformations of
cultural, social and political institutions over time. There are many causes of social change—when
something is discovered, created, and diffused, during times of conflict caused by inequalities and
differences in ideas, when characteristics of population alter, and when modernization is
experienced by society.

Firm-Up
What is Social Change?
Social change is the “transformation of culture and social institutions over time” (Macionis
2012: 565).
Characteristics of social change (ibid.)
The process of social change has four major characteristics:
1. Social change happens all the time.Everything in our social world are subject to change,
although some societies change faster than others. As Macionis points out, hunting and gathering
societies change quite slowly, whereas members of today’s high-income societies experience
significant change within a single lifetime. Some elements of culture alsochange faster than others.
Macionis thus cites William Ogburn’s theory of cultural lag, which states that material culture (things)
usually changes faster than nonmaterial culture (ideas and attitudes). For instance, advances in
genetic technology have developed more rapidly than ethical standards on the use of the
technology.
2. Social change is sometimes intentional but is often unplanned. Today’s high- income
societies generate many kinds of change. Yet, it would be impossible to envision all the
consequences of the changes that are set in motion. For example, telephones (invented in 1876)
have taken on different forms and uses over time.
3. Social change is controversial. Social change brings both good and bad consequences,
and thus could be welcomed by some and opposed by others. Karl Marx and Max Weber have
chronicled the transformations brought about by the Industrial Revolution. The capitalists welcomed
the Industrial Revolution because new technology meant increased productivity and profits.
However, workers opposed it as they suffered alienation and the dehumanization brought about
by newer techniques and social relations of production.
4. Some changes matter more than others.Some changes such as fashion fads only have
passing significance, while others such as major medical discoveries and inventions may change
the world.

Causes of social change

Social change has many causes.
A. Culture and change
There are three important sources of cultural change (Macionis 2012: 565– 566). First is
invention, or the creation of something new by usually by putting things together. Inventions can
range from the seemingly complex technological objects such as the spacecraft or even the
lightbulb to the seemingly simple such as kitchen gadgets (like can openers).
Second is discovery, or finding something that has existed but previously not known. Chapter
2 provides various examples of the discovery of material and fossil remains of prehistoric societies
that changed our understanding of biophysical and cultural evolution.
Third is diffusion, or the spread of cultural attributes from one culture to another through
contact between different cultural groups. Change happens as products, people, and information
spread from one society to

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another. An example of cultural change is the wide variety of cuisine from other lands that is made
available to us. Fast-food courts and restaurants in major Philippine cities offer food from around the
country and the world that is usually not part of a person’s everyday meal. Filipino overseas workers
have also been known to introduce balut and other Filipino foods to their host societies. Another
example is the evolving ideals of beauty as people come in greater contactwith others.
B. Conflict and change
Inequality and conflict in a society also produce change. Karl Marx foresaw that “social
conflict arising from inequality (involving not just class but also race and gender) would force
changes in every society to improve the lives of working people” (Macionis 2012: 566). In the
Philippines, the rising inequalities and human rights violations during the Martial Law period caused
mass uprisings that culminated in the 1986 People Power Revolt. The Philippines was considered to
be the first in the world to have challenged authoritarian rule through a non-violent process.
C. Ideas and change
Weber, like Marx, also saw that conflict could bring about change. However, he traced the
roots of most social change to ideas (Macionis 2012: 566). For example, charismatic people such as
Mahatma Gandhi or Jose Rizal had political ideas that change society.
D. Demographic change
Population patterns such as population growth, shifts in the composition of a population, or
migration also play a part in social change (Macionis 2012: 566). An increasing population may
encourage the development of new products and services, but it can also have ecological and
social implications such the conversion of more agricultural land to residential subdivisions. In other
societies, lower fertility rates (women are having fewer children), an aging population, and the influx
of migrants from other societies are changing many aspects of social life.

Modernity
A central concept in the study of social change is modernity. Modernity refers to social
patterns resulting from industrialization. These social patterns were set in motion by the Industrial
Revolution, which began in Western Europe in the 1750s (Macionis 2012: 566). Related to the
discussion of modernity is modernization, or the process of social change begun by industrialization
(Ibid).
For Emile Durkheim, modernization is defined by an increasing division of labor. The division
of labor refers to the degree to which tasks or responsibilities are specialized. Durkheim defines a
society according to type of solidarity. Mechanical solidarity is based on shared activities and
beliefs while organic solidarity is characterized by specialization makes people interdependent. As
societies become industrialized, mechanical solidarity is gradually replaced by organic solidarity.
(Macionis 2012: 569).
For Weber, modernity meant replacing a traditional worldview with a rational way of thinking
characterized by goal-oriented calculation and efficiency. He focused on the dehumanizing
effects of modern rational organization, especially the bureaucracy which is the ultimate form of
rationalization (Macionis 2012: 569–570).
Marx saw modernity as the triumph of capitalism over feudalism. Capitalism creates social
conflict, which Marx claimed would bring about revolutionary change leading to an egalitarian
socialist society (Macionis 2012: 569–570)
George Ritzer introduces the concept of McDonaldization of society while Randolf David
explores the Philippine experience of modernity.

New challenges to human adaptation and social change

1. Global warming and climate change: Discuss Garrett Hardin’s Tragedy of the commons.
2. Transnational migration and Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs): Discuss F. Landa Jocano’s
“Culture Shock” and Rhacel Parreñas’s, “Mothering from a Distance”.
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Understanding Culture, Society and Politics
 BANI EAST
INTEGRATED
SCHOOL
Responding to social, political, and cultural change
1. Inclusive citizenship and participatory governance
2. New forms of media and social networking
3. Social movements (e.g., environmentalism, feminism, religious fundamentalism)

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Understanding Culture, Society and Politics