DIGITAL COMPUTER LOAD FLOW AND

SHORT-CIRCUIT ANALYSIS IN A POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

John Palumbo, B.E.

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements

for the Degree of Master of Engineering Science in Electrical
Engineering at the University of New South Wales.

February, 1969.
 UNIVERSITY OF N.S.VV.

3 fMAR 1%4

l. UEZMPf
j
 i

I certify that this thesis has not been submitted to any other

University or Institution for the award of a Higher Degree.

J. Palumbo
 ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to thank Associate Professor G.C. Dewsnap, the

supervisor, for his helpful suggestions and constructive criticisms;

the Chief Electrical Engineer of Prospect County Council, Mr. A.C. Moore,

and the Planning Engineer, Mr. L.A. Chappell, for their interest and

encouragement during the course of the work; Mr. J. McClelland, Head of

the Division of Electronic Computation at the Sydney Institute of

Technology, for generously permitting use to be made of the Institute's

I.B.M. 1401 computer for programme development; and Mr. J. Sproule of

the Electricity Commission of New South Wales, for assistance with some

of the programming work.

A considerable amount of typing was necessary in the preparation of

this thesis, involving the setting out of tabulations, subscripted

variables, etc., and the author wishes to thank Stenographers Miss L.

Mackintosh and Mrs. V. Savage for their patience and ability in this

regard.
 iii

ABSTRACT

Digital computer solutions of power system load flow and short

circuit problems have been achieved in a great variety of ways during

the past 10 years. This thesis describes two nodal admittance matrix

load flow solution methods, these being the Gauss-Seidel and Ward-Hale

methods. A computer programme has been prepared for each and the

pertinent equations derived. The programmes are described with the aid

of solutions for two power distribution networks.

Programmes have also been prepared and equations derived for the

calculation of three phase and single phase/ground short circuit currents

using the Gaussean Elimination Method to invert the nodal admittance

matrix. Use of the programmes, which simulate a d-c network analyser

fault study, is illustrated with practical examples.

The appendices include the computer output results and some d-c

network analyser results for the purposes of comparison. They also

describe the formation of connection matrices, multiplication of complex

matrices and the method of simulating line outages in conjunction with

the matrix inversion method for fault calculations.

 iv

LIST OF SYMBOLS

Some symbols have multiple meanings but it will be clear from the

context which meaning is intended. Generally, this arises because in

this thesis some symbols, e.g. Y, Z, I, V, may denote single quantities

or an array (matrix). It was thought preferable to adopt this procedure

in order to simplify typing and minimise the number of special characters

or symbols which might otherwise be needed. "Where it was considered

necessary, all of the meanings of the symbols have been given below. The

words "node", "bus" and "busbar"have been used interchangeably. The author

is confident that these simplifications will aid rather than hinder the

reader.

Symbol Meaning

A An array of numbers - a matrix

a Real part of the node current

7 Acceleration factor

B Matrix of susceptances

b (1) Imaginary part of the node current

(2) Total number of branches required to
form a network tree

C Connection matrix

Transpose of connection matrix

ct

E (1) Mesh voltage

(2) Column vector of mesh voltages

e (1) Voltage across an individual impedance

(2) Column vector of voltages across
individual circuit elements

Ae Real part of the increment of bus voltage

f Imaginary part of bus voltage

Af Imaginary part of the increment of bus

voltage

G Matrix of conductances

g Conductance
Symbo1 Meaning

I Current

(1) Current
(2) Dummy subscript variable

*bus Node current

Loop current
^loop

I Current in phase "aM

a

II Positive sequence current

12 Negative sequence current

10 Zero sequence current

Error vector

NCT Node connection table

X Eigenvalue

P Power (watts)

p.u. Per unit

10 Single phase

10/E Single phase to ground

30 Three phase

Q Reactive power (Vars)

R Resistance

r Resistance

S Power (voltamps)

S* Conjugate of S

s Total number of branches in a circuit

V (1) Bus voltage

(2) Column vector of bus voltages

v* Conjugate of bus voltage

V, Column vector of bus voltages

bus
VI Positive sequence voltage

V2 Negative sequence voltage

 vi

Symbol Meaning

VO Zero sequence voltage

X Reactance

Y Admittance

Y Admittance tensor
P

Nodal admittance matrix

Ybus

z Impedance

Z Impedance tensor
p
Inverse of bus admittance matrix
Zbus

Z1 Positive sequence impedance

Z2 Negative sequence impedance

ZO Zero sequence impedance

 CONTENTS

Page

Section 1 INTRODUCTION 1

Section 2 NETWORK EQUATIONS 4

2.1 Network Topology 4
2.2 Loop Equations 7
2.3 Node Equations 8

Section 3 LOAD FLOW STUDIES 12

3.1 System Data 12
3.2 System Constraints 13
3.3 Digital Solution of the Load Flow Problem 14
3.4 Solution Systems 14
3.5 Gauss-Seidel Method 19
3.6 Test for Convergence 22
3.7 Description of the Programme 22
3.8 Newton-Raphson (“Ward-Hale) Method 25
3.9 System Equations 28
3.10 First Level Emergency Loading of
Transmission Lines 35
3.11 Acceleration of the Iterative Solution 39
3.12 Other Aspects "Which Affect Convergence 42

Section 4 SHORT CIRCUIT STUDIES 45

4.1 Self and Mutual Impedances 46
4.2 Driving Point and Transfer Impedances 47
4.3 Solution of Simultaneous Equations By
Matrix Methods 49
4.4 Determination of 30 Fault Currents 58
4.5 Determination of Single Phase/Ground Fault
Currents 62

Section 5 CONCLUSIONS 67

REFERENCES 70
 LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix
Title Page
No.

1 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROSPECT ELECTRICITY 73

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

2 SYSTEM DATA REQUIRED FOR LOAD FLOW PROGRAMMES 78

3 CONNECTION MATRICES 82

4 GAUSS-SEIDEL PL/1 SOURCE PROGRAMME LISTING WITH 92

RESULTS

5 MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS 107

6 WARD-HALE PROGRAMME 112

(a) Ward-Hale, Fortran IV Source Programme Listing 113

(b) Results of Digital Load Flow Study 117

(c) Results of D-C Board Load Flow Study 133

7 THREE PHASE FAULT CALCULATIONS 134

(a) Fortran IV Source Programme Listing 135

(b) Three Phase Fault Study Data Preparation 138

(c) Results of Digital Three Phase Fault Study 139

(d) Results of D-C Board Three Phase Fault Study 144

8 SINGLE PHASE/GROUND FAULT CALCULATIONS 147

(a) Fortran IV Source Programme Listing 149

(b) Single Phase/Ground Fault Study Data 152

Preparation

(c) Results of Digital Single Phase/Ground Fault Study 153

(d) Results of D-C Board Single Phase/Ground 164

Fault Study

9 SEQUENTIAL LINE OUTAGES TO ACHIEVE FAULT CLEARANCE 167

 1

INTRODUCTION

The planning and design of a power system requires continuous

analysis to enable selection of the most effective plan for future system

expansion. Satisfactory operation of the system depends on knowing the

effects of new loads, new substations, new major high voltage supply

centres and new transmission lines before they are installed. Load flow,

short circuit, generator stability and economic studies form the backbone

of the analysis. Only the first two of these are dealt with in this

thesis which is concerned with a power distribution system rather than a

power generating system. The author’s intention has been to produce

load flow and short circuit computer programmes for which the data require­

ments are simple and which have general application in electricity

distribution systems.

Longhand calculation of the effect of changes in operating conditions

is extremely tedious, prone to error and time consuming. The need for

computational aids in power system engineering led in 1929 to the design

of a special purpose analogue computer called the a-c calculating board or

network analyser, which permitted the setting up of a small scale, single

phase replica of the system. This device made possible the study of a

greater variety of system operating conditions and enabled the determina­

tion of line power flows, voltage levels and fault current distributions

resulting from system faults. A d-c board is also available for load flow

and short circuit studies. This is not as versatile as the a-c board and

represents impedances by resistances only.

The advent of large-scale, high-speed digital computers has provided

equipment having the capacity and speed to meet the requirements of major

power system problems, and has competed economically with network analysers.

Some of the advantages provided by digital computers are as follows:

 2

(a) Routine engineering calculations required in the planning,

design and operation of a power system can be done more

accurately, efficiently and economically, thus relieving the

engineer of tedious hand calculations and enabling him to

spend more time on technical work.

(b) A greater number of alternative solutions may be readily

obtained thus providing a broader base for engineering

decisions. Optimisation studies which previously were not

practicable because of the volume of work involved may now

be made with ease.

(c) A study may be repeated quickly and at short notice.

(d) Once the system data has been stored, it is readily available

when a further study is needed under different operating

conditions and with small system changes.

A survey of the literature by the author appeared to indicate that

the Gauss-Seidel and Newton-Raphson ("Ward-Hale) iterative methods were

very successful in performing load flow studies and had, in addition, a

relatively simple solution procedure. Both methods were used by the author

in order to gain experience in solving the load flow problem. The Gauss-

Seidel programme was coded in PL/1 computer programming language for use

on an I.B.M. 360/50 computer. However, because of the rather involved

matrix algebra used and the intricacies of PL/1, time did not permit

complete streamlining of the programme. This was the author's first

attempt at writing a rather lengthy programme and the experience gained

proved to be of considerable value in subsequent programming work. The

Newton-Raphson programme (which will be referred to as the Ward-Hale pro­

gramme from this point on) was coded in Fortran IV computer programming

language, and is suitable for running on an I.B.M. 1401 computer.

Both three phase and single phase to ground fault calculations are
 3

considered and a programme coded in Fortran IV has been written to solve

each of these problems. In each case the solution is obtained by inversion

of the nodal admittance matrix, using the Gaussean Elimination Method.

A brief engineering description of the load flow and short circuit

problems is presented and some of the mathematical techniques that are

required for a digital computer solution are described. These include

relevant material from circuit theory, matrix algebra and numerical analysis.

It will be assumed, however, that the reader is familiar with elementary

power system analysis and with both the PL/1 and the Fortran IV computer

programming languages.

Section 1 serves as an introduction. Section 2 briefly presents the

techniques used for formulation of network impedance and admittance matrix

equations. Although the treatment is elementary, it has been included for

completion and may be omitted by the reader if desired. Another method

which requires the use of a connection or transformation matrix (used in

the Gauss-Seidel load flow programme) is described in Appendix 3.

The formulation and solution of the load flow problem is presented

in Section 3, which also discusses its non-linear nature and the various

constraints which are placed on-the system busbars. Descriptions of the

actual programmes are also included. The Section ends with a general dis­

cussion on factors which affect the convergence of the iterative solution.

Section 4 presents the application of matrices to three phase and

single phase to earth short circuit calculations. The method by which

driving point and transfer impedances may be obtained and used in the

calculation of fault currents is discussed and a description given of the

computer programmes used. Equations are also derived which permit

sequential line outages to be simulated by manipulation of the inverse

admittance matrix and these are included as Appendix 9.

 4

2. NETWORK EQUATIONS

The formulation of a suitable mathematical model is the first step

in the analysis of an electrical network. It must describe the

characteristics of the individual network components and the relations

which govern the interconnection of these elements. A convenient

mathematical model for a digital computer solution is provided by a

network matrix equation. A brief description of the networks to be

analysed and the Prospect system in general is given in Appendix 1.

The elements of a network matrix depend on the selection of the

independent variables, which can be either currents or voltages; and

correspondingly, are either impedances or admittances.

2.1 Network Topology

In order to describe the geometrical structure of a network, the

network components are replaced by single line segments irrespective

of the size, shape or operating characteristics of the network

elements. This is known as network topology. Simple parallel

elements may be combined and represented by one line segment. The

line segments are termed elements and their terminals are termed

nodes. When a particular node is the terminal of an element, the

node and the element are said to be incident. It is possible for

nodes to be incident to one or more elements.

A graph shows the geometrical interconnection of the elements of

a network and each branch of the network is indicated by an oriented

line. A subgraph is any subset of elements of a graph and a path is

a subgraph of connected elements with no more than two elements

connected to any one node. When a path exists between every pair of

nodes, the graph is said to be a connected graph. The first step in

drawing a graph for a particular system is to produce a single line

diagram as indicated in Fig. 2.1.a below.

 5

Fig. 2.1 - Representation of a Power System

(a) Single Line Diagram
(b) Oriented Connected Graph

To facilitate ease of reference and the formulation of network

equations, all of the nodes are numbered- A node numbered 0 has

been included above and will be used as a reference node. In a 30

system, this is generally taken to be the system neutral.

The connected subgraph, consisting of sufficient branches to

connect all the nodes without forming any closed path is called a

tree. Fig. 2.2 shows some of the possible trees of the graph of the

network shown in Fig. 2.1.a, and it will be seen that the number of

branches b required to form a tree is given by

b = n - 1 (2.1.1)

where n is the number of nodes in the system including the reference

 6

node and 1 is the number of links (see below).

Fig. 2.2 Network Trees

Those elements of the connected graph which are not included in the

tree are called links and form a subgraph, not necessarily connected,

called a co-tree and is the complement of the tree. The number of

links 1 of a connected graph with s elements is

1 = s - b (2.1.2)

From equation (2.1.1), it follows that

1 = s - n + 1 (2.1,3)

A tree and co-tree of the graph shown in Fig. 2.1.a is shown in

Fig. 2.3.

1 2 3
>:
\
\ /
\ /
\ •2 /
(l)x
/(2)
\ /
\ /
\ /
\ /
\ /

\/
o
(b)
Fig. 2.3 (a) Tree; (b) Co-tree of Network shown in Fig. 2.2.a
 7

2.2 Loop Equations

Referring to Fig. 2.3, it will be seen that if a link is added to the

tree, the resulting graph contains one closed path, called a loop.

A definite set of loops is found by determining the closed path

formed by inserting each link in turn. By this process it will be

found that as many different loops will be formed with any tree as

there are links in the connected graph, as shown in Fig. 2.4 below.

Fig. 2.4

We may think of current in each link as flowing independently in the

closed path of the loop determined by the link, and determine the

current in each of the tree branches by superposition of the loop

currents. An arbitrary direction is assumed for the loop currents,

i.e. either clockwise or anticlockwise.

A network is termed a planar network if the graph of the network

can be drawn on a plane surface without lines crossing each other.

The open space enclosed by a loop is termed a mesh and the current

which flows in the boundary of a mesh is termed the mesh current.

Calculation of the b branch currents is thus possible by solving 1

linearly independent loop equations. When digital computers are used

to solve network problems by using the loop (mesh) current method,

21
the computer can be programmed to form a network tree and form the
 8

necessary mesh equations. Another approach is to use transformation

matrices and more will be said about these later.

Having first determined the independent loops in a system (of

course other loops could have been formed by selecting a different

network tree), one may proceed to write the network loop equations

by applying Kirchoff's voltage law to each loop.

The independent variables in this case are the voltage rises

around the loop. For all loops, the equations in matrix form are:

'
Mw

'll Z12 Z13

(2.2,1)
E2 :21 Z22 Z23

h '31 Z32 Z33j

Diagonal elements Z^, Z,-^ and Z^ are called self impedances and

equal the sum of the impedances in loops 1, 2 and 3 respectively.

Off-diagonal impedances are called mutual impedances and are common

to the loops indicated by their subscripts. The mutual impedances

are positive or negative, depending on whether the assumed positive

direction for the two loop currents are the same or opposite in the

mutual impedance. The voltages E^, E^ and E^ are the independent

loop voltages.

2.3 Node Equations

Norton's Theorem may be used to replace a source of constant voltage

by a source of constant current in parallel with an admittance. For

example, the circuit shown in Fig. 2.5.a, having a constant voltage

source, has as its dual the circuit shown in Fig. 2.5.b, which has a

constant current source.

 9

Network Network

(b)

Fig. 2.5 (a) Generator Supplying a Network Through Its Internal

Impedance
(b) Equivalent of (a)

In Fig. 2.6 below, all source voltage and series impedances have been

replaced by equivalent current sources and shunt impedances. Nodes

are identified by numbers, and by applying Kirchoff's current law,

the necessary node equations can be formulated.

Fig. 2.6

There are a total of four nodes, one being the reference node numbered

0, which we may take to be the system neutral (or ground) for this

particular case. The three nodes, 1,2,3 are at a potential V^,

and respectively above the reference node 0 and are connected to

ground through admittances and Y^» The impressed currents

into nodes 1, 2 and 3 are 1^, and respectively.

Applying Kirchoff's current law at node 1, with current into the

node from the source equated to current away from the node results in

Y V + (V (2.3.1)
11 v 1 V Y4
 10

and for node 2

h = Y2V2 + (V2 - V Y4 + (V2 - V3) Y5

(2.3.2)

while for node 3

X3 = Y3V3 + (V3 " V Y5

(2.3.3)

These equations may be rearranged to yield the following in matrix

form:

V Y1+ Y4
-Y 0
Vi
HH

(2.3.4)

>
= + Y
ro

CM
-Y4 Y2 -Y5

>
-Y Y„ + Y,
h

CO'
.
or -

h V11 Y12 Y13 Vi

(2.3.5)
I

=
—l

Y21 Y22 V2
CM

Y23

Y32
CO'

Y31 Y33 V3

where Y^ = Y^ + Y^

-Y^ etc.

The Y matrix above is called the nodal admittance matrix and the

various elements can be built up by the following rules.

(a) Diagonal elements = sum of all admittances directly connected

to the node.

(b) Off-diagonal elements = the negative of the admittance

directly connecting the two nodes denoted

by the subscripts.

Another method which may be employed to form the network matrices by

use of connection matrices is described in Appendix 3.

From the matrix equation (2,3.5), it may be seen that the current

flowing into a network from current sources connected to a node is

 11

equated to the sum of several products of currents and voltages; for

example,

Y11V1 + Y12V2+ Y13V3

For any node, one product is the voltage at that node and the self

admittance of the node (which is the sum of all admittances which

terminate at the node). The product is in fact the current

which would flow if the voltage were zero at each of the other nodes.

The other products are the negatives of the product of the voltage

at all the other nodes and the admittance directly connecting these

nodes to node 1. Equation (2.3 1) is repeated below with an additional

term, 0 V^.

Ix = (Y} + Y4) \Il - Y4V2 - 0 V3 (2.3.6)

The product accounts for the current which would flow away from

node 1 if all voltages except that at node 2 were zero. It is clear

that the principle of superposition is inherent in the matrix approach.

The total current away from a node is given in general by

n
I. Y.. V.
jk k
(2.3.7)
J
k = 1
 12

3. LOAD FL,0¥ STUDIES

Load flow calculations provide magnitude and phase angle at each bus,

and real and reactive power or current flowing in each line in a power

distribution system- If the system includes power generation, then the

regulating capability of generators, shunt capacitors, and on-load-tap-

changing transformers as well as specified net interchange of power

between individual systems are calculated. This information is essential

for the planning of system growth and enables quick comparisons to be

made of the effectiveness of alternate plans. A large number of load

flow studies are generally required for the system being dealt with,

and both normal and emergency operating conditions have to be considered.

The actual load flow problem consists in the calculation of power

flows and voltages for specified terminal or bus conditions.

3.1 System Data

The data required for digital load flow studies is similar to that

required for the a-c network analyser as shown in Appendix 2. A

single phase representation of the system is adequate since power

system loads are usually balanced. Calculations are carried out in

per unit and line impedances and shunt admittances are required. In

addition, the connection matrix (see Appendix 3) for the system will

be required if this is used to form the admittance matrix. Another

method for forming the admittance matrix is to prepare a connection

table (see section 3.8.1) which identifies each line by the buses

which are terminals of the line. A connection matrix is used in

conjunction with the Gauss-Seidel programme, while a "connection

table" is used in conjunction with the Ward-Hale programme. The

system constraints (see below) to be applied at each busbar (node)

must also be supplied.

 13

3.2 System Constraints

Solution of the load flow problem demands that Kirchoff's laws be

satisfied but in addition certain constraints imposed on the system

busbars must be fulfilled. These constraints are related to the

various types of busbars found in a power system, and essentially

there are three such types. Associated with each busbar are four

quantities - the real and reactive power, the voltage magnitude, and

phase angle.

(a) Generator or P,V bus

This is a bus to which a generator is connected, and through

the action of voltage regulators both the specified voltage

V and power input P are assumed to be constant.

(b) Load or P,Q bus

This is a bus to which a load is connected. Both real and

reactive power are specified for this bus since it is assumed

that through the action of voltage regulators or tap-changing

transformers the load voltage is kept constant, irrespective

of the primary voltage.

(c) The Swing (or Slack) bus

This is the one bus at which real power flow is not specified

and is usually the bus to which a generator is connected.

In the case of Prospect, it is the E.C.N.SoW. bulk supply

point bus. The specified quantities for the swing bus differ

from those of a P,V bus because at the beginning of a load

flow solution the system losses are unknown, while at load

and generation buses power is specified and the swing bus

initially supplies the difference between the specified real

power into the system at the other buses and the total output

plus losses. The actual power from the swing bus is calculated

after the solution to the load flow problem has been determined
 14

Both voltage magnitude and phase angle are specified at the

swing bus, and thus this voltage forms the reference with

respect to which the angles of all other bus voltages are

expressed.

3.3 Digital Solution of the Load Flow Problem

The complexity of the problem arises because of the difference in

the type of data specified for the different buses of the system-

Generators are not specified as e.m.f.’s behind a reactance and loads

are not fixed impedances though they are described by real and

reactive power. Although formulation of the necessary equations is

not difficult, it is not possible to solve the equations explicitly

and an overall iterative approach is used.

In the development of an effective engineering computer programme,

three considerations are of primary importance:

(a) The formulation of a mathematical description of the problem.

(b) The application of a suitable numerical method for a solution.

(c) The relationship between (a) and (b), i.e. a certain

mathematical formulation may permit a more effective use of

a particular numerical method.

3.4 Solution Systems

A system of simultaneous algebraic equations may be expressed in

matrix form as

AX = b (3.4.1)

where A is a matrix whose elements are the constant coefficients of

the unknown variables, and b is a column vector of known right-hand

side.

The main methods of solution are known as the Direct and Iterative

methods respectively^'^. With the direct method, A is inverted

explicitly and a direct solution to the equation is found from

 15

X = A"1 b (3.4.2)

Various direct methods exist. However, these differ only in the

manner in which A * is found. Thus direct methods produce an answer

for X in a fixed number of steps. Iterative methods, on the other

hand, will produce answers in an unspecified number of steps. The

answers are found by a process of successive approximation, and the

number of iterations will be directly governed by the accuracy

required. Iterative solutions involve the following steps:

(a) The equations are arranged such that any estimate of the

elements of column vector X will result in a new estimate

of X. If as each element of X is calculated it replaces

the old value, the method is known as the method of successive

displacement, whereas if all of the new estimated elements

of X are calculated using all of the previous estimated

values of X, the method is known as the block substitution

method.

(b) An acceleration factor is introduced into the iterative

process if possible, in order to decrease the number of

iterations required.

(c) Some suitable means is devised for testing for convergence

of the process.

The mathematical formulation of the load flow problem results in a

system of algebraic non-linear equations. These equations may be

established by using either the bus or loop frame of reference, and

the coefficients of the equations depend on the selection of the

independent variables, i.e. voltages or currents. The loop approach

is not favoured, particularly in view of the extensive data prepara­

tion required to specify the network loops. When the bus frame of

reference is used, data preparation is simple and the bus admittance

 16

matrix can be formed with ease, and can be readily modified to take

into account network changes.

Solution of the network equations is based on an iterative

technique because of their non-linearity. The solution must satisfy

Kirchoff's laws and one or other of these laws may be used as a test

for convergence of the iterative solution.

The performance of a power system is described by the following

equations using the bus frame of reference in admittance form.

I Y V (3.4.3)
bus bus bus

or in impedance form

V, (3.4.4)
bus Zbus ^bus

where

7 = v ^
bus bus

If the loop frame of reference is used, the performance equation in

impedance form is

(3-4.5)
loop Zloop ^loop

and in admittance form is

(3-4.6)
*loop Yloop Eloop

In general, nodal equations are used for load flow analysis, and if

the nodal admittance approach is adopted, the pertinent equation is

(3.4,3). These voltages and current variables are related by the

power requirements of each bus in the form

S V* (3.4.7)
k k

Now, if some relationship can be established between equations

(3.4.3), (3.4.4) and (3 4.1), (3-4.2), then the existing methods of

40
solution in linear algebra can be applied to load flow analysis.

The following correspondence is adopted:

 17

I * YV corresponds to b = AX

V = ZI corresponds to X = A "'"b

For convenience, equation (3.4.7) is rewritten below. The real and

reactive power at any bus k is

S. = P. - jQ. = V* I.
k k J k k k

and the node current is

Pk ~
k Vf
k

c*
Ik = v| (3.4.8)

where the current I is positive when it is flowing into the node.

During formulation of the network equations, shunt elements to ground

may be included in the parameter matrix and then 1^ in equation

(3.4.8) is the total current into bus k. However, if the shunt

elements are not included in the parameter matrix, the total current

at a bus k is

pk ■ jQk
I. = -~7s—- - Y.V. (3.4.9)
k Vf k k
k

where is the total shunt admittance at the bus and Y^V^ is the

shunt current flowing from bus k to ground.

The equation set represented by equation (3.4.3) may therefore

be written as

s*

4 = YHV1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3 + ......................... + YlnVn

S*
vf = Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3 + ...................... + Y2„V„

| = YnlVl + Y„2V2 + Yn3V3 + ..................... + YnnV„

(3.4.10)
 18

The above equation system is strictly speaking a set of simultaneous

quadratic equations in V, i.e. the equations are non-linear.

Fortunately, however, node voltages usually remain very close to

one per unit and thus equation (3.4.10) can be considered to be a

weakly linear set of equations in V. Thus, it is reasonable to

identify I = YV with b = AX, even though it is clear than an

explicit solution for currents and voltages is not possible, and

an overall iterative method should be used.

(a) Direct Methods of Solution

Equation (3.4,3) may be written as

c*
YV =

and then all direct methods involve the form

V = Y-i si
1 V*

or equivalently
c*
\I
v — 7 ----
^ V*

The weakly linear nature of the problem requires that after

s*
each estimate of V has been found, the right-hand side

is recalculated using the most recently obtained values of

voltages, and the process is continued until convergence is

reached. Thus, we have a direct method which is followed

by an iterative method even though the overall method is

generally referred to as the direct method in the literature

Direct methods differ only in the manner in which the matrix

~1 6 31
inverse Y is found. Among the many methods available '
32,33,34
are the Gaussean elimination, triangular decomposi­

tion, partitioning and various assembly methods such as

the Woodbury and Bordering methods.

 19

(b) Iterative Method of Solution

Iterative methods used to solve equation (3-4.1) may also

be applied to solve equation (3.4.3) with the additional

s*
proviso that initially the terms y* are to be calculated

using estimates of voltages.

A considerable number of iterative methods are avail-

able and amongst the better known methods are the Gauss-

Seidel, Jacobi, Newton-Raphson (Ward-Hale), Elimination,

and Relaxation techniques. This thesis is concerned with

the Gauss-Seidel and Ward-Hale methods only.

3.5 Gauss-Seidel Method

The Gauss-Seidel iterative method (also known as the Liebmann method

or method of successive displacements) using the bus admittance

matrix, will now be described. If the swing bus is assigned the

number 1, then the node equations are used to calculate the node

current at each of the remaining N - 2 buses. Initially, estimated

values are assigned to voltages for all buses except the swing bus,

where the voltage is specified and remains fixed. Currents are then

calculated for buses 2 to N from the equation

I
k

and the performance of the network can be obtained from the equation

By selecting ground as the reference bus, a set of N - 1 simultaneous

equations can be written in the form

1
V (3.5.1)
k Y,
kk

n / k
 20

where N is the total number of nodes or busbars in the system

including the ground reference bus.

Equation (3.5.1) may be obtained from equation (3.4.10) as

follows, taking into consideration the conditions at bus 2 for the

purpose of illustration

S|
+ Y, V
V* Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3 + 3n n

Solving for we have

s*

(3.5.2)
V* " lY21Vl + Y23V3 + + Y2nV n)

Equation (3.5.2) gives a corrected value of based on the scheduled

power - jQg* The calculated values of and the initial estimate

for V2 will not agree. The most recently obtained value of will

now be introduced into equation (3.4.10) and the process is repeated

at each bus (except the swing bus) to complete the first iteration.

The entire process is then repeated as many times as is necessary to

bring the successive voltage corrections to a value below some pre­

determined precision index. If p is taken as the iteration count,

then equation (3.5.2) may be written down for the four bus system

shown in Fig. 3.1 as follows (the voltage at the swing bus - node 1

remains fixed, of course).

 21

1/0 p.u.

E.C.N.S.W. PENRITH 33kV BUS

0.617 + jO.779 0.279 + jO.476 0.547 +

jO.67

0.096 + j 0.119 0.144 + ,|0.179

Tee Connection

Windsor Richmond
Zone Substation Zone Substation
Fig. 3.1 - System Used in Gauss-Seidel Method

Specified real value (in the Prospect situation this is 1/0 )

Y VF Y« VF
,p+l Y21V1 *23 3 *24v 4
(VP2)* y22

Y V Y VP+1 Y„„V
.p+1 31 1 132v2 34 4

(VV* Y33
p+1
Y V Y_V Y VP+1
rp+l 41 1 42 2 43 3
(3.5.3)
(Vp
^ 4J)* Yl44

At a bus k where the reactive power is unknown, the voltage magnitude

and power P^ are specified and the real and imaginary components

of voltage for each iteration are found by first calculating the

value of • Equation (3.5.1) may be written as

n / k
 22

From this it follows that

Qk (3.5.5)

n + k

where Im denotes "imaginary part of".

However, at Prospect all buses are load buses except the bulk supply

point bus and the above calculation for is not needed.

3.6 Test for Convergence

The Gauss-Seidel iterative process may be considered to have converged

if the difference in voltages obtained in two successive iterations

is less than a predetermined precision index for each individual

node from 2 to N; i.e. the process has converged when

yP+^re - re < £ (3.6.6)

V^+^im
m
- Vp im
m < e (3.6.7)

where re denotes the real part and im the imaginary part of

the voltage at bus m after p iterations and £ is the precision

index (.0001 in the present programme).

3.7 Description of the Programme

A listing of the programme together with a set of results is included

as Appendix 4. Extensive comments and explanations are given in the

programme listing and any further comments appear to be unnecessary.

The programme can be seen to be rather long, particularly when it is

compared with the length of the Ward-Hale programme and it requires

some further tidying up and improvement. One interesting aspect of

the programme is the use of matrices to represent complex numbers,

a subject which is briefly referred to in Appendix 5.

 23

Fig. 3.2 is a flow chart indicating the various steps involved in the

Gauss-Seidel programme. Transmission line I R losses are calculated

29 2
and an empirical formula is used to calculate the annual I R losses’?

* The formula, which provides an estimate of losses when the load varies,
is L.L.F. = 0.2 (L.F) + 0.8 (L.F)2 where L.F denotes load factor and is
the ratio of the average energy to the peak energy which would have been
used over a period if peak load conditions prevailed for the entire
period, and L.L.F. denotes the load loss factor. To obtain the I^R
losses incurred in (say) one day, the peak current I is firstly assumed
to flow for the entire day and losses are calculated accordingly. The
corrected estimate is obtained by multiplying the last result by L.L.F.
 Read in System Data

Are
Yes there any
transmission lines
in
jrallel?
Calculate equivalent
impedance of the No
parallel lines
Set up a matrix whose diagonal elements are
the line admittances and whose other elements
are zero. Using matrix multiplication and the
connection matrix C and its transpose C^, form
the admittance matrix Y.
I
Assume a value for each of the bus voltages
and assign the value 1 /0 to the swing
bus voltage.

Set iteration count IT = 0,

Set convergence indicator INDIC = 0

Set bus count k = 2

Calculate
N
pk - and i- y\v
kk kn n
(vxP)* ¥kk
k t 1 n i k

Calculate changes in voltage at bus k

Avk - Aek + jAfk - (vr-vkP)

Less
or
equal

Replace VjP by V^. P+*

Set the convergence
, p+1 P+1 indicator
where V + *i (<vkP+1 - vkP))
INDIC = 1
and acceleration factor

Advance bus count k k + 1

Equal or less

No Yes

Advance iteration
count by 1
IT —*» IT + 1 Calculate line flows
p
I R losses, and power
at the swing bus
Test
whether the
maximum number of
No iterations permitted has r
been exceeded.
Is IT > 200 (say)? Print out results

r
Print "iterative solution
Stop
has failed to converge’’

Fig. 3-2 - Gauss-Seidel Programme Logic Flow Chart to

.u
 25

3.8 NEWTON-RAPHSON (WARD-HALE) METHOD

The load flow problem can be solved by the Ward-Hale method, which
1 31
is an approximation to the Newton-Raphson iterative method ’ based

on a 2 term Taylor series approximation to the complete function.

3.8.1 Formulation of System Equations

Following experience gained from the use of transformation

(connection) matrices in the Gauss-Seidel programme, the author felt

1 4 12
that a simpler approach to the formulation of system equations ’ '

would be highly advantageous. Mutual coupling between transmission

lines is of little consequence in the Prospect system because of

the distances between the various lines. Furthermore, the number

of nodes in each network is small, generally less than ten and thus

in hindsight, use of transformation (connection) matrices was

thought to be of dubious value.

To permit the computer to identify transmission line impedances

with the buses connected by the lines, a connection table is prepared

and presented to the computer along with the line impedance and

other relevant data. Voltage regulating devices such as tap­

changing autotransformers between buses are not used because, inter

alia, the short distances between buses and the rather limited loads

do not result in excessive voltage regulation. Consequently, the

problem of "off-nominal turns ratio" does not exist at Prospect.

Formation of the self and mutual admittances is automated and

all that is necessary is a connection table which converts the

geometry of the network connections into a list of numbers. The

table shows which branches are connected to each node and it is

stored in the computer as the matrix NCT of dimension 8x2. As

an example, the connection table will be set up for the network

shown in Fig. 3.3 below.

 26

E.C.N.S.W. GUILDFORD BULK SUPPLY POINT

33kV Bus

j 29.9 MVA 18 MV A
Fairfield Yennora
Zone Substation Zone Substation

Legend: [ ] = Bus Number

O = Line Number

Fig. 3.3 - Typical Prospect 33kV Subtransmission System

The computer programme requires that the Bulk Supply Point bus

(which is the swing bus) be numbered 1, the remaining buses may be

numbered in any order.

One may proceed to set up the connection table by noting the

line number and the numbers of the two nodes which the line joins,

as follows:

Line No. Node Node

1 1 2
2 1 2
3 2 3
^ Joins i To 3

5 3 4
6 4 1

It is immaterial which node is written down first, e.g. line 6 could

be shown either as joining nodes 1 to 4 or 4 to 1. Also, there is

 27

no need to store the line number since this is inherent in the order

in which the data is written down. Thus, the only information

necessary is that displayed in columns 2 and 3 above, and this is

stored in the computer as the two dimensional array NCT. Associated

with each row of the matrix NCT are the values of resistance and

reactance of the line joining the two nodes concerned. The programme

causes the computer to form the admittance of the line and add the

correct value to the self and mutual admittance elements of the

admittance matrix.

Two (N-l) x (N-l) arrays are used to store the admittance matrix

Y, these being designated the G and B arrays, where

Y = G + jB and

N = total number of buses including the

ground or reference bus

The existing elements of matrices G and B are now augmented, where

appropriate, and the steps are as follows:

(a) Read in NCT^ ^ , NCT^ ^ ,

where k indicates the line number.

(b) Form the admittance

R, + jX~ 9k + ^bk V
k J k

(c) Augment the appropriate elements of the G and B matrices

as shown below.

Thus, if NCT^ ^ = ml and NCT^ ^ - v\l

then

Gml ml Gml ml + gk

Gml m2 = Gml m2 “ gk

Gm2 ml Gml m2

Gm2 m2 Gm2 m2 + gk

etc.
Gml ml Gml ml + Gk
 28

The primed quantities are the new values and the unprimed quantities

are the old values. Any number of parallel lines may occur, since

the connection table ensures that each line is identified with the

appropriate nodes.

No difficulty arises on account of the fact that the matrix Y

is stored as G (real) and B (imaginary), for whenever any element Y.^

is required, the computer programme will make use of and .,

where Y.. = G.. + iB...

ij ij ij
Since operations in the computer occur only in terms of real

numbers, the operator j is not specifically used, but is present by

implication, and the real and imaginary parts of any answer are

stored separately in the computer.

3.9 System Equations

The current flowing from any node k in a power system can be calcu­

lated from the node equation

N
Y.km vmm (3.9.1)
m = 1

as shown on page 11 •

When two or more transmission lines are joined together at a

point where there is neither generation nor consumption of power, the

junction point must be represented by a node, the current 1^ for such

a node being zero. Voltages, currents and admittance are complex

numbers and may be written as follows

I, \ + jbk
(3.9.2)

e + jf (3.9.3)
m J m

(3.9.4)
km km + JBr
J km

By using the conjugate of current I the following power equations

are obtained
 29

Y* V* V (3.9.5)
PX + j°k = km m k
m = 1

z:
IN

where If Y* V*
k km m
m = 1

Rectangular co-ordinates are used to represent complex numbers in

the present scheme. Equation (3.9.1) may now be rewritten using

equations (3.9.3) and (3.9.4).

N
I,
7m = 1
(G. + jB ) (e + jf )
km J km m J m
(3.9.6)

where N is the total number of nodes excluding ground. On

multiplying out, the real and imaginary parts of 1^ are found to be

>m = 1
(G. e
km m
- B, f )
km m
(3.9.7)

z:
IN

(G. f + B, e ) (3.9.8)
km m km m
m = 1

Substituting in equation (3.9.5) we have

(3.9.9)
Pk + "k + jfk) (ak - bk)

whence

P, = a. e + b. f.
k k k k k

22
m = 1
(G. e - B. f ) e.
km m km m k
+ (G. f + B. e ) f.
km m km m k
(3.9.10)

Qk = \fk - bkek

■ >f (G, e - B, f ) f.
km m km m k
- (G. f + B. e ) e.
km m km m k
(3.9.11)
 30

The Newton-Raphson method for the iterative solution of the general

non-linear equation of the form F(x) = 0, is based on Taylor's

Theorem:

, P 2
F (xP + zP) = F (xP) + zPF' (xP) + ^r~ F"(xP) + + + (3.9.12)

where xP and zP are respectively the approximations to and errors in

the solution at interval p in the iterative process.

If xP+1 is chosen to be related to xP by

F (xP)
xKp+1 (3.9.13)
F'(XP)

the error in xp+^ is of the second order and given by

2
.P+1 (zF)
F"(xp) + + +
2\

Thus, the error zP+1 is proportional to the square of the error in

zP and the process is said to be quadratically convergent. Laughton

and Humphrey-Davies^ derive equations based on the above corrections

to be applied to a set of assumed bus voltages as shown below. If

P^ and are the scheduled values of real and reactive power at a

bus k, then at any point in the iterative process error quantities

Apr and AQr will exist, being the deviations from scheduled values

of the calculated values P^ and respectively.

The complex power equations may be defined as a function of

voltage V, then the complex variable at any node k is

ASP = S. - F(V, )
k ks k

N
= S - V > Y* V*
ks k / , km m
m = 1

where S^s is the scheduled power at bus k and As^ is the deviation

from the scheduled value after p iterations.

 31

(3.9.14)
Sks Pks + jQks

Aspk = Appk + j AQP (3.9.15)

(3.9.16)

Partial differentiation may now be applied to equations (3.9.10) and

(3.9.11) using the superscript p to indicate the p-th iteration.

Bearing in mind that when conditions at bus k are considered,

voltages at the remaining busbars are assumed to remain constant,

i.e. V is constant for m f k, then we obtain equation (3.9.17)

m
shown on the following page.

As an alternative, the Ward-Hale derivation of equation (3.9.17)

will now be given.

Let Pks and QRs represent the scheduled real and reactive power

respectively at bus k, and Pk and Qk the calculated values. Error

quantities APk and AQk, being the deviation of the calculated

power from the scheduled power may be found as follows

Apk = Pks ' Pk (3.9.18)

AQR = Qks - Qk (3.9.19)

It will be assumed that these deviations are due entirely to a

voltage error AVk at node k with all other bus voltages remaining

constant.

AVR = AeR + j A fk (3.9.20)

The voltage correction term AVk increases the node current by

Ykk AVR since YRR is the only coefficient affected in the expression

for node current for changes in VR. The corrected current and

voltage are such that they produce the scheduled power.

 32

r
o.-“
<v
< <1
J
O'
CO
L

r 1

<1 <
L j
 33

Pks + JQks vk+ Avk K + YkkAvk

(3.9.21)

Substituting equation (3.9.20) into (3.9.21), expanding and then

separating into real and imaginary parts results in two second

degree equations from which the voltage correction Av^ can be

computed, following use of equations (3.9.18) and (3.9.19). The

resulting equations (3.9.22) and (3.9.23) are included below.

Ap,
Aek (ekGkk + fkBkk + ak ) + Afk ( ekBkk +

fkGkk + bk ) + Gkk (Ae k + Af k )

(3.9.22)

AQ, Ae,
-ekBkk+ fkSk - bk)+ A fk (-ekGkk

fkBkk + ak ) ' Bkk (Ae k + A 4)

(3.9.23)

A reasonable approximation will be obtained if the second order

terms are neglected and solving the remaining linear equations for

A ek and Af^. Equations (3.9.22) and (3.9.23) will then be

reduced to the set (3.9.24) below.

Ap. f e. G,, + f, B,, + a ] [ —e, B, , + f, G, , + b, ] Ae,

k \ k kk k kk k/ \ k kk k kk k) k
—

A«k (~ekBkk '+ fkGkk “ bk ) (_ekGkk " fkBkk + ak) Af.k

(3.9.24)

Equation (3.9.24) may be solved by the use of determinants, for

example:
 34

AP, (~ekBkk + fkGkk + V

AQ, ( ekGkk fkBkk + ak}

Ae,
(ekGkk + fkBkk + ak} ( ekBkk + fkGkk + bk}

( ekBkk + fkGkk bk} ( ekGkk fkBkk + ak}

The voltage correction Ae^ + j A f^ as calculated above is to be

applied to load buses only. One node must be chosen as the swing

bus (being the E.C.N.S.W. bulk supply point busbar, which is

assigned the number 1); the voltage at this bus is known in

magnitude and angle. Consequently, no corrections are necessary

for the voltage at the swing bus. The solution technique involves

the following steps:

(a) Assume a value of 0.97 + jO for each of the bus voltages

except the swing bus voltage which is fixed and is 1 + jO.

(b) Compute the impressed current ^ at bus 2 by using the initial

(estimated) set of node voltages and equation (3.9.6).

(c) Compute the power into node 2 using and in conjunction

with equations (3.9.10) and (3.9.11).

(d) Compute voltage correction Ae 2 + j Af 2 using equation

(3.9.24).

(e) Replace the old value of voltage with the new corrected

value** of V 2 and proceed to calculate similar quantities

for node 3.

(f) Continue the process, replacing each old node voltage with

the new node voltage as soon as it is obtained, until all

bus voltages from 2 to N have been calculated. This

completes one iteration cycle.

In the same manner as for the Gauss-Seidel method, an acceleration

factor is used to speed up convergence. The corrected voltage
*Y ( Ae2 + j Af2) where T is the acceleration factor.
 35

(g) Repeat the calculation until the absolute sum of the voltage

corrections required in traversing from bus 2 to N is less

than a predetermined precision index (.0002 in the present

programme).

(h) Compute flows in individual branches.

2
(i) Compute transmission line I R losses.

3.10 First-Level Emergency Loading of Transmission Lines

When planning a transmission system, it is customary to allow for

the loss of one item of equipment during peak load conditions. This

ensures an acceptable level of system reliability. However, there

may be situations where it is not economically justifiable to provide

for standby supply. For example, a remote lightly populated area

may be considered to be satisfactorily supplied by only one trans­

mission line. The Ward-Hale programme makes allowance for the removal

of one line at a time from the transmission system, and carrying out

new load flow calculations using the reduced system. On completion

of this load flow study, the computer programme causes the computer

to first restore the circuit to its original condition and then

remove the next line etc.

This is achieved by suitable manipulation of elements of the

admittance matrix Y using, essentially, the method described in

section 3.8.1, except that the negative of the actual line admittance

is used. Allowance must be made, however, for the existence of a

remote zone substation which is supplied by a single transmission

line as shown in Fig. 3.4. In this case the line cannot be taken

out of service to enable determination of emergency load flow

conditions since in that case the computer programme would cause the

computer to calculate voltages etc. for a system which is supplying

a load (however small) through an infinite impedance (open circuit).

 36

Any answers which might be obtained would hardly be valid.

Legend:

bus no.

Q = transmission
line no.

Zone
Substation A Zone
Substation B

Fig. 3.4 - Subtransmission System

A simple test can be devised which will enable the computer to cater

for the above problem and to proceed to remove the next line from

the system, leaving the line joining nodes 2 to 3 continuously in

service. The admittance matrix for the network shown in Fig. 3.4

may easily be written down by inspection

Y11 Y12 Y13

=
Y21 Y22 Y23

v
Y31 *32 Y33

' (Y1 + Y2) -(Yl + Y2) 0

= -(Yl + Y2) (Yl + Y2 + Y3) -Y3

0 -Y3 Y3

The self admittance of node 3 is = Y3, while that of the adjoining

node, node 2, is ^22 = Yl + Y2 + Y3. Clearly, if a node has more

than one line connected to it, the self admittance of the node will

be the sum of the admittances of two or more lines. A routine may

be introduced in the computer programme which will test for this

condition. This may be done by use of the network connection table

below and the matrix G, where Y = G + jB.

 37

Connection Table for Circuit in Fig- 3.3

Line No. Joins

Node to Node
(NCT)

1 1 2

2 1 2

3 2 3

For example, assume that calculations for the complete system have

been obtained. The computer will now carry out the tests below to

determine whether line No.1 can be removed from service, with the

various buses still supplying their scheduled power.

From the above connection table, it may be seen that NCT^ = 1

and NCT.^2 = 2. Therefore, if Y1 = gl + bl, and Y1 is the admittance

of line No.1, the computer must examine whether

(a) Gn > gl

and (b) > gl

If conditions (a) and (b) are true, then both nodes have more than

one line connected to them and thus line No.1 may be temporarily

removed from service. Upon completing calculations for this emergency

condition, line No.1 is "reconnected" (by restoring the G and B

matrices to their former condition) and then line No.2 is removed

etc. Finally, we have NCT^ = 2, and NCT^ = 3, and although

^22 ^ 9^* we that g3 (in fact G^g = g3). Thus line

No.3 would not be taken out of service, and since there are no

further lines to consider, computation would cease at this stage.

Fig. 3.5 shows the logic flow diagram for the complete programme.

A listing of the programme, together with a set of digital computer

and d-c network analyser results, are included in Appendix 7.

Fig. 3.5 Ward-Hale Programme Logic Flow Chart
 39

3.11 Acceleration of the Iterative Solution

The number of iterations required to produce a solution may be

reduced by the use of an acceleration factor. This is a multiplier

that enhances the amount of correction to the voltage obtained

during each iteration, thus speeding up convergence. For example,

if is the voltage estimate used during the (p+l)th iteration

cycle, yielding by an iterative technique the unaccelerated estimate

of voltage Vp+\ then the actual value of voltage used in subsequent

calculations will be V,p+^ where

V' P+1 = VP + Y (Vp+1 - VP) (3.11.1)

and is the acceleration factor.

Let AVP = (Vp+1 - Vp) then

V’p+1 = VP + Y AVP (3.11.2)

In equation (3.11.2) Y may be real or complex, or may consist of

two parts that multiply separately the real and imaginary parts of

AVP respectively.

The development of acceleration techniques has attracted a

great deal of research in the field of numerical analysis. Iteration

methods and convergence theorems are well documented^’^^.

References 9 and 25 are of particular interest to power system

engineers on the subject of convergence and optimising of acceleration

factors. The optimum acceleration factor can be found by a trial

and error approach, i.e. solving the load flow problem for a range
25
of values of Y in equation (3.11.2) or by more formal methods
4
Sproule, Grainger and Hailstone used a technique for optimising
25
the acceleration factor suggested by Carre which involved finding

the eigenvector of largest modulus but this was reported to be of

little practical value. They also tried complex values of Y and

 40

concluded that this was of little advantage. For the nodal admittance

method, a value of 1.6 for is often accepted as being satisfactory,

and is applied to both the real and imaginary parts of the error

voltage Av^. It is known that as *Y approaches the value 2, the

iterative method tends to diverge. Ideally, the acceleration factor

should be such that the spectral radius of the iteration matrix is

minimised^'^’^. The spectral radius of a matrix is the largest of

the absolute values of the eigenvalues of the iteration matrix (see

below)•

The nodal admittance matrix may be expressed as the sum of

lower (L’) and upper (U') triangular matrix and a diagonal matrix D.

Y* = L' + D + U’ (3.11.3)

Equation (3.5.3) may now be written as

V*P+1 = -LV*P+1 - UV*P + b (3.11.4)

where

L = D"1 L’

u = d"1 U’

and the general term in b is

b
k
V P v*
k kk

An acceleration factor "Y may be applied to equation (3-5-3) by use

of equation (3.11.4) whereby

V*p+1 = v*P + 'Y (-LV*P+1 - UV*P + b - V*P) (3.11.&)

which can be arranged as

V*P+1 = HV*P + Mb (3.11.6)

where H = [i + Y l] _1 [(1 - 7 )1 - 7u]

M = 7(1 - T L) \ and I is the unit matrix.

If V* is a column vector representing the correct set of node

voltages for a particular problem and V ^ is defined as the error

 41

vector in the initial set of voltages, and V p the error vector

from the p-th iteration, i.e.

V*P = V* + 'V p (3.11.7)

then theinitial error vector may beexpressed in terms of the

eigenvectors of the iteration matrix H:

= k,X, + k0X0 + kQXQ + ..... + k X (3.11.8)

11 2 2 33 nn

The error from the p-th iteration may be shown to be

VP = [K] ^ ^ ° where [h] P denotes the p-th power of

the matrix H.

It therefore follows that

kl V*! + k2 VX2 +
+ k
n
X nP X n (3.11.9)

Thus the behaviour of the system can be examined by examining the

behaviour of each of its eigenvectors. If X^ is the eigenvalue

of matrix H with the largest modulus, then as p

Vp k.J X Jpx.J (3.11.10)

Since 'V p is the error vector it is clear that if the process is to

converge then X must be less than unity. This would ensure that

as p ---- *— o

The spectral radius X^ is a function of the acceleration factor ~Y

6,25
Based on certain mathematical assumptions it may be shown that

a simple relationship exists between the eigenvalues X^ of the

matrix H, the eigenvalues yt-6 . of the matrix (-L -U) and the

acceleration factor T :

( X J. + y - l)2 (3.11.11)

The optimum acceleration factor can be found from

 42

optimum 'Y (3.11.12)

1 + 1 -
H*

where is the eigenvalue of largest modulus associated with the

matrix (-L -U). Let R° be the column vector of differences between

the initial assumed voltages and the voltages computed in the first

iteration cycle.

r0 = v1 - V° (3.11.13)

then at any subsequent iteration cycle p the difference is given by

[h] P p° (3.11.14)

where, as before, [h] P denotes the p-th power of the matrix H. Now,

if R° is expanded in terms of the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of H,

then if X is the eigenvalue of matrix H with the largest modulus

then

RP — k. \P. X. (3.11.15)
J J J

and R P+1 k.
J
Xp+1.J X.J (3.11.16)

Laughton and Humphrey Davies point out that the eigenvalue X

/\^ may

be estimated from

\ Rp+1(i)
X. = (3.11.17)
J RP( i)

They also point out that the magnitude of the maximum eigenvalue

may be reduced and convergence improved by judicious selection of

the slack bus and advocate a "rule of thumb", viz. the bus with

most branches attached should be selected as the slack bus.

3.12 Other Aspects Which Affect Convergence

There are several factors which affect convergence of the iterative

process apart from the acceleration factor, and amongst these are:

(a) Number of busbars in the system

(b) System configuration

 43

(c) Initial voltage estimates

(d) Precision index

3.12.1 Number of Busbars in the System

The higher the number of busbars in the system, the greater the

number of iterations required to obtain a solution. There seems

to be little one can ordinarily do about this. However, a

relatively new mathematical technique called Diakoptics proposed

32 34
by Gabrial Kron ’ offers interesting possibilities. Diakoptics

states that a physical system can actually be broken into sections

by a process called tearing, such that each smaller piece can be

studied separately and the solution obtained can then be subjected

to a transformation that gives a solution to the original problem,

i.e. the solution for each separate section can be "connected" by

means of connection matrices.

3.12.2 System Configuration

Certain configurations can cause slow convergence or even diver­

gence. The values of line impedances and shunt admittances play

14
an important part. Hoare found that some troublesom configura­

tions were:

(a) Circuits containing series capacitors

(b) High admittance circuits such as those containing short

underground cables

(c) High admittance radial lines

(d) In general, convergence was difficult if the range of

admittance associated with any busbar exceeded the ratio

20:1.

3.12.3 Initial Voltage Estimates

14
Starting values for voltages should, according to Hoare , be

within 20% of their correct value. Equation (3.11.15) also

 44

suggests that the number of iterations required will increase the

more the initial set of voltages differ from the correct values.

3-12.5 Precision Index

This is an arbitrarily small number, e.g. .0001, and convergence

is assumed to have been reached when the difference between

voltages at a particular node obtained from two successive itera­

tions is less than the specified tolerance. Other tests of

convergence are also used, one method is to add the absolute

values of the complex voltage differences between iteration cycles

at every node and testing this to ensure it is less than a

specified limit. The more accurate the answer required, the

greater the number of iterations and thus the longer the computing

time required.
 45

4. SHORT CIRCUIT STUDIES

Short circuit calculations provide currents and voltages in a power

system under fault conditions. These quantities are required to enable

the design of an adequate protective relaying system and to determine the

fault interruption capacity required of circuit breakers at every switching

location. A relaying system must be able to recognise the existence of a

fault and initiate circuit breaker operation to isolate the faulted

equipment. This must be done in such a manner that continuity of service

is maintained as much as possible and that the fault is cleared quickly

in order to limit damage in the faulted equipment. Currents and voltages

resulting from faults occurring at many locations throughout the power

system will be needed to provide sufficient data to develop an effective

relaying system. Normally, 30 and 10/E short circuit fault levels and

current distributions throughout the network are required. Often it is

sufficient to perform fault calculations for a fault at every node in

the system.

For many years the d-c and a-c network analysers have been used for

short circuit calculations. However, several digital methods have now been
23
developed and extensively used, and they may be classified as :

(a) Driving point and transfer impedance matrix methods.

(b) Nodal iterative methods.

The driving point and transfer impedance matrix method, also known as the

bus impedance (Z^us) matrix method, requires the formation of the complete
19 23 31
impedance matrix ' ’ . The approach adopted in this thesis is that of

first forming the admittance matrix, in a similar manner to that used in

the Ward-Hale load flow programme, and then inverting the admittance

matrix using the Gaussean Elimination Method to find the inverse or Z^us

matrix.

Solution techniques which involve matrix inversion are sometimes

 46

avoided because of the rather extensive computation required in calculation

of the inverse. However, one of the distinct advantages of this method is

that once the Z, matrix has been obtained, all fault calculations can be
bus
performed with a minimum of arithmetic operations. The diagonal elements

of the Zblls matrix are in fact the Thevenin impedances of the circuit:

for example, is the Thevenin impedance at node j. On the other hand,

the nodal iterative method requires an iterative solution of voltages

for the entire network for each fault condition, in the same manner as

that required for load flow studies. In view of the fact that it is

generally required to simulate a fault at every node, formation of the

inverse impedance matrix (Z^us) was favoured by the author and in

particular because:

(a) The number of nodes in any high voltage system at Prospect is

small - usually less than 8, and thus the matrix dimensions

are small. The number of multiplications required in calculating

the inverse is equally limited, and round-off error is not likely

to be a problem.

(b) The input data is simple to assemble and limited to the line

impedances and a few control parameters.

4.1 Self and Mutual Impedances

The self impedance of a circuit is defined as the ratio of the voltage

drop in the circuit in the direction of current flow to the current

when all other circuits are open. The mutual impedance between two

circuits is defined as the ratio of the voltage drop induced in one

of the circuits to the current in the other circuit which induces it.

Self impedance will be denoted by Z^ where j refers to the circuit j.

Mutual impedance between two circuits will be denoted by Z^ where i

and j refer to the two circuits concerned. Let I,, In ....I and

V^, ^2 •••-V represent the currents and voltage drops in circuits

 47

1,2 ....n. If all other circuits are opened and 1^ is the current

flowing in circuit 1 then the mutual impedance between circuits 1

and 2 will be given by

Z (4.1.1)
21

With I2 flowing in circuit 2 and all other circuits open

(4.1.2)

and in general the mutual impedance between circuits n and 1 will

be given by
V
Z , = — (4.1.3)
nl 1^

Now, if all circuits are closed, the voltage drops are:

+ IZ,
11Z11 + T2Z12 + n In

11Z21 + I2Z22 + + I Z0
n 2n

:iZnl + T2Zn2 +
+ I n z nn (4. 1.4)

In the above system of equations, the first subscript of Z refers to

the voltage while the second refers to the current associated with

it. Generally, for power system networks, the mutual impedances are

the same viewed from either circuit.

4.2 Driving Point and Transfer Impedances

Let a network have N terminal points (nodes) and the voltages at these

nodes be , V^, . ...V^, where the voltages are applied between

the node and the reference zero potential bus (neutral point in a 30

system), and let 1-^, 1^ . ...1^ be the corresponding node currents.

It will be assumed that the positive direction of current flow will

be into the network from the point at which voltage is applied. When
 48

all voltages are applied simultaneously, the resultant current which

flows into the network from node 1 will be the difference between the

component current sent into the network by V-^ acting alone and the

sum of the component currents which • • • .V each acting alone

send out of the network at node 1. When a voltage is assumed to act

alone, all other voltages in the network are reduced to zero and

their points of application connected directly to the zero potential

bus. Thus, when voltage is acting alone, there will be a current

entering the network at node 1 and currents leaving the network at

nodes 2,3....n. Under these conditions, the current entering node 1

may be found from a simple application of Ohm's law:

(4.2.1)

or we may write:

11

The impedance is known as the driving point impedance of node 1

and is defined as the ratio of voltage applied at node 1 to the

current entering node 1, with all other voltages reduced to zero and

their point of application connected to the zero potential bus. The

current leaving node 2 will also depend on the voltage applied at

node 1, and the impedance Z^* which takes into account the impedances

of the other paths to the zero potential bus, as well as those directly

between nodes 1 and 2, is known as the transfer impedance between

nodes 1 and 2.

This is defined as the ratio of voltage (acting alone) applied

at node 1 to the current at node 2. Power system distribution networks

are in general reciprocal networks, in which the transfer impedance

between two nodes i and j is the same as that between nodes j and i.

i .e. Z
 49

When a network is a reciprocal network, the principle of superposition

can be applied. The currents flowing into a network at the various

nodes may be obtained by adding the currents produced by each of the

applied voltages acting alone. Thus

1
(4.2.2)
In 2n 3n nn

where Z„ is the driving point impedance at node i (i = 1,2....n)

and is the transfer impedance between nodes i and j (i,j = l,2...n,

i i- j). Care should be taken to avoid confusing driving point

impedances with self impedances.

4.3 Solution of Simultaneous Equations by Matrix Methods

Solution of simultaneous linear equations of high order is required

in many fields of engineering. The solution can be obtained by means

of determinants, however, the work involved would be prohibitively

long for sets of (say) 10 or more equations. The conventional

Cramers rule procedure for solving N simultaneous equations requires

the evaluation of N + 1 determinants. If these determinants are

evaluated by the Laplace expansion, this requires N multiplications

per determinant, and thus the entire solution requires (N + 1)

multiplications. It is stated* that the solution of 26 equations

would require (26 +1) '. = 27 ’. = 10^ multiplications. A fast

modern computer performing 300,000 multiplications per second would

* L.A. Pipes, "Applied Mathematics for Enqineers and Physicists", p.95,

McGraw-Hill, 1958.
 50

require approximately 6.3 x 10 years to solve the problem using

this method. Several methods are available which speed up the

solution by many orders of magnitude. Only one method, the Gaussean

Elimination Method will be described in this thesis.

4.3.1 The Gaussean Elimination Method

Firstly, the use of the method to solve linear simultaneous

equations will be discussed and this will be followed by a note on

its use for finding matrix inverses.

Consider the set of equations:

+ + . . . . . . +
X

A, X
>—'
to
to

llxl In n Bi
i

II
+ + . . . . . .
X
+
> to

21X1 A22X2 B2
3
3

Y + . . . + A„ X =
31 1 3n n B3

+ . . . + A X B (4.3.1)
mxi nn n n

The first equation of the set (4.3.1) is divided through by to

give
ii

xi = An X -2 i = 2
(A, "1 A,.) X.
11 li l
(4.3.2)

The second equation may be written in the form

A21X 1 + J
i = 2
A2iXi B2
(4.3.3)

and equation (4.3.2) used to eliminate from equation (4.3.3)

In general, the equations may be written in the form

AjlX1 A. .X. B j = 2,3,4...n (4.3.4)

Ji i
i = 2

and X^ can be eliminated from these (n - 1) equations which will

then result in (n - 1) equations in (n - 1) unknowns X^,X^,X^...X^.

 51

This set of equations can be written

n
-1
- AjlAu A , .) X. B. - A.,A , (4.3.5)
li 1 J J1 11
i = 2

where j = 2,3,4....... n

The next unknown to be eliminated is X2* Equation (4.3.5) may be

written as follows
n

zZ
i - 2
A’jixi = B
2,3,4 n (4.3.6)

where A’ .. = (A.. -A A
J1 J1 Jill
and B’ . = B. - A A
J J j 1 11

From the first equation

n
X (A' A’ .X. (4.3.7)
2 2i l
i = 3

Substituting this value for in the remaining (n-2) equations

we have
n
-1
l’2J) B’ . - A’ .0(A’ 0)~l B’ (4.3.8)
> J*'ji - A'j2(A'22> J j2 22 2
i = 3

where nowj = 3,4,5......n

The process is continued and the remaining unknowns are eliminated

until a single equation in the unknown X^ is found and then solved

for X^ by a single division. Having X^, we can substitute to find

X 1( which in turn is used to find X n etc.

n-1 n-2
The element of the array of coefficients which is used as a

divisor is called the pivot and the equation containing the pivot

is called the pivotal equation and is kept unchanged and temporarily

left aside while the remaining rows are operated on. For example,

when A’u is used as a pivot the first equation is the pivot equatior

and we proceed to eliminate X^ (which is associated with A'^) from

 52

the remaining equations. The various pivotal equations are then

assembled as shown below:

+ A\ X = B’ ,
A'11X1 + A’12X2 + A’13X3 + Inn 1

+ A' 9 X = B' 0
A'22X2 + A'23X3 + 2n n 2

+ A' X = B’
A’33X3 + 3n n 3

A’ X = B' (4.3.9)
nn n n

This process is known as the Gaussean elimination method or method

of pivotal condensation.

4.3.2 Matrix Inversion by Use of the Gaussean Elimination Method

If the column vector consisting of the B^, i = 1,2....n, in

equation (4.3.1) is multiplied by the unit matrix, its value

remains unchanged. Thus

pll
D
C
to

B3

B B (4.3.10)
n

The elimination method may now be used to find the inverse of the

matrix A. Firstly, the following augmented matrix associated with

the given equations

7 A.. XT
lk k
B is written down.

fA.
11
A, o
12
A,„ . . . . . . An
In
1 0 0 ... ... ol
13
A ... A2n 0 1 0 ... ... 0
A21 A22 23
0 0 1 . . . ... 0
<
.

A32
C
C

A31 ’ * • A3n
O
O

i
1

A nln A n2o A n ... . . . A

nn
0 0 0 . . . ... 1
n3
 53

The first n columns of this matrix represent, respectively, the co­

efficients of X-^, ^, X3 .... , and the last n columns represent

the coefficients of B^, B2, B^ •••• B^ respectively. Hence each

row of the augmented matrix represents one of the equations

n
> A.. X. = B. i = 1,2... n (4.3.11)
Z-__ ✓ lk k 1
k = 1

If the first row of the matrix is divided by A^ and the result

is multiplied in turn by A2^, A^ .... A and subtracted respec­

tively from the second, third, .... and nth rows, the result is an

auxiliary matrix having zeros in place of the elements ^2\' A^ ....

A 1. All elements in the first column which occur below the main
nl
diagonal are zero. This step corresponds to that of eliminating

X^ from all but the first equation as discussed in section 4.3.1.

By following the steps described in section 4.3.1, the set of

equations represented by the augmented matrix below will be obtained.

"1 A' A' 0 0 .. 0

12 13 •• A'i„ R'n

0 1 A'
a 23 • • 0 .. 0
•• A'2„ R' 21 R 22

0 0 A' .. 0
3n R' 31 R' 32 R 33

0 0 0 A’ tr
nn R,m R’„2 R' n3

Our aim now is to obtain a unit matrix from the left hand "A" portion

of the augmented matrix. If the last row of the above matrix is

multiplied by A'^, A* ... A'x ^ n and subtracted from the

first, second ..... (n-l)th rows respectively, zeros are obtained

for all elements in the nth column which lie above the last element.

Next we deal with the (n-l)th column and go through a similar

process and obtain zeros for all elements in that column except

that lying in the (n-l)th row (i.e. along the main diagonal of the
 54

"A" matrix) which has a value of 1.

Finally, we arrive at the augmented matrix below

10 0...
R11 R12 R13 ‘ '

0 10... . R,
R21 R22 R23 * ‘

0 0 1 . . 0 . R • R,
31 R32 R33

0 0 0 • • 1 • Rnl Rn2 Rn3 • * * • Rnn

The equations which correspond to this matrix are:

2
k = 1
RikBk
(4.3.12)

where i = 1,2,3..... n

and thus the above square matrix whose elements are R's is the

inverse of the matrix A.

4.3.3 Pivoting

The multipliers A'are obtained by dividing the coefficient of

the unknown to be eliminated by the pivot A’jj. If the pivot is

zero or if a pivot becomes zero during the process of elimination,

then the method runs into difficulties; i.e. at some stage the

computer will attempt to divide by zero, in which case computations

cease and an error condition is flagged by the computer. Generally

the solution will be inaccurate if the pivot is very small and the

multipliers large. Although zero pivots may occur, this does not

necessarily mean that no solution exists. This may be overcome by

suitable rearrangement of the order in which the equations are used

and the order in which the unknowns X,, Xn .... X . are eliminated

A routine could be introduced in the programme whereby the computer

 55

searches for the maximum value of pivot element and ensures that

the condition of "zero divide" does not occur. This additional

programming was not undertaken by the author since although the

30 and 10/E fault calculation programmes have been used frequently

at Prospect for a variety of system admittances, the problem of

"zero divide" has not as yet occurred.

4.3.4 Ill-Conditioned Matrices

The length of a "computer word" is limited, and thus the computer

can operate on a limited set of significant digits provided in a

computer word. For example, a computer may be able to store a

maximum of ten (10) digits to represent a number. Errors introduced

by word size limitations are called round-off errors. Equations

whose solution is very sensitive to changes in the values of the

coefficients are termed ill-conditioned. A matrix whose elements

are the coefficients of such a group of equations is referred to

as an ill-conditioned matrix. The calculated solution for a system

of ill-conditioned equations may vary greatly from the exact

solution because of the limitation of the computer's accuracy due

to the limited word length. Golden (reference 33, p. 232) quotes

the following example:

l.OOx + 1.OOOOOOOy = 0

l.OOx + .99999999y = 1

The solution is
,8 ,8
x 10 and y = -10

Now if round-off errors change the original equations to

l.OOx + 1.OOOOOOOOy = 0

l.OOx + 1.00000001y = 1

then the new solution becomes

8
x and y = 10
 56

4.3-5 Measure of Ill-Conditioning

Several measures of the ill-condition of a matrix A exist and

33
according to Golden the most important of these is the ratio

P (A) A
H'
(4.3.13)

where \ is the maximum and jju the minimum eigenvalue of A.

Some other pertinent relations quoted by the same author are given

below.
-1
N (A) (4.3.14)
N

M (A) n max A. . max (4.3.15)

ij Bij
A is the n x n matrix whose condition number P (A) is bounded by

the following relationships:

N (A) < P (A) < nN (A)

< P (A) nM (A)

n ^ ^

The quantity ||a|| is the Euclidean norm of A and is the square root

of the sum of the squares of all elements in A.

f II II

>■:
i = 1 j = 1
(A. .)
ij
(4.3.16)

Golden further remarks that if the condition number P (A) is higher

3
than 10 then it is fairly safe to conclude that solutions of linear

equations associated with this matrix are meaningless, irrespective

of how many digits are carried in the computation.

4.3.6 Accuracy of the Solution

When direct methods such as the elimination method are used for

solving a system of linear equations or for inverting a matrix,

round-off errors at each stage of the calculations are carried to

the next stage. These errors increase as the work progresses, and
 57

can be a great problem where the number of equations is large.

Care should then be taken to ensure that the number of significant

digits carried by the computer is adequate. Iterative methods on

the other hand tend to be self-correcting and round-off errors

in one iteration tend to be corrected in subsequent iterations.

Ideally the residual vector R should be zero when an alleged

solution is computed for the equation AX = B, where

R = B - AX (4.3.17)

This is seldom the case due to round-off errors and their accumula­

tion. However, if the number of equations is limited and the

associated matrix is not ill-conditioned, R approaches zero

sufficiently closely for most practical purposes. For an error

analysis for the Gaussean Elimination Method the reader should

consult reference 26.

 58

4.4 Determination of 3 Phase Fault Currents

Having formed the admittance matrix for the system, the Gaussean

Elimination Method may be used to find the inverse Y matrix

Z = Y For convenience the necessary equations are repeated

below.

= Y, V, (4.4.1)
*bus bus bus

V, = Z, (4.4.2)
bus bus *bus

Equation (4.4.2) may be written as follows:

fv
1
' fz ,
11
z
12
z
13
.... z
In
n i
>
CM

Z21 Z22 Z23 .......... Z2n X2

V z, z0 z „ ..... z I
_ n nl n2 n3 nn n

The currents in the fault and throughout the system can be expressed

in terms of the applied voltages and driving point and transfer

impedances (elements of the Z matrix). Now if a fault is applied to

bus n, then

V =0, and
n

Vx = 1 p.u.

Load currents are not taken into consideration since good accuracy

is achieved by considering the only current flowing as being due to

the application of the fault. Fault currents are in general highly

reactive, and for the circuits under consideration they are in general

several times greater than load currents which are nearly at unity

power factor, and thus almost in quadrature. Consequently, even if

load currents were taken into account in a fault study, they would

not increase the fault current magnitude appreciably. Returning now

 59

to equation (4.2.1) and (4.4.2), we have

(a) V 0
n

(b) 1
vi ■

(c) 0
*
(d) 0 for k f n
l— I

ii
>
r —H

I = total fault current (4.4.4)

II

E
*>

nn

1.0 /0°

The distribution of fault current may now be found from a considera­

tion of transfer impedances and voltage drops. The voltage at any

bus k is the sum of the prefault voltage and the voltage produced by

the injection of a current - 1^ at bus n, i.e

I Z. (4.4.5)
vk n kn

where = the prefault voltage at bus k

= the postfault voltage at bus k

All prefault voltages are taken as 1 p.u. in these studies, and

equation (4.4.5) reduces to

V; = 1 - I Z, (4.4.6)
k n kn

Once the voltage distribution in the faulted network has been

obtained, the fault current flowing in any branch may be found. For

example, the current flowing between nodes k and m

I (4.4.7)
k-m

where Z^_m is the impedance of the transmission line joining nodes

k and m.
 60

Summarising, it will be seen that determination of fault currents

involves the following steps:

(a) Form system bus admittance matrix in the same manner as

that used in the load flow programme except that generators

(in this case the E.C.N.S.W. supply point) are connected

to the zero potential bus through their leakage impedances.

(b) Invert the admittance matrix to qive the matrix Z, whose

a bus
diagonal and off-diagonal elements are the driving point and

transfer impedances respectively.

(c) Use equation (4.2.1) to determine the total fault current

at the point of fault.

(d) Determine the voltage at every bus in the system by using

equation (4.4.6).

(e) Determine the current flowing in individual lines by using

equation (4.4.7).

It is worth noting that the inverse admittance matrix (referred to

in this thesis as Y 1 or Z, matrix) is different from the

bus
impedance matrix formed from the coefficients of loop currents, as

in equation (2.2.1). Fig. 4.1 shows the logic flow chart for the

30 fault study programme. Examples of both digital and d-c network

analyser 30 fault studies are included in Appendix 7.

Fig. 4.1 Three Phase Fault Study Logic Flow Diagram
 62

4.5 Determination of Single Phase/Earth Fault Currents

The programme written for the calculation of 10/E fault currents is

similar to that used in the calculation of 30 fault currents. It is

necessary that the positive, negative and zero sequence networks be

connected in series to represent 10/E fault conditions as shown in

Fig. 4.2 below.

Positive and negative sequence impedances in a power distribution

system are normally taken to be identical, i.e. Z1 = Z2. Advantage

was taken of this when writing the computer programme, which uses

only positive and zero sequences impedances as indicated in Fig. 4.2,

thus economising in matrix storage requirements and computation time.

Initially, the nodal positive sequence admittance matrix is formed

and inverted, using the Gaussean elimination process, and the Zl^us

matrix thus formed is stored for subsequent use. The diagonal

elements of the matrix are the Thevenin (driving point) positive

sequence impedances as seen from corresponding buses, and the off-

diagonal elements are the positive sequence transfer impedances.

Next, the zero sequence nodal admittance matrix is formed and inverted

in the same manner to obtain the Z0bus impedance matrix. The diagonal

elements of ZO^^ are the Thevenin (driving point) impedances of the

 63

zero sequence circuit, while off-diagonal elements are the zero

sequence transfer impedances.

The total impedance to be used in series for calculation of the

total fault current for a fault at a node j will be

Z = 2Z1. . + ZO.. (4.5.1)

JJ JJ

and the zero sequence fault current 10 is found by use of equation

(4.5.3) below. The positive sequence Thevenin impedance has been

doubled to take into account the identical negative sequence

impedance.
1
10 (4.5.2)
ZO + Z1 + Z2

1
10 (4.5.3)
2Z1.. + ZO..
JJ JJ

Assuming the fault occurs on phase a,

I =10+11+12
a
= 310 since II = 12 = 10

3 (4.5.4)
I
a 2Z1.. + ZO..
JJ JJ

Having found the positive, negative and zero sequence total fault

currents, the problem remains of determining the distribution of

fault current throughout the system. Positive and negative sequence

currents will be distributed in the same way. Zero sequence current

distributions, however, are likely to be considerably different,

XO
particularly where lines having different ratios are interconnected;

where XO and XI are the zero and positive sequence reactance of each

line respectively.

The above calculations are greatly simplified if the principle

of superposition is applied. Each of the three sequence networks

may be considered separately and the sequence voltages found from

the product of the sequence current and the appropriate diagonal

 64

element of Zl, and ZO, matrices,

bus bus

Let VI and V2 be the positive and negative voltage drops

developed in the positive and negative sequence circuits respectively,

then

VI = II.Zl.. (4.5.5)
JJ

V2 = 12.Zl.. (4.5.6)
JJ
Similarly

VO = 10.ZO.. (4.5.7)
JJ

where j is the number of the faulted bus. Each of the above sequence

voltages may now be applied "acting alone" to their respective

sequence networks and the respective current distribution calculated

in the same way as 30 fault current distributions were calculated.

The steps involved are as follows:

(a) Form the positive sequence admittance matrix Yl^ and

invert this to obtain the matrix Zl,

bus
(b) Form the zero sequence admittance matrix YO^ and invert

this to obtain the matrix ZO,

bus
(c) Calculate the total fault current flowing into the fault,

using equation (4.5.4).-

(d) Calculate the positive sequence voltage distribution due to

the application of a voltage of magnitude II.Zl.. between

•J J
the faulted bus and the zero potential bus in the positive

sequence circuit.

(e) Calculate the zero sequence voltage distribution due to the

application of a voltage of magnitude IO-ZO^. between the

faulted bus and the zero potential bus in the zero sequence

circuit. The sequence voltages at a busbar j may be calculated

by use of equation (4.4.5), thus

II .Zl.. II.Zl. . (4.5.8)

vlk JJ kj
I
Read in the values of
N, LN, SPZ and IMP

Is N=0? Read in data for single line

diagram of network

Print single line diagram

Read in line zero sequence
impedance data
Read in line positive sequence
impedance data

Form and print out the zero Form and print out the positive
sequence bus admittance sequence bus admittance matrix
matrix

IMP=1? Use the Gaussean Elimination Method

to find the Z1 matrix
Use the Gaussean Elimination
Method to calculate the
ZO, matrix
Print out the Z1 matrix

Temporarily store the Z1 matrix

Print out the ZO matrix
as the matrix Y1

Set bus count k

Calculate the zero sequence current flowing for a

10/E fault at bus k

+ ZO,

Calculate the positive sequence bus voltages

10, (Z1

Calculate the distribution of positive and negative

sequence fault currents in the various lines

m-n

Calculate the zero sequence bus voltages

IU, (ZO,

Calculate the distribution of zero sequence current

m-n

Calculate I + 10 for all lines

where I the total fault current in the

transmission line

Print results

Advance bus count, k

k > N?

o
Fig. 4.4 Single Phase/Ground Fault Study Logic Flow Chart o
 65

and

VO,’ = 10.ZO.. - 10.ZO. . (4.5.9)

k JJ kj

(f) Calculate the positive sequence current distribution in the

positive sequence circuit using equation (4.4.7) doubling

the value of each individual line current to take into

account the identical negative sequence current.

(g) Calculate the zero sequence current distribution in the zero

sequence circuit using equation (4.4.7).

(h) Sum the three sequence currents to find the total phase a

fault current in each transmission line.

The logic flow diagram for 10/E fault calculations is included as

Fig. 4.4. Both digital and d-c network analyser fault calculations

for a 10/E fault on each bus of a 33kV subtransmission system are

included in Appendix 8.
 67

5- CONCLUSIONS

The first programme attempted by the author was the Gauss-Seidel

programme written in the PL/1 programming language. All complex numbers

were represented by matrices and consequently all multiplication of

complex numbers involved matrix multiplication. Every effort was made to

minimise the amount of computer memory storage required by using some of

the advanced facilities of PL/1 which permit certain procedures or sub-

programmes to be activated only for as long as required during a particular

phase of the calculation^. These factors, in combination with the use

of connection matrices to form the bus admittance matrix, resulted in a

rather "long" and intricate programme, requiring a large number of runs

to debug.

Difficulties were also experienced in obtaining adequate tutorial

material on the PL/1 language - the only comprehensive volume available at

the time being reference 38, which appears to do little to reveal the

ramifications of PL/1 except to those who already have a good working

knowledge of the language. However, of even greater importance was the

limited I.ELM. 360/50 computer time availability (to the author) and the

relatively long compilation time of the PL/1 compiler (1968 version),

resulting in excessive use of computer time during the debugging process.

For these reasons the author felt that it would be more economical to

write a new load flow programme using the Fortran language and another

computer, even though work on the Gauss-Seidel programme had progressed

to a stage where some answers were being produced.

The few successful computer runs suggested that the Gauss-Seidel

process was very sensitive to the value of the acceleration factor. More

experimental work will need to be done on this, however, before a firm

conclusion can be reached.

 68

Use of connection matrices for the relatively simple circuits

considered in this thesis appears to be of rather dubious value whilst

the representation of every complex number as a matrix results in cumber­

some algebra. These difficulties were largely avoided in the Ward-Hale

programme in which use was made of a "connection table" when forming the

bus admittance matrix.

It is of interest to note that for a 4 bus system, convergence

within the tolerance of .0002 was obtained after 9 iterations with the

Ward-Hale programme and that for emergency conditions (having one line

out at a time) only 4 or 5 additional iterations were in general required

to solve the load flow problem. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that

once the initial set of node voltages is obtained, alteration of system

connections will not greatly alter the node voltages. The Ward-Hale

programme has been used in conjunction with a large number of system

configurations with complete success.

The three phase and single phase/ground fault calculation programmes

have been used to solve for faults on a variety of circuits with complete

success although no attempt has been made to guard against the possibility

of "zero divide" occurring during the admittance matrix inversion process.

It would appear that in general admittance matrices for circuits in the

Prospect system are relatively "well conditioned".

A d-c network analyser was used to perform load flow, three phase

and single phase/ground fault calculations to enable a comparison to be

made with the digital computer result. In each case the results are

substantially identical if slight meter inaccuracies are allowed for.

The limited core storage of the 1401 computer (16K) has limited the

maximum number of nodes which can be dealt with in any load flow problem

to 5. This may be extended to perhaps 7 if there is only one line

 69

connecting each node. Similar remarks apply to the fault study

programmes. However, if it is desired to deal with larger circuits,

then use could be made of auxiliary storage devices such as magnetic tape

or magnetic disc storage, following slight modifications to the existing

programmes.

Data preparation for the Ward-Hale and both of the fault study

programmes has been kept simple and is in fact almost identical to that

required for a network analyser study, except for a few control parameters.

Thus, it has been demonstrated that load flow, three phase and

single phase/ground fault study programmes having general application in

an electrical distribution system have been prepared. They are written

in the Fortran IV computer programming language and are suitable for use

on an I.B.M. 1401 computer.

 70

REFERENCES

1. Ward, J.B., and Hale, H.W. , "Digital Computer Solution of Power Flow
Problems", Trans. A.I.E.E., Vol.75, Pt. Ill, June 1956, pp. 398-402.

2. Ralston, A., and Wilf, H.S., "Mathematical Methods for Digital

Computers", New York, Wiley, 1960.

3. Furst, G.B., and Heal, N.F., "Digital Load Flow Studies, The Snowcom
Load Flow Programme", Journal I.E. Aust., December 1962.

4. Sproule, J., Grainger, A.W. , and Hailstone, G.J., "Application of

Computers in Planning the New South Wales Transmission System", I.E.
Aust., Power System Conference, Melb., August 1967.

5. Sasson, A.M., and Fernando, J.J., "Digital Methods Applied to Power

Flow Studies", Trans. I.E.E.E., Vol. PAS - 86, No.7, July 1967.

6. Laughton, M.A., and Humphrey Davies, M.W., "Numerical Techniques in

Solution of Power - System Load Flow Problems", Proc. I.E.E., Vol. Ill,
No.9, September 1964.

7. Hale, H.W., and Goodrich, R.W. , "Digital Computation of Power Flow -

Some New Aspects", Trans. A.I.E.E., 1959, 78, Pt. IIIA, p. 919.

8. Van Ness, J.E. , "Iteration Methods for Digital Load Flow Studies",
Trans. A.I.E.E., Vol.78, Pt. IIIA, August 1959, pp. 583-588.

9. Van Ness, J.E., "Convergence of Iterative Load Flow Studies", Trans.

A.I.E.E., Vol.78, Pt. IIIB, February 1960, pp. 1590-1595.

10. Van Ness, J.E., and Griffen, H.H., "Elimination Methods for Load Flow
Studies", Trans. A.I.E.E., Vol.80, Pt. Ill, No.54, June 1961, pp. 299-
304.

11. John, M.N., "A General Method of Digital Network Analysis Particularly
Suitable for Use with Low Speed Computers", Proc. I.E.E., Vol.108,
Pt. A, No. A1, October 1961, pp. 369-382.

12. Gupta, P.P., and Humphrey Davies, M.W., "Digital Computers in Power
System Analysis", Proc. I.E.E., Vol. 108, Pt. A, No.41, October 1961,
pp. 383-398.

13. Coombe, L.W. , and Lewis, D.G., "Digital Calculation of Short Circuit
Currents in Large Complex Impedance Networks", Trans. A.I.E.E.,
Pt. Ill, Vol. 76, 1957, p. 1934.

14. Hoare, P.J., "Power System Load Flow Solution by Digital Computer",
Paper was read at a Power System Seminar at the University of
Brisbane, 1964.

15. Freris, L.L., "Computer Load - Flow Analysis", Pt. I, Electrical Times,
22nd June 1967.

16. F reris, L.L. , ibid, Pt. II, ibid 13th July, 1967.

17. F reris, L.L. , ibid, Pt. Ill, ibid 20th July, 1967.
 71

18. Prebble, W.A., "The Digital Solution of the Load Flow Problem by
Elimination", Paper 2293, A.I. Australian Power System Conference,
Melb., August 1967.

19. Bramellor, A., and Denmead, J.K., "Some Improved Methods for Digital
Network Analysis", Proc. I.E.E., 1962, 109A, pp. 109-116.

20. Converti, V., "Applications of Row by Row Matrix Inversion to Power

System Problems", Trans. A.I.E.E., 1959, 78, Part III, p. 413.

21. Sato, N., "Digital Calculation of Network Inverse and Mesh Trans­
formation Matrices", ibid, 1960, 79, Part III, p. 719.

22. Tinney, W.F., and McIntyre, C.M., "A Digital Method for Obtaining a
Loop Connection Matrix", ibid, 1960, 79, Part III, p. 740.

23. Brown, H.E., Person, C.E., Kirchmayer, L.K., and Stagg, G.W., "Digital
Calculation of Three Phase Short Circuit by Matrix Method", ibid,
1961, 79, Part III, p. 1277.

24. Brown, H.E., Carter, G.K., Happ, H.H., and Person, C.E., "Power Flow
Solution by Impedance Matrix Iterative Method", ibid, 1963, 82,
Part III, p. 1.

25. Carre, B.A., "The Determination of the Optimum Accelerating Factor

for Successive Over Relaxation", Computer Journal, 1962, 4, p. 73.

26. "Modern Computing Methods", H.M. Stationery Office, 1961.

27. Householder, A.S., "Principles of Numerical Analysis", McGraw-Hill,

1953.

28. Varga, R.S., "Matrix Iterative Analysis", Prentice-Hall, 1962.

29. Mortlock, J.R., and Davies, M.W.H., "Power System Analysis", Chapman
and Hall, 1952.

30. Clarke, E., "Circuit Analysis of A-C Power Systems", Vol. 1, Wiley,
1943.

31. Stagg, G.W., El-Abiad, A.H., "Computer Methods in Power System

Analysis", McGraw-Hill, 1968.

32. Stigant, S.A., "Matrix and Tensor Analysis in Electrical Network

Theory", Macdonald, 1964.

33. Golden, J.T., "Fortran IV Programming and Computing", Prentice-Hall,

1965.

34. Kron, G., "Tensors for Circuits", Dover Publications, Inc., New York,
1959.

35. Fox, L., "An Introduction to Numerical Linear Algebra", Claredon

Press Oxford, 1964.

36. Weinberg, G.M., "PL/1 Programming Primer", McGraw-Hill, 1966.

37. I.B.M., "A PL/1 Primer", Form C28 - 6808 - 0, 1965.

 72

38. I.B.M., "I.B.M. Operating System/360, PL/1, Language Specifications”,

Form C28 - 65 - 71 - 2, 1966.

39. I.B.M., "Introduction to I.B.M. Data Processing Systems”, Form C20 -

1684 - 0, 1967.

40. Laughton M.A., ’’Numerical Methods of Load Flow Analysis”, Section 3,

The Use of Digital Computers in Electric Power Systems. (Book)
Edited Dineley, Oriel Academic Publications,1967.
 APPENDIX 1

DESCRIPTION OF THE PROSPECT ELECTRICITY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

 74

APPENDIX 1

DESCRIPTION OF THE PROSPECT COUNTY COUNCIL

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Introduction

The function of the Prospect County Council is to supply and

distribute electricity to an area comprising the Cities of Parramatta

(major part), Penrith and Liverpool; the Municipalities of Blacktown,

Fairfield, Holroyd and Windsor; and the Shires of Baulkham Hills and Colo,

as indicated in Fig. A.1.1. The total area served is 1,670 square miles.

THE ENTRANCE

ST. ALBAN'Sj
GOSFORD

WISEMAN'S FERRY

COLO..

KURRAJON'
■•wrichmond
BILPIN • WINDSOR • HORNSBY

EPPING •

BLACKTOWN • SYDNEY
PARRAMATTA
1ST. MARY'S#
S # PENRITH

FAIRFIELD •

• WALL AC1A
LIVERPOOL

Fig. A.1.1
 75

As of 30th September, 1968, Council supplied electricity to 159,879

consumers. These consumers are divided into the following categories:

Domestic 146,358

Commercial 12,367

and Industrial 1,154

Included in the Domestic category is the Rural consumer and of these there

are approximately 5,000. The growth rate in the area is approximately

10% per annum.

The following information has been tabulated to indicate the present

commitment and growth rate of the Council:

MAXIMUM DEMAND: 1956/57 .. .. 55 MVA

(96 MVA added as a result of
extensions to area)

1966 365 MVA

1967 385 MVA

1968 463 MVA

TOTAL TRADING EXPENDITURE: 1957 $4 Million

1965 $22 Million

1967 $35 Million

1968 $38 Million

(Estimated)

Electricity Commission Bulk Supply Points 6

Prospect County Council Zone Substations 30

llkV Feeders and Distributors 170

(Lengths vary from 1 mile to 50 miles)

Voltage Regulators

Distribution Substations (10 KVA - 1000 KVA) 4000

(approx.)
 76

System Layout

Power is taken from five 132/33kV and one 132/66kV E.C.N.S.W. Bulk

Supply Points and distributed at llkV from Council's 66/llkV and 33/llkV

zone substations to llkV/415V transformers throughout the area. 33kV and

66kV networks connecting supply points and zone substations are generally

interconnected through O.C.B.’s and busbars inside the substation or

switching station yard. In recent times "tail-ending" of transformers*

in zone substations has been used. A geographic drawing of the circuit

shown in Fig. 3.3, p. 26 is included as Fig. A.1.2 below. In the vast

majority of cases, subtransmission lines are less than 20 miles in length

and thus line shunt capacitances can be safely neglected.

Generally, the system is arranged in such a way that only one (1)

supply point and no more than 6 zone substations are interconnected.

Facilities are provided for the interconnection of any two supply points

through the subtransmission system but this is used only in cases of

emergency. The system, therefore, comprises a number of simple systems

having fewer than 8 busbars (making allowance for "T" connection of lines

in the field), one of them a fixed voltage bus (E.C.N.S.W. Supply Point

bus) and the others having fixed P and Q requirements.

* Connecting a transformer directly to a transmission line without an

intervening O.C.B.
 77

GUILDFORD E.C. of N.S.IIf.

132/33kV SUPPLY POINT

FAIRFIELD
Z.S.
\ 33/1lkV /

YENNORA
Z.S.
33/llkV

^FAIRFIELD
RLY. STATION

Scale: 20 chains

33kV SUBTRANSMISSION FEEDERS, GUILDFORD - FAIRFIELD - YENNORA

1969 - 1970

Fig. A.1.2
 APPENDIX 2

SYSTEM DATA REQUIRED FOR LOAD FLOW PROGRAMMES

 79

APPENDIX 2

LOAD FLOW DATA PREPARATION

The data input required by both the Gauss-Seidel programme and the

Ward-Hale programme is described below. Quantities are in p.u., based on

100 MVA. A single line diagram is generally necessary but it is omitted

here to conserve space.

Gauss-Seidel Programme Data Requirements

(a) The first data card must contain: the total number of transmission

lines in the system; number of branches in the network tree; number

of links in the network graph; and the number of nodes in the network.

All of the above numbers must be integers and separated by a comma (,)

e.g. 5, 5, 4, 5. All nodes and lines are to be numbered and they may

be numbered in any sequence with the proviso that the bulk supply

point bus (being the swing bus) is numbered 1.

(b) The next card/cards contain the specified power and the order in

which the values appear will determine the bus to which they will

be assigned. For the Prospect system, power must be specified for

every bus except the swing bus. If two or more transmission lines

are connected together at a point (node) but not delivering power

at the point, this node must still be regarded as a bus supplying

zero power. First the real and then the reactive power for each bus

is written down for each node in turn. For example: P,Q,P,Q(P,Qt

etc. where the first P and Q values are assigned to the first bus

(and must be zero), the second P and Q values are assigned to bus

No.2 etc. Floating point* input is used for P,Q and for line resist­

ances and reactances which are read in next in a similar manner to

P and Q. It is important to note that the order in which the

* Floating point quantities are quantities which can have, but do not
require, a non-zero fractional part. For example, the numbers 6.1, 9.0,
3.1417 are floating point numbers; an integer quantity is one having no
fractional part - e.g. 1, 3, 78, etc.
 80

resistances and reactances are read should correspond to the numbering

of the transmission lines.

A connection table is provided next, and this permits identification

of the line with the nodes it connects. Three integer numbers: A, B, C,

appear on a card where:

(i) A is the number of the line.

(ii) B and C are the two nodes it joins.

Finally, the connection matrix is read in, row by row. Input is

integer input.

Ward-Hale Programme Data Requirements

Format** statements are used in this programme. This means that when

numbers are being punched onto cards, a specific number of columns on the

card must be allocated to each number. For any single run, data input may

be one of the two following types. Both types are identified by a control

card which precedes the data.

Type 1 Data: Cards are prepared as follows:

(a) Card 1 - This is a control card; columns 1-5 must read 00001.

(b) Card 2 - This contains the number of nodes (n) in the system in

the first 5 columns, and the number of lines (m) in

columns 6-10. For example, if n = 4 and m = 7, the

card would bear the following numbers: 0000400007.

(c) The next m cards contain the numbers of the terminating nodes

of each of the m branches and also the current rating of the

line concerned. The two nodes connected are contained in columns

1-5 and 6-10 respectively while the rating which is in p.u. and

** A format statement describes the form of the data being read, printed,
punched, etc. and it specifies three things:
(a) Mode of the quantity: whether floating point or integer.
(b) Field size: the number of columns on a card which is to be made
available for the quantity.
(c) Location of the decimal point: this is expressed as the number
of places from the right hand side of the number.
 81

is contained in columns 11-16 is a floating point number.

Example: assume a line having a rating of 0.62 p.u. connects

nodes 2 to 7 - this would be punched 00002000070.6200.

(d) Following these cards will be another m cards which contain the

resistance and reactance of each line (branch), one line per

card. The input is floating point and the values of resistance

and reactance are in p.u. and punched on columns 1-10 and 11-20

respectively. For example, if the line impedance is Z = .04 +

j.l, this is punched: 0000000.040000000.10.

(e) Scheduled real and reactive power is contained in the next n

cards (one card per node, including node No.l). The first

card, which is associated with the swing bus must have zeros

punched in columns 1-20. Input is floating point and the real

power P is punched in columns 1-10 while the reactive power Q

is punched in columns 11-20.

Type 2 Data: When it is required to perform another load flow study with

different scheduled powers but using the same transmission system as used

immediately before, recomputation of the admittance matrix is unnecessary

when the studies are carried out in succession. The first card of this

data set (which can only follow and not precede a type 1 data set) bears

the number 00002 in columns 1-5.

By means of this control card, programme control proceeds directly to

the statement on line 32 of the Ward-Hale programme computer printout

(see Appendix 6). From this point onwards in the programme the new

scheduled power is read inby the computer and another load flow

calculation completed.

The last data card is a control card and should bear the number 00003

in columns 1-5. This will cause the computation to terminate. The above

information is all that is required for the preparation of data for the

running of the programme.

 APPENDIX 3

CONNECTION MATRICES
 83

APPENDIX 3

CONNECTION MATRICES

A mesh-current connection matrix is a transformation matrix which is

so related to the matrices of the branch and loop currents that

I, . = CIn (A.3.1)
branch loop

where IL . is a b dimensional vector and I. is an n dimensional

branch loop
vector and C is the b x n connection matrix. Connection matrices are very

useful in developing the mesh-current or node voltage equations of a net­

work particularly if there is mutual coupling between the branches and the

network is large.

Primitive Networks

If all interconnections between impedances in a network are removed

and the impedances are short circuited as shown in Fig. A.l.a and A.l.c

below, a network is formed which is known as the primitive network.

Fig. A.1
 84

The network components are thus defined in terms of the simplest possible

reference frame, which is that which views the impedance components of

the network each from its own individual terminals. Now if branch 1 in

Fig. A.l.a has an internal driving voltage in it of e^ and it is short

circuited, the current flowing can be found from the equation

ex = ZY il (A.3.2)

where Z^ is the impedance of branch 1.

Similar equations can be written for the other branches and are included

below

e2 Z2 12

p — 7 \
3 3 3

e4 = Z4 J4

e5 = Z5 *5

The whole set can be conveniently represented by the matrix equation

"Z 0 0 0 o'
' el b'
o
N

o
o
o
ro

e2 22
O
O

o
N

e0 io3 (A.3.3)
(

3 r

0 0 0 ZA 0 i .
4 4 4

0 0 0 0 z,-
e5 o i5.

or, in shorthand form

e = Z i (A.3.4)
P

The matrix Z is known as the generalised impedance matrix or impedance

P
32
tensor
 85

Connection Matrices

When the elements of the primitive network are connected into an actual

network, a set of mesh-current equations can be found which may be

represented by the matrix equation

E = Z I (A.3.5)

where E and I are column vectors of mesh voltages and mesh currents

respectively, and Z is the square matrix of the mesh self and mutual

impedances. When the actual network is formed, certain constraints are

imposed and these constraints are defined by expressing branch currents in

terms of mesh currents, or "old” currents in terms of "new" currents. Thus,

we have (referring to Fig. A.l.a)

These relations may be represented by a connection matrix C such that

C I (A.3.6)
*old new

Mesh
12 3
Branch
1 1 0 0

2 1 -1 0

C = 3 0 1 0

4 0 1 -1

5 0 0 1

A connection matrix relating mesh driving voltages to primitive branch

voltages can be set up in a similar manner.

 86

el + e2

e3 + e4 e2

er - e.
5 4

or

C'e (A.3.7)

where

Branch
1 2 3 4 5
Mesh
1 1 1 0 0 0

= 2 0 -1 1 1 0

3 0 0 0 -1 1

The connection matrix C' will be seen to be the transpose of the connection

matrix C, i.e.

c = Ct

34
Kron proves this last relation by using the fact that power is invariant

when going from one reference frame to another, and the proof is included

below

Let p = instantaneous power in one frame of reference

p' = instantaneous power in the new frame of reference

p = e i (A.3.8)

and
p’ = e'i ’ (A.3.9)

Let the currents be changed from i to i' by the transformation

i = C i’ (A.3.10)

now
P = P'

or
e i = e' i ' (A.3.11)
 87

Substituting Ci' for i in equation (A.3.11) results in

eCi’ = e’ i’ (A.3.12)

e C = e' (A.3.13)

e’ = C e (A.3.14)

By substituting equation (A.3.4) in equation (A.3.7) we have

E = C' Z i (A.3.15)
P

and substituting equation (A.3.6) in equation (A.3.15) we have

E = C’ Z C I (A.3.16)
P

But E = Z I from equation (A.3.5)

Thus, we conclude that

Z = C’ Z C (A.3.17)
P

Z = C Z C (A.3.18)
t p

The mesh impedance matrix may now be obtained by carrying out the matrix

multiplication indicated in equation (A.3.18) as shown below with reference

to Fig. A.l.a, using the above values of C and C^.

 88

Z i + Z2 -z, 0

-Zo Z2 + z3 + Z4 (A.3.19)
~Z4
-z. z. + zr

Node Voltage Connection Matrices

With the nodal method the solution is obtained in terms of the voltages of

the nodes relative to the voltage of a refereace node (in the case of 30

power systems this is generally the system neutral point). This is illus­

trated in Fig. A.3 which is related to the circuit of Fig. 3.1, page g1
When there is an impedance in series with the voltage source, the network

component may be represented in admittance form as shown in Fig. A.2.b.

AAA/W
v -v

O---------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------- o
(a)

V - V

ab ab
O-------------- -------------------- ------------------— ----------- —-----------------------------------------O
(b)

Fig. A.2 - Representation of a Network Component in

(a) Impedance Form
(b) Admittance Form

In Fig. A.2.b, i .+ i’ = y , e . (A.3.20)

3 ab ab Jab ab

The parallel source current in admittance form is related to the series

driving voltage in impedance form by

i' = -v e (A.3.21)
ab yab ab
 89

A/VVVVW

Fig. A.3

In general, the driving currents i may be expressed in terms of the driving

voltages e by the matrix equation

i = Y e (A.3.22)
P
Nodal driving currents (the total current injected at each node) in the

connected network are related to the driving voltages by

I = Y V (A.3.23)

where Y is the nodal admittance matrix. The manner in which the network

is connected applies constraints to the branch voltages. These constraints

are defined by expressing the branch voltages e as functions of the nodal

voltages V. They are related by the equation

e = C V (A.3.24)

The nodal currents I are related to the branch currents i by the equation

I = C i (A.3.25)

where C is the transpose of the nodal connection matrix C.

By eliminating branch currents i from equation (A.3.25) using equation

(A.6.22), we have

I = Ct Yp e (A.3.26)
 90

Eliminating e by using equation (A.3.24)

I = C Y C V (A.3.27)
t p
and the nodal admittance matrix Y is given by

Y = C. Y C (A.3.28)
t p

Admittance matrix Y is known as the branch admittance matrix whose off-

P
diagonal elements are zero in the absence of mutual coupling between

branches and those diagonal elements are the admittances of each element

of the network. Using the above method, the admittance matrix for the

network of Fig. A.3 will now be formed. Let e^ denote the voltage across

branch k in the network and indicate the voltage across a branch forming

part of a tree, then for the network in Fig. A.3 with the tree shown in

heavy lines in Fig. A.4, the following relations apply: where k= l,2,3...s,

and j = 1,2....(b-1), s = total number of elements in the circuit and

b = the number of branches.

e V
1 1
V
2
e
3

(A.3.29)

e
6

Fig. A.4
 91

Thus, the connection matrix is

1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
(A.3.30)
-1 1 0
0 -1 1
1 0 -1J

Using the matrix from equation (A.6.30) for C, equation (A.6.28) may be

written as

Y1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 -1 0 1 Y2
0 0 YoO D 0 0
0 1 0 1 -1 0
0 0 0 0 0
^4
0
u
0 1 0 1 -1 0 0 0 3 Yc 0
5
0 0 0 3 0
Y6

"1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
"Y1 -Y4 Y6
o o 1
0 0 -Y 5 0
Y2 Y4
-1 1 0
0 0 0 Y5
Y3 -Y6 0 -1 1
1 0 -1_

-i
ft. + Y. + Y, Y. -Y,
1 4 6 4 6
-Y.
4 Yn2 + Y 4. + Y_b -Y-
5
Y
-Y6 Y5 3 + Y5 + Y6

It will be noticed that the reference node has been numbered 0 and thus

all voltages Vj, j = 1,2....n, are in fact the corresponding node voltages

with respect to node 0 (system ground or neutral point). Of course, any

node may be used as reference node if desired and each would lead to a

different admittance matrix.

 92

APPENDIX 4

Note: This programme is still in the developmental

stage and, as an aid to debugging, certain
apparently meaningless statements have been
inserted at various places in the programme.
These statements in no way affect the operation
of the programme but will help in segmenting
the programme into sections which will aid in
the detection and location of possible errors.
LCAOFLt:PROCEDURE CPI IC jS(PAIN ) ;

LCAOFLC:PROCEDURE CRT IGNS(MAIN);

/*(-INENO = TOTAL NUMBER OF LINES IN SYSTEM */
/*BRANCHNO = NUMBER OF LINKS BETWEEN NODES EXCLUDING Trie NEUTRAL NODE */
/*LINKNO = TOTAL NUMBER OF LINKS BETWEEN NODES INCLUDING NEUTRAL */
/* N = NUMBER OF NODES EXCLUDING NEUTRAL */
/* C IS THE CONNECTION TENSER (OK MATRIX) */
/* COLUMN VECTOR YR CONTAINS THE REAL PART OF THE TOTAL BRANCm ADMITTANCE */
/* BETWEEN NCDE PAIRS, */
/* COLUMN VECTOR YI CONTAINS THE IMAGINARY PART CF THE TOTAL BRANCH */
/* ADMITTANCE BETWEEN NCDE PAIRS */
/* THE NUMBER OF ELEMENTS IN YK AND YI = LINKNO */
/* COLUMN VECTORS ZR AND LI CONTAIN RESPECTIVELY TritREAL AND IMAGINARY */
/* PARTS OF IMPEDANCE BETWEENNUDE PAIRS (EXCLUDINGNEUTRAL) */
/♦The FAX POSSIBLE NUMbER OF ELEMENTS IN ZR AND ZI - BRANCHNU */
/- THE NUMBER OF ELEMENTS IN MATRIX L=(L1NENG +I)"3« L CONTAINS THE NUMBER OF-/
/* BACH INDIVIDUAL LINE AND THE NUMBERS OF THE TWO NODES wnlCH EACH LI.\~ */
/* JOINS */
/- INC IC =0 IF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SUCCESSIVE VOLTAGE CALCULATIONS AT R VERY */
/* NODE ARE WITHIN THE TOLERANCE SELECTED,AMD « 1 OTHERWISE */
/-(IT) IS THE ITERATION COUNT, MAX IT IS MAX MO OF ITERATIONS STIPULATED -/
/* NUMBER CF ELEMENTS IN CONNECTION MATRIX C = LjNKNO-N */
/* Y IS THE ADMITTANCE MATRIX WHOSE ELEMENTS ARE REAL NUMB ER S » RE PR E SEN TInG ❖/
/* THE REAL and IMAGINARY PARTS OF THE SYSTEM SELF AND MUTUAL ADMITTANCES -/
/* COLUMN VECTOR MAXFLOW CONTAINS MAX WINTER RATING OF EACH LINE «/
/* NUMBER OF ELEMENTS IN MATRIX Y = 2*NX2*N ' */
/* IMPR(I) AND IMPI(I) ARE COLUMN VECTORS CONTAINING THE REAL AND -'■/
/* IMAGINARY PaRTS RESPECT IVLLY OF INDIVIDUAL LINES--------------------------- —-------------------- -*/
/- CULL?MN VEOT0R 1 N0 CCNTA I NS VaLUES 0F NODE CURRENTS N/
DECLARE !LINFNC♦LINKNU,BRANChNU,N) BINARY FIXED;
G ET LIST (LINENL,LiNKNC,BF A iCHNGt N);
AHi Bt C IN ;
DECLARE ( lb ( 2,2 ) , Y(2*N, 2*N) , LIL INENQ + 1,3 ) , ZFU &RANC HNO } , ZI ( BRANCHING ) ,
FINAMP(2,2),AMP(2,2 ) ,MAXFLGwtLINEND),El,E2,P{N),Q(N),PET,
SELF Y{2,2),Z0T<2,2) ,
I MPT ( LINENC) , IP PI (LINEN 0 ) , V ( 2 - N ) , IN 3 { 2 '*■ 4 ) ) BINARY FLOAT,
(C(LINKNO » N),MAX IT) BINARY FIXED,VI BINARY FLOAT INITIAL(O),
( IL I NE, ISP) BINARY FLOAT IN II 1AL!Q ) , M BINARY FIXED INITIAL!2),
(IT,INDIO BINARY FIXED INITIAL(O),
LN BINARY FIXED INITIAL!1);
PUT EDIT!’HEARD MELODIES' )(COL(10),A);
PUT SKIP!?);
/- ISP = TOTAL CURRENT FROM SUPPLY POINT */
/- ALL LINES EMANATING FROM THE SUPPLY POINT (oUS NOD WILL bt CONSIDERED TO*/
/* JOIN BUS 1 TO BUS K (NOT K TO 1) WHEN DETERMINING ELLME NT S OF MATRIX L */
DO J = 1 TO Ni
P(j ) = o;
Q( J ) = o;
END;
/* p AND Q ARE THE REAL AND REACTIVE COMPONENTS OF POWER AT EACH NOOEoFjk */
/* INDUCT IV E LOADS AT ALL LOAD NODES BOTH P AND Q ARE NEGATIVE */
DC I = 1 TC 2*N;
V( I ) = 0;
END.;
PUT E CIT('ARE SWEET' )(A);
PUT SKIP!3) ;
DC I • 2 TC N;
GET L I ST(p{ I) ,Q( I ) ) ;
 LCADFLC:PROCEDURE CRT ICNS(MAIN);

19 END ;
20 DC, I = 1 TO LIN&NG;
21 GET LIST (IMPR{I ),1MPI( I )) ;
22 END ;
/*NOTE THAT IMPEDANCE FROM EACH NODE */
/ *TG NETRAL IS INFINITE (0/C). THUS */
/*ADMITTANCE FROM NETRAL TO NODE =• J */
23 DO I - l TC N;
24 v (I) = 1;
25 END;
26 . V( 2) = ., 955 ; V ( 3) = .96; V(4) = .945;
29 DU I = l TC LINENQ+l;
30 DO J = 1 TC 3 ;
31 GET LISTlUIt J) ) ;
32 END;
33 END ;
34 DO. I = I Tl linknu;
• 35 DO J = 1 TO n;
36 GET L I ST(Cl I,J ) );
37 end;
33 END;
39 PUT EDIT( *BUT THOSE *)(A);
4C PUT SKI PI 3 ) ;
41 DO I = 1 TO LINENS;
42 GET L1ST(MAXF LOW(I) ); *
43 END;
44 'Aa i T - 2UO;
45 CALL ZPI;

/* THE PROCEDURE ZRI CATERS FOR 3 LINES IN PARALLEL BUT IT MAY EASILY BL */
/* MODIFIED TO CATFR FOR ANY REQUIRED NUMBER OF Lite IN PARALLEL */
/* THE EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE iitTWfccN ANY PAIR OF NODES IS STORED IN TwO CGLU-*/
/* MN VECTORS. ZMX) HOLDING THE REAL AND ZI(X) THE IMAGINARY PART OF IMPED-*/
/* ANCE. ZRI COMPUTES EQUIVALENT L OF DIRECT CONDUCTORS BETWEEN NODES. */
/* IT WILL BE ASSUMED IN THIS PROGRAMME THAT NO MORE THAN THREE LINES WILL */
/* BE IN PARALLEL */

ZRI:PROCEDURE;

DECLARE U,H) BINARY FIXED INITIAL! 1);

AA:IF L(F f 2 ) = LIH+i,2 ) THEN
IF L(H »3) = L(H + l»3)THEN GO TO 6B;
ELSE GO TO EE;
ELSE GC TC EE;
BBSOG I = ! TO 2;
DO J = 1 TO 2;
L5( I ,J) = 0;
END;
END ;
PUT EDIT!* UNHEARD* )(A);
PcT SKIP13 );
CALL KAPPA(IMPft(H),IMR IlH),IMP’RlH+l) »IMP I(H+l) ) ;

K A F F A:PRQC£ CUR ClW,X,Y,l ) i

DECLARE lW,XtY»h11(2,2),Z2(2,2),23(2,2),Z4(2,2)) BINARY FLOAT;

/* 21 AND Z2 ARE THE MATRIX EQUIVALENTS OF THE COMPLEX IMPEDANCES OF THE TWO*/
 LCACFLC:PROCEDURE OPTIONS< MAIN);

/* PARALLEL LINES */
63 Zllltl) = w; Zl (1,2 ) = x; z 1(2,1) = -x; zi(2,2> = w;
67 Z2(1,1 ) = y; Z2(1,2) = Z; Z2(2,l) = -Z; Z2(2,2) = y;
71 Z 4 = Zl + Z2;
/* Z1 AND Z2 ARE MATRICES REPRESENTING THE COMPLEX IMPEDANCES */
72 DO I = 1 TO 2;
73 GC J = 1 TC 2;
74 Z3(I ,J) =o;
75 JO K = i TG 2;
76 Z 3 ( I , J) = Z3 ( 1« J ) + Zl( I,K)*Z2(K,J);
77 END ;
76 lND ;
79 tr N 0 »
/* Z3 REPRESENTS THE COMPLEX PRODUCT AND Z4 THE COMPLEX SUM OF /
■-.=

/* Th E INVERSE OF Z4 IS FOUND AS FGLLuwS */

8C Z4(i ,2) = ”24(1,2) ;
81 Z4(2,1 ) = -Z4(2,1);
82 Del = Z4(l,l)**2 + Z4(l,2)**2;
83 CC I = 1 TC 2;
84 DO J = 1 TO 2;
85 Z4(I,J) = Z4(I,J)/DET;
86 DC) K = 1 TO 2i
87 Z5 < I ,J ) = Z5( I,J ) + Z3(I,K)*Z4{K,J);
88 END;
89 - Nu; ....... i
9C END;

1
c, put edit(1 art swelter* ma);
92 PUT SKIP(3 ) ;
93 END KAPPA;

94 IF L(H+1,2) = L(N+2,2) ThEN

95 IF L(H+l,3) = L(H + 2»3) THEN
96 GC TC CC;
97 ELSE OQ; H = H+l; GO TO DD; END;.
101 ELSE D.G; H = H+l; bG TO DO; END;
105 CC: CALL KAPPA< Z5 (1 ,1 ) , Z5( 1 ,2 ) , IMPMH + 2) , IMPI <H+2)) ;
106 H = H + 2;
107 DD: Z R(X ) = Z5(11 1) ; Z1(X) = Z5(l,2);
1C 9 x = x + 1;
nc- GO TG FF ;
ii i. EE: ZR {X > = IMPR(H); ZIIX) = IMPI(H);
113 x = x + 1;
114 F = F + 1;
115 FF: IF H > LINENU THEN GQ TO ENOPRDC;
117 ELSE GG TG AA;

us ENDPRCC: CALL THETA ;

/* THE SEARCH FOR LINES IN PARALLEL AND COMPUTATION OF EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE */

/* BETWEEN EVERY PAIR CF NODES IS NGN COMPLETE */
/* PROCEDURE THETA COMPUTES THE INVERSE OF EACH OF THE DIRECT IMPEDANCE */
/* BETWEEN NODE PAIRS EXCEPT FOR THE IMPEDANCE BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL NODES AND */
/* THE NEUTRAL POINT, */
/* THE ADMITTANCE BETWEEN EaCH NODE AND NEUTRAL IS GENERALLY ZERO IN THE */
/* PROSPECT 33KV SYSTEM EXCEPT WHERE SHIJNT CAPACITORS ARE INSTALLED. */
 LCACFLC:PKUCEDLR F CPT IONS(H AIN) ;

119 THETA : PRCC EDURE;

120 PUT EDIT(»THEREFORE')lA);
121 PUT SKIP(3) ;

122 ,
DECLARE ( S EL FA D ( 2, 2 ), SEL F IMP { 2,2) , YR (LINKN0 L INKNO),
YI(LIMKNQ,LINKNC)) B INARY FLOAT,
X BINARY FIXED INITIALQ) ;
123 DO I = 1 TO LINKED;
: 129 DO J = 3 TO LINKNO;
125 YRUtJ) = 0;
126 YI(I,J) = 0;
END;
END ;
/* SELFIMP IS the TRANSPOSE OF THE MATRIX REPRESENT ING ThL' COMPLEX IMPED-* JCE #/
/* Or LINE/S DIRECTLY JOINING TWO NODES . SELFAu REPRESENTS THE INVERSl Of */
/* THIS IMPEDANCE A/
A : S E L F IM P ( 1 ,1 ) = 2R(X); SELFIMP(1,2) = -ZHX);
S5LFIMP(2»1) = ZI(X); SELFIMP(2,2) = Z R < X);
LET = StLFIMPC1,1)*«2 + SELF1 HP{1,2)**2 ;
DO I = 1 TG 2;
DO J = 1 TO 25
S EL FAD( I » J) = SELFIMPJ I,J)/D£T ;
-END- T
•tND
VI(X,X) = SELFAD(1,2);
Yh (X,X) = SEL FAD(1,1); 1
PUT l 0 IT(’YE SOFT’ ) (A I;
PUT SKIP(3);
x = x + I;
IF X > BRANCHNO THEN GC TO ADMIT; - - -
ELSE GC TO a;
/# p roc tau is l obtained in prop theta wh| ch is cunt a i no u i o p ^ z ri */
tad: procedure;

DECLARE ( CTYR ( N,L I NKNO ) ,'CTY I ( N, L I NKN J ) , G { N, N) , B ( N» N) ) BINARY FLOAT,

C T(N,L INKNQ} BINARY FIXED;
/❖ PRCC TAU COMPUTES THE GENERAL ADMITTANCE MATRIX , BY MEANS OF THE MATRIX */
/* MULT I PL I CAT I ON OPERATI ON CT*YR*C AND CT*YI*C ON T HE REAL AND */
/ * IMAGINARY COLUMN VECTORS YR AND YI */
DC I =1 TO LI NKNC; DU J = 1 TO N; CT (J, I ) = C(I,J); END 5 END 5
00 I = 1 TO n;
DO J = 1 TO LINKNO;
C TYR( I , J ) - 0;
DO K = 1 TG LINKNO;
C T Y R( I , J) = CT( I,K)*YK(K,J) + CTYR(I»J);
END;
end;
end;
PUT EDIT(«PIPES’)(A)i
PUT SK IP!3 ) ;
DO I = 1 TO N;
DO J = 1 TON;
G( I ,J) = D;
D.C K = I TO LINKNUi
G(ltJ) = CTYR(I,K)*.C(K,J) + G(I,J)5
END;
L C A D F L C : P R 0 C. E C U R t C P T IC N S ( M A IN ) ;

£N ) i
l M D;
00 I = 1 TO J;
DO J = 1 TC LINKNO;
C TV I( I , J) = 0;
00 K = 1 TO LINKNO;
C TYI( I , J ) = CT( I , K ) *Y I (K, J ) + CTYI(I,J);
END;
END;
END;
co I = l to n;
do J = 1 TO N;
d(I , J) = 0 5
DO K = 1 ro LINKNO;
B CI» J) = CTYI( I,K)*C(K, J) + B(I,J);
too;
END;
enid;
PUT EDI T ( * PLAY ON MCA);
PUT SKIP{3 ) ;
Du I = I TC i\i
DO J = 1 TO N;
Y (i , J) = b (1, J);
YII+N.J) = o( I , J ) ;
Y(I,J+N) =
Y(I+ N, J + N ) = . 4
END-; ------- - — - -...... ' —,....
LNO;

PUT
L 0 IT{«GATHER YE * I (A) ;
PUT SKIP(3 ) ;
DC I = 1 TC 2*n;
PUT SKIP;
DC J = I TO 2*N;
POT LIST!Y(I,J)>;
END’;
END;
END TAU;

AD Y I T : CALL TAU;

END THETA;

END LRI;

CALC : CALL GAMMA ( P ( M ) , Q ( M ) , V ((■ ) ,V(M + N ) ) ;

CALL DELTA;
CALL ALPHA;

G A YM A: P ROCE DUR L (W , X» Y,Z) ;

/* PRCC GAYMA COMPUTES(P-JC)/V* AT EACH BUSBAR

/* THE MATRIX POW REPRESENTS THE COMPLEX POWER PCM) - JQ(M) AT NODE M
DECLARE (W,X,YfZ,P0W(2*2)tVOLT(2,2)) BINARY FLOAT;
POW(1,1) =’w; PCM 1,2 ) = -X;
PCW(2,1) = x; POW(2,2) = w;
/* V 0 L T C I , J) REPRESENTS THE TRANSPOSE OF THE CONJUGATE OF V CM )
 LCADFLC:PROCEDURE OPTIONS*FAIN ) ;

/* V (iV) = VOLTAGE AT BUS M */

219 VOLT ( 1,1) = V; VOLK 1,2) = l\
221 VCLT(2fl) = -l; VOLT( 2,2) = Y;
22 3 PET = VOLT(1,1)**2 + VOLT(2,2)**2;
22 A DO I = 1 TO 2;
225 DO J = 1 TO"2 ; ----- *R"T" ——
225 VOLT( I , J) - VCLT( I,J)/DtT;
- 22? end; end;
/* THE M A TP. IX V0 L T { I , J ) N CW PE P RESENT S T H E I MV ERSE OF V*( M ) */
L 229 DEL I = 1 TC ;
23 C oc j = l ni 2;
| 231 AMP(I,J) =0;
232 D.O K = 1 TO 2;
> 233 AMP(1 ,J) = AMP (I, J) + POW(I,K)*VOLT(K,J>;
: 2 3A E no ;
12 2 5 . ; . * ------------------- —

2 36 F N D;
237 l NO GAMMA; __ ________ ______
/* PROC ILL ALSO BE USED TU COMPUTE THE CURRENT IN f ACh IMUIVIJUAL */
/* LINE. I(I ,K) = (V( I) - V(K))/Z WHERE L = LPEDANCE OF INDIVIDUAL L IN c */
/* IN THE COMPUTATION FUR LINE CURRENT, VOLT(I,J) WILL ACTUALLY REPRESENT */
/* THE INVERSE OF THE LINE JOINING BUSSES L AND K. THE CALCULATION WILL BE */
/* REPEATED FOR EACH LINE* MATRIX AMP(I,J) WILL NOW REPRESENT THE REAL AND-/
/* IMAGINARY COMPONENTS OF CURRENT FLOWING II LINE* */

/A' CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN WHEN PASSING THE VALUE OF THE COMPLEX NUMBER */
/* Mil) - V(K)TC THE PROCEDURE GAMMA > NOTE THAT THE IMAGINARY COMPONENT */
/* CF THIS NUMBER MuST BE MULTIPLIED BY -1 IN ORDER THAT PROC GAMMA BE USED*/
/* AS IT STANDS */

/* PROC DELTA COMPUTES THE SUM OF ThF PRODUCTS Y(M,K)*E(K), K VARYING FROM */
/* 1 THROUGH TO 2 *N,AND SUBTRACTS FROM THIS SUM THE NUMBER */
/* ( Y { M, M ) * V (Ml + Y ( M, N + M ) *V (M +N ) */

| 233 CELT A:PROCEDURE;

123 9 DECLARE
( A ii P Y ( 2 ) , V 0 L T A ( 2 ) ) BINARY FLOAT;
1290 IN G (M ) = 0;
1241 INGtM + N) =0;
| 2L2 00 K = 1 TO 2*N;
1243 I”N0 ( M) = I NC < M ) + Y(M,K > *V(K) ;
244 . . IN0(M +N) = 1NC(M+N) + Y ( M+N, K ) *V< K ) ;
i 24 5 END;
/* THE MATRIX SFLFY REPRESENTS THE COMPLEX SELFACM ITTANCE OF NODE M */
/* COLUMN VECTOR VOLTA COMPLEX VOLTAGE OF NODE */
/T COLUMN VECTOR AMPY REPRESENTS COMPLEX CURRENT */
: 24 6 SELFY(1,1) = Y(M , M); S£LFY(1,2) = -Y(M+N,M);
: 2-k SELF Y(2,1 ) - Y(N+N,M); SELFY(2,2) = Y(M,M)5
■2 5C V.ULTA(l) = V < i) ; VOLT A(2 ) = V(M+N);
2 52 DO I = 1 TU 2;
253 AMP Y(I) = c;
[2 6 4 DO J = 1 TU 2;
2:0' AMPY(I) = AMPY(I) + SELFYtI,J)*VGLTA{J);
25 6 EN D;
[257 END;
2 5 >: INU(M) = IN0(M} - AMPY{1);
'2 54 1 NO(M + N) = INC(M + N) - AMPY(2);
 LCAUFLC:PROCEDURE CRT ION $(HAIN);

260 FINAMP{1,1) = AMP(1,1) - INO(M);

261 F INAMP(1, 2 ) = A M P (1,2) - iNGtM+N);
262 FINAMP(2,1) - -FINAMP(1,2); F INAMP(2,2) = FINAMP(1,1);

/* THE ELEMENTS CF MATRIX FINAMP MUST NOW BE DIVIDED BY THE SE LF ADM ITTANCE */
/* CF THE NODE M TO GIVE THE REAL AND IMAGINARY COMPONENTS Of THE VOLTAGE AT-/
/* BIS M• PRCC ALPHA PERFORMS Trt lS COMPUTATION. */
264 L N D urLTA; _________

265 ALPHA;PROCEDURE 5

/* PRGC ALPHA COMPUTES THE NEW VOLTAGE AT BUS M . THE MATRIX ZOT REPRESENTS */
/> THE NEWCOMPLEX VOLTAGE AT BUS M. COMP ARISI ON IS M/CDE BETWEEN NEW ANDOLD-/
/* VCLTAGtS, IF TFE DIFFERENCE otTwEEN THEM IS GREATER THAN THE TOLERANCE */
/* (TfJL = 0.00001) THEN ITERATI VE PROCESS IS CONTINUED. IF NUMBER Of ITEkATI-*/
/* CNS > MAX IT THEN COMPUTATION STOPS. THE VARIABLE 'IP IS The NUMBER OF */
/* ITERATIONS PERFORMED. */

266 DECLARE C 1 (2,2) BINARY FLOAT;

267 S E L F Y ( ■ , 1 ) = Y ( K, M ) ; $ E L F Y ( 1,2 ) = Y ( M, M + N ) »
265 S E L F Y ( 2 , 1 ) = +Y(M+N,M); StrLFY(2,2) = Y(M,M);
/* S'" LF Y IS THE TRANSPOSE lF THE MATRIX REPRESENTING THE NODE SE L F A DM I TTANCE-/
271 DET = SELFYC1,1)**2 + SELFY(l,2)^*2;
272 DO I = 1 TO 2;
273 * DO J = i TC 2;
274 C1( I , J)- SELFY(I,J)/DET;
275 END ;
276 END;
/* MATRIX C1 {I , J ) REPRESENTS THE INVERSE OF THE NODE SELF ADMITTANCE */
277 DO I = 1 TO 2;
278 DO J = 1 TC 2;
279 zot(i,j) = o;
280 DC K = 1 TO 2;
281 ZOT(ItJ) = ZOT(I,J ) + FINAMP(i,K)-C1(K,J);
282 END;
262 END;
264 END;
/* MATRIX ZCT CONTAINS THE REAL AND IMAGINARY COMPONENTS OF THE NEW VOLTAGE */
/* AT BUS M . */

285 END ALPHA;

266 PUT EDIT(IT,*VR»,M,4 = 4,V(M ) )(SK I P,F(4) ,A,F(2) ,A,F(8,4) );
237 PUT EDIT(* V 14 , M + N , 4 = 4,V(M + N) )(COL(30),A,FC4),A,F(8,4));
288 IF ABS(ZOT(1,1) - V(M) ) I A B S(ZCT(1,2) - V(H+N)) > .001 THEN DO;
290 INDIC = l;
291 vm = ZOT (1,1 ) + • 9 5- ( ZO T (1, 1 ) - V ( M ) ) ;
292 V(M + N) = ZCT(1,2) + ,9 5-(ZOT(1,2) ~ V(M+N));
292 E .0;

/v 1,2 IS THE ACCLERAT ION FAC^UR FOR THE ITERATIVE PROCESS */

294 N = iv +1;
295 IF M <= N THEN GO TO CALC;
297 ' ELSE IF INDIC = 0 THEN GO TO KK;
299 ELSE IF IT < MAX IT THEN DO;
301 8 = 2;
 LCaOFLC:PROCEDURE LPTICNS (MAIN ) ;

202 INDIC = 0;
303 IT = IT + l;
3C4 GC TO CALC;
305 E \D ;
3C6 ELSE GO TO JJ;

307 JJ:PUT EDIT(* ITERATIVE SOLUTION HAS FAILED TO CONVERGE 1 HPAGE,A);

3C8 PUT EDIT! 'ERROR MAY* HA);
3C9 PUT SKIP (3);
310 GO TO LDENO;

311 _ KK:PUT EDlTf" LINENO* * 1 I-1NPHASE-* > 1 I-QUAD' , 1 I » , » LINE LOSSES (KVA) ' ) tPAoE.
LI Jt U) , A,CGL( 1 5) , A,COL< 33 > , A,COLT( 50)", \ » COL ( 60 ) » A ) ;
312 £1 = 0; E2 -u;
31A DC U" r 1 TO LI NENU PY 1;
315 bl = V < L <LN,2)) - V(L(LN,3));
E2 = V( L(LN,2) +N) -V(1(LN,3;
317 CALL GAMMAtEl,-E2, IMPR'(LN) ,-lNPT (LN) )';
318 IL. I Nt = AMP (1, 1 } + AMP ( 1,2) ;
319 ILINE =SURTULINE) ;C1 = 0; E^ =0;

322 PUT EDIT(LN,AMP(1,1),AMF(1,2),ILINE,

( ILINE **2)* IMPR(LN)* <100000) )(SK I P,
COL(3),F(4),CuL(16),F(9,4),COL{ 34 ) ,F(9 fu),COL(50) ,F(9,4),
COL(62),F<11,3));

323 IF ILINE > MAXF LOW(L N) THEN Uu;

325 PUT FDIT(* OVERLOAD')(CUL( 80),A);
326 ILINE = 0;
327 f END;
32 8 LLSt ILINE = u;
329 END ;
PUT EDIT(•BUSBAR NC:*,«bUS VOLTAGE 1 )(PAGE,COL(20),A,Xt9),A)
231 DU I = 1 TO N5
332 VI = V(I)**2 + V(I+N)**2;
333 V.1 = SQRT(Vl);
334 PUT EDIT(I,VI)(SKIP,COL(29),F(4) ,COL(48) ,F<6,4 ) ) ;
335 VI = 0;
236 ...END;
337 PUT ED IT ( 'BE LATER *)( A);
3 38 PUT SKIP(3 ) ;
/* T F f TLLAL CURRENT FROM THE SUPPLY POINT Vs ILL NOW BF DETERMINED *
3 39 , , Uij I = I TO LINENG;
340 IF L( I , 2 ) = 1 THEN DO;
34? El =' i- V ( L ( 1,3));
343 E2 = - V(L( I,3)+N) ;
344 CALL GAMMA!El ,-E2,IMPP(1 ),-IMPI ( I ) ) ;
346 ILINE = 0;
346 ' ILINE -AMP(1,1 ) * # 2 ♦ AMP(1,2 ) **2;
347 ILINE - SQRT(ILINE);
24g El = 0;
349 E2 = 0;
350 ISP - ISP + ILINE ;
251 END: • .

352 UT EC IT('SUPPLY PGIkT OUTPUT = « , ISF,* MVA * , * NUMBER OF ITERATIONS - • ,

I T M P mu E , A ,X ( 4 ) , F ( 9.4 ) , A , X (10 ) , A , F ( 5 ) ) ;

353 F iyn■ _M_

ICC
LCTncTeNL LOAOfLC;
 0.9 9 8 ' 4
1
2VR 3 =« V I 7 _ Ml /

2 VP 4 = C ,94 2 1 V I 00 5 0
3VR 2 = 1 . 01 1 V 1 a o? t
3VR 3 = 0. 99 r ' V i 7 - , n ai
3VR 4 = 1, o; o 2 V ! ~ - > > i / 6

4VR 2 = 0 . 9 6 3 c: V I 6 - - O' „ 0 0 1 0

4VR 3 0,96 '• » VI 7 - — (■ „ ) (; 0 5

4 VR 4 0,9 5 4 •; V I ^ = 00 o 9
5Vk ? 0.9 6 5- R V I 6 = -0.0070

5VR 3 C . ?6 9 7 VI 7 = -0.006 5

3VR 4 1 , 0G49 VI 3 = -0,0153

6 VR 2 0,4 6 2 6 Vi 6 = -0,011 1

6 VR 3 G * c: 6 9 5 VI 7 = JT 0 o 01 6 8
6VR 4 G . 9 hi 5 VI 8 - -0,0043

7 VP 2 1 , GO 2 2 VI h = -0.023!

7 VR 3 C.9973 VI 7 - -0,0120
7 VR 4 1,0054 V ( 8 = -0,0139

8Vk 7 0,9771 Vi 9 = - 00 3 3
8 VR 3 0.9772 VI 7 - -Oa0015
6VR 4 0.9 6 2 2 V I H = G , ;) 0 1 2
9VR 2 = 0.9658 V 1 6 — -0.0063
9VP 3 = 0.96 6 5 VI 7 = -0.0049
9VR u zz C . 99 79 VI 8 — -0 , C 1 49
lGVR 2 = C. 4607 VI ■ 6 - -0.0092
10 V K 3 = 0.982 8 Vi 7 = -0.014 6
10 VP 4 zz C. 9708 VI 8 = -( O 0 0 ? 9
11V R 2 - C . 9936 VI A = -0.0230
11V R 3 - C.9950 V I 7 - 0.01 3 5
11 VR 4 = 1 . C01 3 VI 8 r: -0.0]47
12 VP 2 zz 0.9616 VI '6/ = -0.00/2
1 2 VR 3 = C. 9828 V1 7 = -0.0029
12 VP. 4 - C• 5683 • VI } = 0,901 1
1 3VR p = 0.9 8 i 4 V I 6 - -Oa 00., 2
1 2 Vk 3 - C, 9828 V1 7 - -0.0029
1 ^ Vk 4 = C. 9591 . VI 8 = -0a 014 7
14 V R 2 = 0.961 6 V I = - 0 * 006 2 4
1 -4 V R 3 = C. 993 3 VI 7 - -0,0129
1 4VR 4 = 0.9743 VI 3 = -0,00 35
1 5VR 2 zz G. 903 Vi A = -0.02!6
1 9Vk 7 zz 0.95 33 V1 7 = - 0. 01 ? 9
13V R 4 = 0.9974 VI 8 = -0.0147
1 6 vk = 0, 5 82 1 * VI 6 = -0 * UDo 7
16 V K 3 = 0.5331 V I 7 = -0. C036
1 6 VR 4 = C.9720 VI 8 = 0.0007
17 V R 2 - 0.5821 VI 6 ZZ -0.0067
17. VP 3 = 0.9831 VI 7 = -0.003c
1 7 VR 4 = C. 999 7 VI 8 zz -0.0147
1 8 VR 2 C.5321 VI 6 = -0,0067
1 3V k 3 = 0.9520 V I 7 - -0.0123
18 Vk 4 - 0.9765 VI 8 = -0.0033
1 9V R 2 - 0.5878 VI 6 = -0,0202
1 9VR 3 = C.9520 VI 7 - -0.012. 3
19 VR 4 = C.9945 VI 8 = — 0 a 0] 4 6
20 VR 2 = 0.9824 ■ V I 6 = -0.0071
2 C VR 3 - C.9332 VI 7 = -0a 004 6
20VR 4 = 0.974 7 VI 8 = * 0.0002
2 1 VR 2 = 0.5824 V I 6 = -0.0071
2 IVR 3 0,5832 VI 7 - -0.0046
21 VR 4 = 0.9932 VI 8 = -0 a 0 145
22VP 7 zz 0.982* VI 6 - -0.007 1
22VR 3 = C•99C9 V1 7 — -C.01 17
22 VR 4 = C,9783 V l M = -0.0032
2 3 VR 2 - 0.9859 V I A> - -0.0190
? 3VR 3 = C. 9909 V I 7 - o • on 7
2 3 VK 4 = 0*9923 VI 8 = -Ca 01 43
2 4VR 2 = 0.9625 V1 6 = -0.0074
2 4 VR 3 n 0.9834 V 1 7 -0.0053
2 4 VR 4 = 0.9768 V 1 8 = -0.0003
2 5 VR 2 0.5625 V/ I A = -C.0074
25VR 3 - • 0. 9 8 2-4 V I 7 r: -0.0053
2 5VR 4 = C. 9 9 1 3 VI 8 = -0.0147
26VR 2 zz 0.9825 VI 6 = -0,0074
2 6 VR 3 zz 0. 99C1 V I 7 - -0.0113
2 6 VR 4 - C.9802 VI 8 = ^-0.0033
2 7 VR 2 = 0.9845 V I 6 - -0.0179
2 7V R 3 = C.99C1 VI 7 = -0.0113
2 7VR 4 zz 0. 990 7 V.I 8 = -0.0140
2 8 VR 2 = 0.9826 VI 6 = -0.0078
2 8 VR 3 = 0.9834 VI 7 = -0.0059
28VR 4 = 0.9783 V I a = -0.0009
2 9 VR 2 0.9 6 2 6 V I 6 = - 0 . () 0 7 8
2 ^ VR 3 = 0.9643 VI 7 = -0.0038
2 9 VR 4 zz 0.9904 VI 8 - 0.01 3 0
3 0 VR 2 - 0.5826 VI ■ 6 = -0.0078
30 VR 3 - 0.9688 VI 7 rz - 0.0 12 5
3 CVR A = C • 9805 VI 8 = -0,0050
3 i VR 2 = 0.9626 VI 6 = -0.0195
3 1V R 3 0.9888 VI 7 = -0.0125
31 VR 4 rr 0.9898 VI 6 zz -0.0129
3 2 VR 2 = 0.9825 VI 6 = -0.0082
3 2 VR 3 = C.9841 V I 7 = - 0 • 0 04 6
32 VR 4 ■= C.9795 • VI 8 = -_0.001 5
3 3 VR 2 = 0.9825 VI 6 -0.0082
3 2 VR 3 = C.9641 VI 7 = -0.0046
33 VR ,!t = 0.9892 VI ft = — 0 • 01 £. 7
34 V R 2 = 0.9825 V I 6 = -0.0082
3 4 VR 3 = 0.9883 V I 7 = -0.0120
34VR 4 = 0.9814 VI 8 = - 0.0 0 5 0
3 5 VR ? 0.9818 V I 6 = -0.0184
3 c VR 3 zz 0.9883 VI 7 = -0.0120
3RVR 4 = 0.9887 VI 8 = - 0.0 1 2 6
3 6 VR 2 = 0.9824 VI 6 = -0.0085
3 6 VR 3 = 0.9840 VI 7 = -0.0053
3 6 VR 4 = 0.9804 VI 8 = -0.0020
37VR 2 zz 0.9624 VI 6 = -0.0085
3 7 VR 3 = 0.9840 , VI 7 = -0.0053
3 7 VR 4 = C.9882 VI 8 zz -0.0124
3 8 VR 2 = 0.9824 VI 6 = -0.0085
3 8 VR 3 zz 0.9879 VI 7 = -0.0116
3 8 VR 4 z: C.9821 VI 8 -0.0050
3 9 VR 2 zz 0.9813 VI 6 = -0.0173
39 VR 3 -z: 0.9879 VI 7 -0.0116
3 9 VR 4 zz 0.9879 VI 8 = -0.0123
4CVK 2 = 0.9822 VI 6 zz -0.0088
4CVR 3 zz 0.9638 VI 7 = -0.0059
4 CVR 4 - 0.9811 VI 8 rs -*0.0026
4 1V R 2 - 0.9822 VI 6 = -0.0088
41 VR 3 zz C.9638 VI 7 zz -0.0059
41 VR 4 = 0.9875 VI 8 zz -0.0121
42VR 2 - 0.9822 V I 6 zz -0.0088
 A 2 VP 3 —
0o S875 VI 7 = -0.0112
A 2VR A 0.9827 V 1 8 = -C.0051
A 3 VP 2 - Co 9 8 C f VI 6 ■= -0.0165
A3VR 3 = C.90 75 VI 7 = -0.0112
A 3 VP A zz CoS 872 V J 8 = -■>. 01 2 0
A A VR 2 = Go 9821 VI 6 = -0.0091
AAVP 3 = 0.9037 VI 7 —
-0.006A
A A VR A — C . 9 81 6 VI 3 = -0.00 3!.
A 5 VP 2 - 0.9^23 VI 6 = -0.0091
A5VR 3 - - 0.9837 V I 7 - -0.0C6A
A 5 VR A = C. 986S V I 8 = -0.0119
A 6 VR 2 = C © S 82 1 VI ' 6 = -0.0091
A 6 VP 3 = 0.9872 VI 7 = ^-0.0108
A 6 VR A = • C.9831 VI 8 = -0.0053
A7VR 2 = 0.9805 VI 6 = -0.0157
A 7VR 3 = 0.9872 VI 7 = -0,0103
A 7 VP A - 0.9867 VI 8 = -0.0117
A8VR 2 = 0.9819 VI 6 = -0.0093
A RVR 3 = 0o 9636 V I 7 = -0.0068
A 8 VP A zz 0.9020 VI 8 = -0.0035
AS VR 2 zz 0.9819 V I 6 = -Co 0053
AS VR 3 - Co 9836 VI 7 = -0.0068
A 9VR A - 0.9865 V I 8 = -0.0116
5C VR 2 - 0.9619 VI 6 = ' -0.0093
5 0 VR 3 - 0.9869 VI 7 = -0.0105
5 0 VP A - 0 • 9 83A VI 8 - -0.005A
5 1 VR 2 ZL Co 98C2 VI 6 = -0.0150
3 1VR 3 - 0.9869 V I 7 = -0.0105
51 VR A - C.986A VI 8 = -0.0115
5 2 VR 2 - 0.983 7 VI o - - -0.0095
52VR 3 - 0.9835 VI 7 = -0.0072
52 VR A - 0.9823 ’ VI 8 = -0.00A0
5 3 VR 2 - 0.9817 V I 6 = -0.0095
5 3VR 3 - 0.9835 V I 7 = -0.0072
5 3 VR A - C.9661 VI 8 = -0.0113
5A VR 2 - 0.9817 * V I 6 = -C.0095
5 A VR 3 - C.9866 V I 7 = -0.010 3
5 A VR A - 0.^636 VI 8 = -0.0056
55VR 2 - 0.9799 V I 6 - - 0.01A A
5 5 VR 3 - 0.9866 VI 7 = -0.0103
5 5 VR A - 0.966C VI 8 - -0.0112
56VR 2 0.9816 * VI v6 = -0.0097
5 6 VR 3 C.9635 VI 7 = -0.0075
56VR A = 0.9825 VI 8 = -0.00AA
5 7 VR 2 = C.9816 VI 6 = -0.0097
5 7VR 3 = 0.9635 VI 7 = -0.0075
57VR A = 0.9859 VI R = -0.0111
5 8 VR 2 0.9616 Vi 6 = -0.0097
5 8 VR 3 = 0.9 86A VI 7 = -0.0101
5 8 VR A — 0.9838 VI 8 = -0.0057
5SVR 2 = 0.9797 VI 6 = -0.0139
5 9 VR 3 = 0•9 86A - - VI 7 = -0.0101
5 9 VR A = C•98 58 VI 8 = -0.0109
6 0 VR 2 — 0• 98iA VI 6 = -0.0098
60 VR 3 = 0• 983A VI 7 = -0.0078
6 C VR A 0.9827 VI 8 = nO.00A7
6 1V R 2 0.981A VI 6 = -0.0098
6 1V R 3 = C.983A VI ~ 7 = -0.0078
61 VR A — 0.9856 VI 8 = -0.0108
6 2V R 2 = 0 • 9 81A V I 6 = -0.0098
 62VR 3 0 • 9 fc 6 2 VI 7 = -0.0099
6 2 Vk 4 = 0.9839 V I H = -0.0059
63 VR 2 — 0.9795 VI 6 -0.0135
6 3VR 3 — 0.9362 VI 7 — -0.0099
63 VR 4 •= G.965fc V I 8 -0.0107
64 VR 2 = 0.c 8 1 3 V I 6 -0.0100
64 VR 3 = 0.9862 VI 7 = -0.0099
64VR 4 ■ 0.9840 VI a — -0.0060
6 5VR 2 = 0« 9797 VI 6 -0.0134
6 5 VR 3 = 0.9862 VI 7 ~ -0.0099
6 5 VR 4 = C. 9 8 5 5 V I .8 -0.0106
66 VR 2 = 0.9811 VI 6 = -0.0101
66 VR 3 0.9662 V I 7 = .*-0.0099
66 VR 4 — 0.9840 VI a = -0.0061
6 7 VR 2 = 0.9798 V I 6 — -0.0132
6 7 VR 3 — C.9862 VI 7 = -0.0099
6 7 VR 4 — 0.9655 V.I 8 = -G.0105
6 8 VR 2 0.9810 VI b -0.0102
6 8VR 3 - 0.9662 VI 7 = -0.0099
6 0 VR 4 — 0.9641 VI 8 = -0.0062
69 V R 2 — 0.9799 VI 6 = -0.0131
6 9 VR 3 = C.9862 VI 7 -0.0099
6 9 VR 4 = 0.9654 V I 8 = -0.0104
7CVR 2 = 0.9609 VI 6 = -0.0103
7CVR 3 = 0.9662 VI 7 = -0.0099
70VR 4 = 0.9641 VI 8 .ZZ -0.0063
7 1 VR 2 . — 0.98CC V I 6 = -0.0130
7 l VR 3 = 0.9862 VI 7 = -0.0099
71 V R 4 = 0.9854 V I 8 = -0.0103
7 2 VR 2 = 0.9606 VI 6 " = -0.0104
7 2 VR 3 = 0.9662 V I 7 - -0.0099
72 V R 4 = 0.9842 V I 8 = —0.0064
7 3 VR 2 = 0.9601 VI. 6 = -0. 0129
7 3 VR 3 = / 0.9862 VI 7 = -0.0099
7 3 VR 4 = 0.9854 , VI 8 — -0.0102
74VR 2 = 0.9800 VI 6 = -0.0105
74 V R 3 0.9862 VI 7 = -0.0099
7 4 VR 4 = 0.9642 VI 8 = -0.0064
7 5 VR 2 = 0.9801 VI 6 = -0.0129
75VR 3 - 0.9862 VI 7 = -0.0099
7 5 VR 4 - 0.9653 VI 8 = -0.0101
76 VR 2 - 0.9807 VI 6 = -0.010b
76 VR 3 0.9662 VI 7 = -0.0099
76 VR 4 = 0.9842 VI 8 .ZZ -0.0065
7 7 VR 2 = 0.9802 VI 6 = -0.0128
* 7 7VR 3 0.9862 VI 7 ZZ -0.0099
77VR 4 = 0.9853 VI 8 = -0.0101
7 8 VR 2 C.9806 VI 6 -0.0107
78 VR 3 = 0.9862 VI 7 = -0.0099
7 8 VR 4 = 0.9643 vr 8 -0.006b
7 9 VR 2 = 0.9602 VI 6 -0.0127
79 VR 3 = 0.9662 VI 7 = -0.0099
79 VR 4 s. C.9853 VI 8 zz -0.0100
8CVR 2 = 0.96C6 VI' 6 zz -0.0107
80 VR 3 =: 0.9862 VI 7 zz -0.0099
8 C VR 4 = 0.9843 VI 8 zz ■*0.006 7
81 VR 2 0.9806 VI 6 zz -0.0107
81V R = 0.9821 V I ~ 7 zz -0.0069
81 VR 4 = 0.9643 VI 8 zz -0.0067
8 2 VR 2 = “ 0.9741 VI 6 zz -0.0079
 B2 VP 3 - 0,9621 V I 7 = -0.0069
105
32 VR 4 = 0.9643 VI 8 = -0.0067
83 VR 2 = 0.5802 VI 0 = -0.0107
8 3 VP 3 zz C.9855 VI 7 = -0,0097
8 3 VR 4 = 0.9849 V I 8 - -0.0098
84V R 2 = C.98G2 VI 6 = -0.0107
8 4 VR 3 = 0.9855 V I 7 = -Q.0097
84 VR 4 = 0.9843 V I 8 = -0.0G 60
8 5 VR 2 = ' 0. 9602 VI 6 = -0.0107
85VR 3 = ■ 0.9823 V I 7 = -0.0070
8 8 VR 4 = 0.9843 V I 8 - -0.0068
86 VR 2 = 0.9747 VI 6 = -0.0083
86 VR 3 = ' 0.9823 VI 7 = -0.0070
86 VR 4 = 0.9843 VI 8 " - 0.0 06 3
6 7 VR 2 = 0.9798 VI 6 ZZ -0.0106
8 7 VR 3 zz 0.9849 V I 7 = -0.0095
87 VR 4 ’ = 0.9647 VI 8 = -0.0096
8 8 VR 2 = 0.9798 V I A = -0.0106
88VR 3 = 0.9849 V I 7 = -0.0095
8 8 VR 4 zz C.9843 VI 8 = -0.0068
89VR 2 0.9798 VI 6 = -0.0106
89 VR 3 = 0.9824 VI 7 = -0.0072
8 9 VR 4 - 0.9843 VI 8 -0.0068
90VR 2 = 0.9752 VI ■ 6 = -0.0085
9CVR 3 = 0.9624 VI 7 -0.0072
9 0 VR 4 n 0.9843 VI 8 = -0.0068
91 VR 2 = 0.9795 VI 6 = -0.0106
9 1 VR 3 = 0.9644 VI 7 = -C.C094
CH VR 4 = 0.9845 V I 8 -G.0095
9 2 VR 2 0.9795 VI 6* -0.0106
92 VR 3 = 0.9844 VI 7 = -0.0094
92 V R 4 zz C.9843 . VI 8 -0.. 0069
9 3 VR 2 = 0.9795 VI . 6 = -0~. 01 06
93 VR 3 = 0.9825 VI 7 -0.0073
9 3 VR 4 = C.9843 VI 8 = -0.0069
9 4 VR 2 zz 0.9795 VI 6 = -0.0!06
94VR 3 = 0.9843 VI 7 .r: -0.0093
9 4 VR 4 = 0.9845 VI d -G.0094
95 VR 2 = 0.9795 VI 6 = -0.0106
9 5 VR 3 = 0.9843 VI 7 -0.0093
9 5 VR 4 = 0.9643 VI 8 = -0.0070
9 6 VR 2 = 0.9795 VI 6 = -0.0106
96 VR 3 zz 0.9843 VI 7 -0.0093
96 VR 4 - 0.9645 VI 8 = -0.0093
97 VR 2 z 0.9795 VI 6 = -0.0106
9 7 VR 3 = C.9643 VI 7 = -0.0093
97VR 4 - 0.9842 VI 8 = -0.0070
98VR 2 •= 0.9795 VI ‘ 6 - -0.0106
9 8 VR 3 = 0.9643 VI 7 = -0.0093
9 8 VR 4 r: 0.9845 VI 8 = -0.0092
- VI 6 zz -0.0106
99 VR 2 0.9795
99 VR 3 0.9843 VI------ 7 - -0.0093
99 VR 4 n 0.9842 VI a ZZ -0.0071
100 VR 2 - 0.9795 ; - - VI 6 •= -0.0106
100 VR 3 0.9643 VI 7 zz -0.0093
1GCVR 4 = 0.9845 VI - 8 zz -a.0092
101VR 2 = 0.9795 VI 6 zz -0. 0106
10 1V R 3 = 0.9843 VI 7 zz -0.0093
1C1 VR 4 zz 0.9842 VI 8 zz -0.0071
102 VR 2 = 0.9795 VI 6 zz - -0. 0106
 inn ~ '
TjaB.-y 1.,.. *• ::" -•X.'. ~ . iih * • i,-." •

I02VR 3 = 0.9843 VI 7 = -0.0093

I02VR 4 = 0.9845 VI 8 = -0.0091
I03VR 2 = 0.9795 VI 6 = -0.0106
I03VR 3 = 0.9843 VI 7 = -0.0093
I03VR 4 = 0.9842 VI 8 = -0.0072

I-INPHASE I-QUAD I LINE LOSSES (!

0.0303 -0.0129 0.0329 59.855
-0.0222 0.0160 0.0274 10.826
0.0575 -0.0319 0.0657 I19.463
~-0.0132 -0.0116 0.0176 2.991
0.0181 -0.0092 0.0204 28.455

BUSBAR NO: BUS VOLTAGE

1 1.0000
2 0,9796
0.9844
4 0.9843
 107

APPENDIX 5

MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

 108

APPENDIX 5

MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Some computers do not have compilers which are able to recognise

complex numbers and thus it becomes necessary to represent complex quan­

tities in terms of real quantities.

In general, a complex number R + jX may be represented by the 2x2

matrix below:

'R X'
(R + j X) (A.5.1)
-X R

For example, if there are two impedances and in parallel, the

impedance of the combination is

Z1Z2
Zi + Z2

Using matrix multiplication, we have

r ri, x,i
i r Ro2 xj2
(A.5.2)
Z1Z2
-X, R, -X0 R0
1 1 2 2

R1R2 - X1X2 rix2 + R2X1

o
1

X
—X
t
,

-R1X2 - R2X1 R1R2 '

1

r r1, xi r r_ x_i
1
+
Z1 + Z2
-X, R, -X0 R0
1 1 2 2

Rj+R2

"Xl"X2 Rl+R2
 109

Let Z
Z1Z2

Z1 + Z2

and Z Z4 where Zot Z. and Zc are matrices. (A.5.3)

3 7z; o 4 o

Matrix division is not possible in matrix algebra and in order to achieve

the result Z^ ^ Z^ it is necessary to multiply Z^ by the inverse of Z^

Thus
-1
z,zc
4 5
(A.5.4)

now
R1+r2
-VX2
-1 1
(A.5.5)

Xl+X2 +R1+R2

where D is the determinant off

Rl+R2 -xrx2
+
X
X
i—1

to

Rl+R2

(R1 + r2)2 + (Xj

Thus
1
—

-rxr2 - xxx2 +
l
1

X
X i «

rix2 R2Xl' Rl+R2

L?____

- x1+x2
X
X

■R1X2 Vi R1R2 " Rl+R2

l

A complex n x n matrix, Y G + jB may also be represented by the following

2n x 2n matrix
G -Bl
(A.5.6)
B

where the dimension of submatrices G and B is n x n.

 110

In a similar manner, the complex vector E e + jf can be written as a

column vector
e'
E = (A.5.7)
f

Multiplication of Complex Matrices

The matrices Y and E above may be multiplied in the usual manner to give

G -B e
(A.5.8)
B G f

Ge - Bf

Be + Gf

By implication (Ge - Bf) is real and (Be + Gf) is imaginary. The term

(Ge - Bf) is real since it is the sum of the products of two real and two

imaginary numbers, whereas (Be + Gf) is imaginary since it is the sum of

the products of real and imaginary numbers. An example is given below of

the multiplication of the complex admittance matrix for a two node network

and the column vector consisting of the two complex node voltages. The

matrix equation is:

Gn G12 ' -Bn B12 el

G21 G22 ' "B21 _B22 e2

.. = . . . . . . . . . .

im
B11 B12 * G11 G12
im
_2 _ B21 B22 • G21 G22 f2

where 1^ and 1^ are the real and imaginary components respectively of

the node 1 current and and are the real and imaginary components

respectively of the node 2 currents.

 Ill

Multiplying out we have

1 Gllel + Gl2e2 Bllfl Bl2f2

re
2 G12el + G22e2 B21fl B22f2
.im (A.E .10)
1 Bllel + Bl2e2 + Gllfl + Gl2f2
.im
B21e1 + B22e2 + G21fl + G22f2

In general,

t:
m = 1
(G. e
km m
- B. f )
km m
(A.E .11)

and

(G. f + B. e ) (A.E .12)

km m km m
m = 1
 112

APPENDIX 6

■WARD-HALE PROGRAMME

Page

(a) "Ward-Hale, Fortran IV Source Programme Listing 113

(b) Results of Digital Load Flow Study 117

(c) Results of D-C Board Load Flow Study 133

 FORTRAN INI T
FORTRAN COMPILATION VER 2 MOD 1
$QBJECT MACHINE SIZE ft 15999
$NO DICTIONARY
C NEWTON - RAPHSON SWARD-HALEn ITERATIVE LOADFLOW SOLUTION
C 30
001 DIMENSION PSX4ntQS3S4n,PS4nf Q%5n ,NCT£6,2a,E$4a,F£4a,R£6a,
1 X%bn, G£4,4a, BS4,4n,RAT INGS6'nt DPMATXS2 f 2n ,

002 LCR ft 1 60
003 LLP ft 3 70
004 1 READ£LCR,101n|< 80
005 K1 ft 1 91
006 K4 ft 0
007 GO TO $2,7,999a,K 90
-C FOR INITIAL RUN K ft 1,AND LINE IMPEDANCES AS WELL AS SPECIFIED 100
C POWER OUTPUT AT ALL NODES ^OTHE THAN SLACK NODEn ARE READ IN AND 110
C THE ADMITTANCE MATRIX FORMED. 120
C IF NOW CIRCUIT IMPEDANCES REMAIN UNCHANGED AND NEW POWER OUTPUTS 130
C ARE SPECIFIED, K ft 2, AND THUS CONTROL PASSES TO STATEMENT 7 WHERE 140
c CALCULATIONS BEGIN. 150
c TO TERMINATE COMPUTATION K ft 3. 2. • 160
008 2 READ2LCR,101aN,M 190
009 ACF ft 1.1 180
010 DO 3 I ft 1,M 200
Oil 3 READ$LCR,101nNCT*£I, la,NCTSI,2a, RATING^Ia 210
c 220
012 DO 4 I ft 1, M 230
013 READ%LCR,102aR5gIa,X£Ia 240
014 SQMAG ft R%la**2 & X£Ia**2 250
015 R%lu ft R%Ia/SQMAG 260
016 4 X%I□ ft-X%l□/SQMAG 270
c 280
#r
017 DO 5 I ft ltN 290
018 DO 5 J ft ltN 300
019 G^I,Ja ft 0.0 310
020 5 BZl,Jn ft 0.0 320
c 330
021 DO 6 I ft 1,M 340
022 K ft NCT%I,la 350
023 L ft NCT‘.£ 1,2a 360
024 G£K,Ka ft G«K,Ka & R%la 370
025 B^K,Ka ft B^K,Ka & X%ln 380
026 G$L,La ft G£L,La S R%\a 390
027 B2L,La ft BlLjLa & X£Ia 400
028 G^K , La ft -Rria £ G'KK , La / 410
029 G^L,Ka ft G$K,La ■ 420
030 B^K,La ft -X^la £ B$K,La 430
031 6 B«L,Ka ft B?l<, La 440
c 450
032 7 DO 8 I ft 1,N V
460
033 E%ln ft 0.97 . 470
034 8 F%la ft 0.0 480
c 490
035 E^la ft 1.0 500
036 DO 9 I ft 1»N 510
037 9 READ^LCR,102aPS^Ia,QS«Ia 520
 c 530
038 WRITESLLPt103nN,M 540
039 WRITESLLP,104a 550
040 WRITESLLP,118a 560
041 DO 10 I # 1,N 570
042 VLTAMP ft SQRTSPS*In**2 E QS*'In**2a 580
043 10 WRIT ESLLP»10 5nltPS*lPtQSXInfVLTAMP 590
600
044 WRITESLLP,106a 610
045 DO 11 I # 1» M 620
046 11 WRIT ESLLPt107aIfNCTSI,ln,NCT%I,2atRSIafXSIa 630
047 WRITESLLP,108a 640
048 ICOUNT It 0 650
C 660
C ITERATION BEGINS AT THIS POINT 670
C ICOUNT it THE NUMBER OF ITERATIONS PERFORMED 680
C 690
049 500 WRIT ESLLPt109a 2140
050 12 RESIDU # 0.0 710
051 DO 14 I ft 2»N 720
C . 730
C AMPRE ft REAL COMPONENT OF CURRENT INTO NODE 740
C AMP IM # IMAGINARY COMPONENT OF CURRENT INTO NODE 750
052 AMPRE # 0.0 v ~ 770
053 AMP IM ft 0.0 * 780
054 DO 13 J it ItN 760
055 AMPRE it AMPRE E GSI,Ja*ESJn - BSI,Ja*FSJa 800
056 13 AMP IM It AMPIM E GSI,Ja*FSJa E BSItJa*ESJn 810
C 820
057 PSIa # AMPRE^ESIa £ AMPIM*F?Ia 830
058 QSIa # AMPRE*FSIa - AMPIM*ESIa 840
059 DP ft PS?In - p?In 850
060 DQ It QSSI a - Q?ln 860
C ■» 870
C THE ELEMENTS OF MATRIX OPMATX ARE COEFFICIENTS OFTHE EQUATIONS 880
C RELATING DP,DQ AND THE INCREMENTAL VOLTAGES DE AND DF 890
C ? 900
061 DPMATXSltla # ESIa*GSItIa E FSIn*BSI,IaE AMPRE 910
062 DPMATXS112o ft FSIn*GSIt.Ia - ESIn*BSI-, In E AMPIM 920
063 DPMATXS2 »la It FSIn*GSI*In - ESIo*BSIfIn - AMPIM 930
064 DPMATXS212o ft AMPRE - FSIa*BSI,Ia -ESIn*G?ItIo 940
065 DET ft DPMATXSl,la*DPMATXS2t2n - DPMATXS2, ln*DPMATX SI t 2a 950
C 960
066 DE # SDP*DPMATXS2,2n - DQ*DPMATXS1t2aa/DET 970
067 DF ft S~DP*DPMATXS2,la E DQ*DPMATXS1 f laa/DET 980
068 RESIDU ft RESIDU E ABSSDEa E ABSSDFo
069 ESI a ft E? I a & ACF*DE 1000
070 FSIa # F?I a & ACF*DF 1010
071 14 CONTINUE 1030
072 ICOUNT # ICOUNT E 1 1020
C 1040
073 IFSRESIDU -.0002017,17,15 1050
C THE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF ITERATIONS PERMITTED # 200 1070
074 15 IFSIC0UNT-200al6,16,999
075 16 WRIT ESLLPt110a I COUNTtRESIDU 1090
076 GO TO 12 1091
077 WRITESLLP,113a
078 DO 162 I # 1,N
079 162 WRITEXLLP,114al,EXIotFXIo
080 17 WRITESLLPtllln 1110
081 TLOSS ft 0.0 1120
082 ANLOSS ft 0.0 1121
083 DO 19 I # ItM 1130
084 K ft NCUItlo 1140
085 L ft NCTXI,2o 1150
086 EREAL ft EXKo - EXLo 1160
087 EIMAG ft FXKo - FXLo 1170
088 Y1 ft SQRTXRXIn**2 8 XXIn**2n 1180
089 V U SQRTXEREAL**2 & EIMAG**2n 1190
090 AMPSPU ft V*Y1 1200
091 IFXK4.GT.0oG0 TO 399 U201
092 RLOSS ft X<XAMPSPU**2a*RXIa/XYl**2on*1000.0
093 TLOSS ft RLOSS G TLOSS 1230
094 AMPS ft 1750.0*AMPSPU 1240
095 WRIT EXLLP?11201,K,L,AMPSPU,AMPS,RLOSS
096 GO TO 450
097 399 AMPS ft 1750.0*AMPSPU 1240
098 410 IFXKl.NE.InGO TO 400
099 AMPSPU ft 0.0
100 AMPS # 0.0
101 400 WRITEXLLPt112aI,K,L,AMPSPU,AMPS
102 450 AMPLIN ft RATINGXIn 1260
103 IFXAMPSPU.LE.AMPLINo GO TO 18 1270
104 WRITEXLLP,117oK,L 1280
105 18 ANLOSS ft ANLOSS 8 RL0SS*8760.0*.42 - 1290
106 19 CONTINUE 1300
107 IFXK4.GT.0oG0 TO 300 * U310
108 WRITEXLLP,115a 1320
109 WRITEXLLP,116OTL0SS,ANLOSS 1330
J-
110 300 WRITEXLLP,113a U340
111 DO 20 I #1,N 1350
112 VI ft SQRTXEXIa**2 6 FXla**2a 1360
113 20 WRITEXLLP,114al,EXIotFXIafVl 1370
114 IFXK4.EQ.loG0 TO 750 U380
115 600 K2 ft NCTXKltln 2000
116 K3 ft NCTXK 1,2o 2010
117 51 ft GXK2,K2a -RXKla 2020
118 52 ft GXK3,K3o - RXKlo
119 IFXS1.LE.0.0.AND.S2.LE.0.0OG0 TO 800 2022
120 700 GXK2,K3o ft GXK2,K3a G RXKlo 2030
121 GXK3,K2a ft GXK2,K3a 2040
122 GXK2?K2a ft GXK2,K2a - RXKlo 2050
123 GXK 3 ,K3o ft GXK3, K3a - RXKla 2060
124 BXK2,K3o ft BXK2 ,K3a G XXKla 2070
125 BXK3,K2o ft BXK2,K3o 2080
126 BXK2 ,K2o ft BXK2 r K2o - X'XKlo 2090
127 BXK3, K3o ft BXK3, K3o - XXKla 2100
128 WRITEXLLP,120oKl,K2,K3 2110
129 K4 ft 1 2120
130 GO TO 500 2130
131 750 GXK2 ,K3o ft GXK2,K3a - RXKlo 2150
132 GXK3,K2o ft GXK2,K3o 2160
133 GXK2,K2o ft GXK2tK2o G RXKla 2170
134 GXK3,K3n » GXK3,i<3a & RXKla 2180
135 BXK2*K3n # BXK2*K3a - XXKla 2190
136 BXK3,K2d # BXK2*K3n 2200
137 BXK2»K2n # BXK21 K2n £ XXKla 2210
138 BXK3fK3n # BXK3*K3a & XXKln 2220
139 800 K1 If K1 U 2230
140 IFiSKl.GT.MaGO TO 1 2240
141 GO TO 600 2250
142 101 FORMATX215 » F6.4d 1410
143 102 F0RMATX2F10.4D 1420
144 103 FORMATX1H1 *20X » 15HN0. OF NODES # ,I3,10X, 1430
1 18HN0. OF BRANCHES M ,I3////n 1440
145 104 FORMATX///15X *20HSCHEDULED QUANT ITIES//a 1450
146 105 F0RMATX10X,I3*9X,F9.4*6X*F9.4*7X*F9.4n 1470
147 106 F0RMATX//30X* 15HLINE ADMITTANCE//10X* 62HLINE NO. CONNECTING 1480
1 NODE TO NODE ADMITTANCE^ 1490
148 107 F0RMATX15X*I3*29X»I3,7X,I 3,4X,F9.4,3X,1HJ*F9.4n 1500
149 108 FORMATXlHln 1510
150 109 F0RMATX20X,14H ITERATION NO.*10X*7HRESIDUE/n 1520
151 110 F0RMATX26X,I5,10X,F10.6a 1530
152 111 FORMATXlHlflOXtBHLINE NO.*10X,3HNCT,10X,1411CURRENT XP.U.o,4X*
1 14HCURRENT XAMPSn,4X* 11HL0SSES XKWnn
153 112 F0RMATX14X,I3,8X,I3,2X,I3*14X*F8.4*9X,F8.1,6X*F10.2/o
154 113 F0RMATX1H1*40X *13HNQDE VOLT AGES///1 3X T 41 INODE * 5X UNREAL PART,5X*
1 14HI MAG I NARY PART*10X,9HMAGNITUDEn
155 114 F0RMATX13X*I3,5X*F9.5,7X*F9.5*11X,F9.5 d
156 115 F0RMATX////10X*1911 TO T A L R-LOSS XK.Wa*10X*19HANNUAL LOSSES XKWHnn
157 116 F0RMATX20XfF8.2*19X,F8.1a 1630
158 117 FORMAT^///10X»29HOVERLOAD IN LINE JOINING N0DE*I3*4H TO *I3n
159 118 FORMATXIOX 144HN0DE WATTS VARS VOLTAMPS//a 1460
160 120 FORMATXIHO*4HLINE*I4*13H JOINING N0DE*I4*8H TO N0DE*I4, 2260
1 16H IS DISCONNECTED//n
161 999 PAUSE 999 1650
162 END 1660
 NO. OF NODES M 4 NO. OF BRANCHES # 6

SCHEDULED QUANTITIES

NODE WATTS VARS VOLTAMPS

1 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

2 0.2840 -0.0929 0.2988
3 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
4 0.1975 -0.0645 0.2078

LINE ADMITTANCE

LINE NO. CONNECTING NODE TO NODE ADMITTANCE

1 1 2 9*8619 J -23.6686
2 1 2 8.6294 J -20.8122
3 2 3 44.0646 J-106.8233
4 1 3 5*4308 J -12.3099
5 3 4 4.0440 J -10.4891
6 1 4 3.0570 j -7.1715
ITERATION NO RESIDUE

1 0.041007
2 0.018108
3 0.011680
4 0.006082
5 0.003304
6 0.001788
7 0.000970
8 0.000527
9 0.000287
 LINE NO. MOT CURRENT 3P.U.n CURRENT SSAMPSa LOSSES 5gKWn
1 1 2 0.1645 287.9 0.41

2 1 2 0.1446 253.0 0.36

3 2 3 0.0069 12.1 0.00

4 1 3 0.0871 152.5 0.23

5 3 4 0.0941 164.6 0.28

6 1 4 0.1157 202.5 0.67

TOTAL R-LOSS SK.Wn ANNUAL LOSSES SKWHn

1.95 7160.1
 NODE VOLTAGES

NODE REAL PART IMAGINARY PART MAGNITUDE

1 1.00000 0.00000 1.00000
2 0.99570 -0.00476 0.99571
3 0.99565 -0.00480 0.99567
4 0.99022 -0.01116 0.99028
LINE 1 JOINING NODE 1 TO NODE 2 IS DISCONNECTED

ITERATIONN MO. RESIDUE

11 0.004149
12 0.002851
13 0.001957
14 0.001328
15 0.000902
16 0.000613
17 0.000416
18 0.000282
LINE NO. NCT CURRENT XP.U.n CURRENT $AMPSn LOSSES £KW
1 1 2 0.0000 0.0
2 1 2 0.2381 416.6
3 2 3 0.0575 100.6
4 1 3 0.1355 237.1
5 3 4 0.0778 136.1
6 1 4 0.1324 231.7
 NODE VOLTAGES

NODE REAL PART IMAGINARY PART MAGNITUDE

1 I.OOOOO 0.00000 1.00000
2 0.99297 -0.00789 0.99300
3 0.99328 -0.00750 0.99331
4 0.98876 -0.01274 0.98885

LINE JOINING NODE 1 TO NODE 2 IS DISCONNECTED

ITERATION NO. RESIDUE

20 0.000696
21 0.000466
22 0.000311
23 0.000205
 '0*

LINE NO. NCT CURRENT SP.U.n CURRENT SAMPS* LOSSES SKWn

1 I 2 0.2559 447.7
2 I 2 0.0000 0.0
3 2 3 0.0489 85.5
4 1 3 0.1286 225.0
5 3 4 0.0800 140.1
6 I 4 0.1300 227.5
 NODE VOLTAGES

NODE REAL PART IMAGINARY PART MAGNITUDE

1
rsj
1.00000 0.00000 1.00000
0.99336 -0.00745 0.99338
oj

0.99362 -0.00711 0.99364

0.98897 -0.01251 0.98905
^

3 JOINING NODE 2 TO NODE 3 IS DISCONNECTED

ITERATION NO. RESIDUE

25 0.009900
26 0.001406
LINE NO. NCT CURRENT %P.U.o CURRENT £AMPSa LOSSES *KWn
1 2 0 .1596 279.3

ro h -
1 2 0 .1402 245.4

LU
2 3 0 .0000 0.0
4>>
U1 1 3 0 .0923 161.6
3 4 0 .0923 161.6
1 4 0 .1175 205.6
O
 NODE VOLTAGES

NODE REAL PART IMAGINARY PART MAGNITUDE

1 1.00000 0.00000 1.00000
2 0.99592 -0.00470 0.99593
3 0.99532 -0.00502 0.99533
4 0.99001 -0.01129 0.99008

4 JOINING NODE 1 TO NODE 3 IS DISCONNECTED

ITERATION NO. RESIDUE

28 0.002047
29 0.001464
30 0.000930
31 0.000583
32 0.000366
33 0.000230
 !
*«P; -- '

LINE NO. NCT CURRENT *P.U.n CURRENT SAMPSa LOSSES SKWa

t—
1 2 0.2026 354.5
r\j
-c- oj
1 2 0.1780 311.5
2 3 0.0845 147.9
1 3 0.0000 0.0
ui

3 4 0.0843 147.5
1 4 0.1258 220.1
o

■ A
■ >:
 NODE VOLTAGES

NODE REAL PART IMAGINARY PART MAGNITUDE

r-4 1.00000 0.00000 1.00000
0.99478 -0.00593 0.99479
CNJ

0.99429 -0.00647 0.99431

fO sfr

0.98938 -0.01214 0.98945

5 JOINING NOOE 3 TO NODE 4 IS DISCONNECTED

ITERATION NO. RESIDUE

35 0.017654
r. 36 0.004550
37 0.001889
38 0.000970
39 0.000524
40 0.000286
LINE NO.
r-» rsj NCT CURRENT SP.U.n CURRENT ?AMPSa LOSSES SSKWa
1 2 0.1297 227.0
1 2 0.1140 199.5
m nT in -o

2 3 0.0615 107.7
1 3 0.0609 106.6
3 4 0.0000 0.0
1 4 0.2116 370.3

.
 node voltages

NODE REAL PART IMAGINARY PART MAGNITUDE

1 1.00000 0.00000 1.00000
2 0.99667 -0.00381 0.99668
3 0.99701 -0.00340 0.99702
.4 0.98172 -0.02006 0.98192

6 JOINING NODE 1 TO NODE 4 IS DISCONNECTED

ITERATION NO. RESIDUE

42 0.005273
43 0.004976
44 0.002245
45 0.001382
46 0.000804
47 0.000472
48 0.000277
LINE NO. NCT CURRENT SP.U.n CURRENT *AMPSa LOSSES %KWn
1 2 0.2069 362.1

—
♦
INJ
1 2 0.1818 318.2

OJ
2 3 0.0924 161.7
Ol 1 3 0.1193 208.8
3 4 0.2116 370.3
1 4 0.0000 0.0
O

*
 NODE VOLTAGES

NlobE \ REAL PART IMAGINARY PART MAGNITUDE

«~4 <\1 CO >$•

1.00000 0.00000 1.00000

0.99464 “0.00603 0.99466
0.99409 “0.00661 0.99411
0.98189 -0.02095 0.98212
#

'• 4 f

■■ ~....... .................. ....................

if
 133
c
o
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ro
CM
C/3 CM
ja
3
C/2 <
CO
0)
c
o
N
032 + j .076 |Z| 03
5-i
O
c
c
03
j-068 |Z|
£
< 1
c
i Id
2
o r-
•H
0033 + j ■ 008 IZI +-> O' 6
03 CM
c/i
Q
xa <
3 CM
C/2 CM
LO
0)
017 + c
o
N
X3
r-H
03
•iH
%-H
015 + j .036 |Z| 5-i
•iH
03
 134

APPENDIX 7

THREE PHASE FAULT CALCULATIONS

Page

(a) Fortran IV Source Programme Listing 135

(b) Three Phase Fault Data Preparation 138

(c) Results of Digital Three Phase FaultStudy 139

(d) Results of D-C Board Three Phase Fault Study 144

 FORTRAN IN1T
FORTRAN COMPILATION VER 2 MOC 1
SCBJECT MACHINE SIZE ft 15999
$NO DICTIONARY
C FAULT STUDIES — 3PHASE BUSBAR FAULTS
C 20
C FAULT LEVELS *IN MVAn AND LINE FAULT 30
C CURRENTS ARE COMPUTED FOR FAULTS AT AO
C EVERY BUS BAR 50
C 60
001 DIMENSION Y35,6o,Z$6n,V0LT26n,AMP210o,MC$10,2n 70
C 80
C MAX NO. CF BUSBARS 4 20, MAX NO.OF LINES 4 AO 90
C Y IS THE ADMITTANCE MATRIX, NO. OF BUSBARS 4 N, NO. OF LINES 4 LN 100
C SUPPLY PCINT-SOURCE IMPECANCE 4 SPZ
0C2 LLP 4 3 120
OC 3 LCR 4 1
C 1 AO
OCA 29 REAC^LCR,ICON,LN,SPZ 150
______ C___ WRIT E%LL P , 11 o_________________ ______________ 160
CC5 WRITESLLP.12C 170
006 WRIT E3>0,28o 180
CC7 WRITEXLLP, 13cN,LN,SPZ 190
008 14 NCI 200
009 IF2NC30,12C,30 210
010 30 WRITE^LLF, 12o
011 WRITE£LLP,lAo 230
012 WRITE*LLP,16n 2A0
C 250
013 CO 31 I 4 1,LN 250
01A REAC*LCR,15aMC*Ulof MC% 1,2o, Z$ I c 260
015 31 WRITE$LLP,17Dl,MC$I,lntMC%I,2n,Z?lc 280
C 290
016 DC 32 I ft 1,N 300
017 DC 32 J ft 1,L , 310
018 32 Y*I,Jn 4 0.0 ‘ 320
019 YS1, in 4 1.0/SPZ 330
C 3 AO
020 CO 32 I 4 1,LN 350
021 II 4 MC2I,lo 360
022 12 4 MCSI,2n 370
023 YSIl.Iln 4 YSIl,Un C 1.0/ZSIn 380
02A Y%12iI2n 4 Y%I2,I2o C l.C/Z^In 390
025 YSIl,I2n 4 Y2Il,I2n - l.C/Z^In AOO
026 33 YSI2,Iln 4 YSI2,Iln- 1.0/ZSIn A10
C A 20
027 WRITE^LLF,12n A30
028 WRITE^LLF,18c AAO
C A50
029 CO 3A I ft 1,N A60
030 3A WRITE%LLP,19nSY%I,Jn,J 4 l,Ln A70
C A80
C THE INVERSE OF THE ADMITTANCE* MATRIXWILL NOW BE FOUND.THE MATRIX A90
C 3Yn WILL BE DESTROYED DURING COMPUTATION CF THE INVERSE 500
C 510
031 L 4 Mil 520
f

C 530
032 CO ICO I # 1»N 540
C STORE THE I-TH COL OH THE UNIT MATRIX IN THE NS1ST COL OF Y 550
C • 560
033 CO 50 J n ltN 570
034 50 Y^JtLa # 0.0 580
035 YSI,Ln H 1.0 590
C 600
C THE PIVOT ROV> WILL NOW BE DIVIDED BY THE PIVOT ELEMENT 610
C 620
036 CIV t Y$I,Io 630
037 DO 60 J n 1,L 640
038 60 Y$I,Jo » Y3I,Jo/DIV 650
039 DO 80 J U ltN 650
040 IF3I.EC.JnGO TO 80 660
041 * PROD # YSJtin 670
042 CO 7C K * 11L 680
043 70 Y2J,Kn » Y3J,Ko - Y%I,Ko*PROD 690
044 80 CONTINUE 700
C 710
C THE N£ 1S T COL OF Y IS NOW STORED IN THE I-TH COL CF Y 720
C 730
045 CO 90 J # ltN 740
046 90 Y3J, In a fLn 750
c 760
0A 7 100 CONTINUE 770
c 780
c THE INVERSEIS STORED IN IN THE FIRST N COLS OF Y 790
c 1 800
048 WRITE^LLF,12o 810
049 WRITE%LLP»20o 820
c 830
c . PRINT OUT INVERSE ADMITTANCE MATRIX - %l MATR I Xa 840
c ..... ' 4» 850
050 CO 1C1 I H 1»N 860
051 101 WRITE3LLP,19o3Y3ItJnfJ # ltLo 870
c ■ 880
052 WRITE%LLPt12o 890
c 900
053 CO 1C5 LI U ltN 910
054 A U -1.0/Y3LltLln 920
055 8 H -100.0*A 930
056 WRITE2LLFt21oLl,B 940
057 WRITE^LLP,22o 950
c 960
058 DC 103 I # ltN 970
c - - * 990
059 VCLTSIn it A«Y3ItLlo £ 1.0 - 1010
060 103 WRITE%LLP,24cItVOLT%Io -

c 1040
c LINE CURRENTS WILL NOW BE COMPUTED 1050
c 1060
061 WRITE2LLF,12o 1061
062 WRITESLLF,25c 1062
063 CO 1C5 JflltLN 1070
064 11 # MC^Jt la 1080
065 12 # MC?J,20 1090
066 AMP%Jn H iSSVCLTSIla - VOLT*12uu/1%Jna*1750.0
C6 7 V*RITE*LLPt27cAMP%jo, 11, 12 1100
C 1150
C68 105 CONTINUE 1160
C 1170
069 GO TO 29 1180
070 10 FORMATSlCX,2I5,F7.5a 1190
071 11 FCRMATSlFln 1200
072 12 FORMAT%////o 1210
073 13 FORMAT£1CX,18HNUMBER OF NODES # ,I5,20H NUMBER OF LINES #,I5, 1220
119H SUPPLY POINT Z #,F10.5c 1230
074 14 FORMAT217X,33FLINES, CONNECTIONS AND REACTANCES a 1240
075 15 FORMATS 2I5*F6.4a 1250
076 16 F0RMAT$1CX,9FL INE NO. ,5X,34H CONNECTS NODE TO NODEIMPECANCE//a 1260
077 17 FORMAT215X,13,14X,13,7X,I3,5X,F7.4a 1270
078 18 FORMAT$15X,2CFAOMITTANCE MATRIX □ 1280
079 19 F0RMAT2225X, !2F10.4/an 1290
080 20 F0RMAT25X,36H INVERSE ADMITTANCE MATRIX - Z MATR IX//a 1300
081 21 F0RMAT31F1 ,18HFAULTEC BUSBAR N0.,I4,19H FAULT LEVEL$MVAn,F10.2a 1310
082 22 FORMAT$52X,23HBUS VOLTAGES AT BUSBARSa 1320
083 24 F0RMATS6CX,I4,6X,F8.4a
084 25 FORMAT^52X,33H CURRENTS IN LINES JOINING NODES //a • 1350
085 27 F0RMATS52X,F8.1,20X,I4,iQH TO , 14a
086 28 F0RMAT$29H AT PAUSE 900 JOB IS CCMPLETEa 1380
087 120 PAUSE 9CC *
088 END
 138

APPENDIX 7B

THREE PHASE FAULT STUDY DATA PREPARATION

A single line diagram of each circuit is required, as discussed in

Section 2 of this thesis.

Card 1: This contains the values of the number of nodes (N), the

number of lines (LN), and the supply point impedance (SPZ)

in columns 11-15, 16-20, 21-27, respectively. The first

three items a-re integers while SPZ is floating point.

The next LN cards contain the numbers of the two nodes connected

and the impedance of the connecting line. Only one value of

impedance is supplied and either reactance (p.u.) or Jz| = \/R + X

(p.u.) may be used. The format is the same as that for Card 1 above.

Any number of data sets will be processed until a ’’Card 1” is found

having a zero punched in column 5, then computation is terminated.

 NUMBER OF NOCES H 4 NUMBER GF LINES # 5 SUPPLY POINT Z # 0.11200

LINES ,CONNECTIONS AND REACTANCES

LINE NC. CONNECTS NCDE TO NODE IMPEDANCE

1 1
2 1
3 1
4 2
5 3
2 0.9920
3 0.552C
4 0. 865 C
3 0.1530
4 0.2300

ATMITTANCE MATRIX ,
.9043 -1.0C81 -1.8116 -1.1561 0.0000
.0081 7.544C -6.5359 O.CCCO 0.0000
.8116 ~6.5355 12.6954 -4.3478 0.0000
.1561 C.OCOC -4.3478 5.5039 0.0000

INVERSE ADMITTANCE MATRIX - Z MATRIX

0.1120 0.112C 0.1120 0.1120 0.1120

0.1120 0.4532 0.3528 0.3022
0.1120 C.3528 0.3899 0.3315
0.1120 C.3C22 0.3315 0.4671
AULTED BUSBAR NO 1 FAULT LEVEL $MVAo 892.86
BUS VOLTAGES AT BUSBARS
1 O.OOCO
2 0.0000
3 0.0000
4 0.0000

CURRENTS IN LINES JOINING NODES

0.0 1 TO
0.0 1 TO
0.0 1 TO
0.0 2 TO
O.C 3 TO
FAULTED BUSBAR NO 2 FAULT LEVEL %MVAo 220.67
BUS VOLTAGES AT BUSBARS
1 0.7528
2 -0.0000

3 0.2215
4 0.3331

CURRENTS IN LINES JOINING NODES

1328.1 1 TO 2
1684.5 1 TO 3
849.2 1 TO 4
-2533.6 2 TO 3
-849.2 3 TO 4

f IT--- ..... -
FAULTED BUSEAR NO 3 FAULT LEVEL £MV An 256.46
BUS VOLTAGES AT BUSBARS
1 0.7128
2 0.0952
3 -0.0000
4 0.1497

CURRENTS IN LINES JOINING NODES

1089.4 1 TO 2
2259.7 1 TO 3
1139.1 1 TO 4
1089.4 2 TO 3
-1139.1 3 TO 4
FAULT ED EUSEAR NO 4 FAULT LEVEL S^VAo 214*08
BUS VOLTAGES AT EUS8ARS
1 0.7602
2 0.3530
3 0.2902
4 0.0000

CURRENTS IN LINES JOINING NODES

m m
718.3 1 TO
1490.0 1 TO

4
1538.0 1 TO
718.3 2 TO
22C8.3 3 TO
 144

|Z| = .112
E.C. PENRITH 33kV BUS
Node 1

|Z| = .992 p.u. |z| = .552 p.u. 865 p.u.

1360 A 1730 A

Node 3

880 A

.15 p.u. | Z | = . 23 p.u.

Node 2 Node 4
Windsor Richmond Zone Substation
Zone Substation

225 MVA
(3950 Amp.)

D.C. Board 30 Fault Study

 145

|z| = .112

E.C. PENRITH 33kV BUS

Node 1

.992 p.u. |z| = .552 p. .865 p.u.

1100 A 2260 A

1100 A Node 3 1170 A

258 MVA
(4550 A)
| Z | = .23 p.u.

Node 2 Node 4
Windsor Zone Substation Richmond Zone Substation

D.C. Board 30 Fault Study

 146

|Z| = .112

E.C. PENRITH 33kV BUS

Node 1

.992 p.u. .552 p.u. | Z| = .865 p.u.

720 A 1500 A 1525 A

2220 A
Node 3

720 A
|Z| = .15 p. |z| = .23 p.u.

Node 2 Node 4

Windsor Zone Substation Richmond

Zone Substation

217 MVA
(3820 A)

D.C. Board 30 Fault Study

 147

APPENDIX 8

SINGLE PHASE/GROUND FAULT CALCULATIONS

Page

(a) Fortran IV Source Programme Listing 148

(b) Single Phase/Ground Fault Study Data Preparation 152

(c) Results of Digital Single Phase/Ground Fault Study 153

(d) Results of D-C Board Single Phase/Ground Fault Study 164

 FORTRAN INIT
FORTRAN COMPILATION VER 2 MOD 1
$0BJECT MACHINE SIZE U 15999
$NO DICTIONARY
C FAULT STUDIES ~ SINGLE PHASE / GROUND
C
C FAULT LEVELS SIN MVAa AND LINE FAULT
C CURRENTS ARE COMPUTED FOR FAULTS AT 40
C EVERY BUS BAR 50
C
C Y IS THE ADMITTANCE MATRIX, NO. OF BUSBARS ft N, NO. OF LINES # LN 100
001 DIMENSION YS5,6n,ZS7a,V0LTS7a,AMPS7n,MCS7,2o,Y1S5,5n,Z1S7a,AMPZSTn
002 DIMENSION SCMTCSSn
C SUPPLY POI NT"*SOURCE IMPEDANCE # SPZ 110
003 LLP » 3
004 LCR # 1 130
C
005 29 READSLCR,10nN,LN,SPZ,IMP
006 IFSIMP.EQ.OnGO TO 4
007 DO 5 J # 1,20
008 READSLCR,7nSSCMTCSIa, I # 1,8a
009 5 WRITESLLP,6nSSCMTCSIn, I # 1,8a
010 4 WRITESLLP,11a
011 WRIT ESLLP,12a
012 WRITESLLP,13oN,LN,SPZ
013 IFSIMP.EQ.laGO TO 291
014 WRITESLLP,129a
015 291 L# NSI
016 293 IFSNa30,120,30
017 30 WRITESLLP,12a 220
018 WRIT ESLLP* 14a
019 WRITESLLP,16a
C
020 DO 31 I # 1,LN
021 READSLCR,15aMCSI,la,MCSI»2n,ZSIn
022 31 WRITESLLP,17a I,MCSI,la,MCSI?2n*ZSIa
C POSITIVE SEQUENCE LINE IMPEDANCES ARE STORED IN COLUMN VECTOR ZlSIa
023 IFSIMP.EQ.OaGO TO 294
024 DO 292 I » 1,LN
025 292 ZlSIa # ZSIn
C
026 294 DO 32 I # 1,N
027 DO 32 J # 1, L
028 32 YSI,Jn # 0.0
029 YS1,la # l.O/SPZ
C
030 DO 33 I I 1,LN
031 11 # MCSI,la
032 12 # MCSI,2a
033 YSI1,I la # YSIltlln E l.O/ZSIa
034 YSI 2,12a # YSI 2,I 2a E l.O/ZSIa
035 YSI1,I 2a # YSIl,I2a ~ l.O/ZSIa
036 33 YSI2* I la # YSI2,Ila - l.O/ZSIa
C
037 WRITESLLP,12a
038 WRITESLLP,18a
 C
039 DO 34 I # 1yN
040 34 WRITESLLP»19n5SYSI , JnTJ ft l,Ln
oooo

THE INVERSE OF THE ADMITTANCE MATRIX WILL NOW BE FOUND.THE MATRIX 490
*Yn WILL BE DESTROYED DURING COMPUTATION OF THE INVERSE 500

041 L ft N£1
042 DO 100 I # 1,N
STORE THE I-TH COL OF THE UNIT MATRIX IN THE N&1ST COL OF Y 550
oo

043 DO 50 J ft 1,N
044 50 YSJtLn # 0.0
045 YSI,Ln ft 1.0 590
ooo

THE PIVOT ROW WILL NOW BE DIVIDED BY THE PIVOT ELEMENT 610

046 DIV ft Y2I, In

047 DO 60 J # 1 * L
048 60 Y £ Iy Jn ft Y%I» Ja/DIV 650
049 DO 80 J # 1 *N
050 IF'-SI.EQ. JnGO TO 80
051 PROD ft Y^J »Ia
052 DO 70 K ft 11L
053 70 YSJ*Kn # Y^JtKa - Y«IfKn*PRQD
054 80 CONTINUE
ooo

THE NS 1ST COL OF Y IS NOW STORED IN THE I-TH COL OF Y 720

055 DO 90 J ft 1,N
056 90 Y^IQ ft YigJtLn
oooo

057 100 CONTINUE

THE INVERSE IS STORED IN IN THE FIRST N COLS OF Y

058 WRIT E^LLPt12a

059 WRITElLLPit 20n
noo

PRINT OUT INVERSE ADMITTANCE MATRIX - %l MATRIXn

060 109 DO 105 LI ft 1,N

C STORE POSITIVE SEQUENCE ADMITTANCE IN MATRIX Y1SI t Jn
061 IFSIMP.EQ.OnGO TO 108
062 DO 107 I ft 1 * N
063 DO 107 J ft ltN
064 107 Yl^UJn # YTUJn
065 DO 114 I # ItN
066 114 WRITE^LLPtl9n^Y^ItJatJ ft l,Ln
067 GO TO 29
068 108 DO 101 I ft 11N 860
069 101 WRITE»LLP»19nXYXI, Jn»J ft l,Ln
C
070 WRIT E^LLPt12n
071 A ft 1.0/X2.0*Yl$Ll,Lln & Y$Ll,Lln o
 c A # ZERO SEQUENCE CURRENT AT POINT OF FAULT
c
072 B # 300.0*A
073 WRITESLLP,21nLl,B
074 WRITE'£LL P» 22n
075 DO 103 I # 1»N
076 VOLTSIn # A**Yl*Ll,Lln - Yl*I,Llnn
077 103 WRITE%LLPt24nIfV0LT?Io
C
C
C THE POSITIVE SEQUENCE NODE VOLTAGES PRINTED OUT ARE ACTUALLY THE
C POSITIVE SEQUENCE VOLTAGE RISES ABOVE THE FAULTED NODE WHICH IS
C TAKEN AS THE REFERENCE NODE.
C
C POSITIVE SEQUENCE LINE CURRENTS ARE NOW COMPUTED
078 WRITESLLP*12n 1061
079 WRITEXLLP-t 26o
080 WRIT E%LLPt25o
081 DO 112 J # 1tLN
082 11 # MCXJ,ln
083 12 # MCSJ*2n
084 AMPXJn#2-.0*3%V0LTSIln - V0LT$I2nn/ZlSJaa*1750.0
085 WRITE3LLP*27nAMPSJo*11,12
086 112 CONTINUE
C
C ZERO SEQUENCE CURRENTS WILL NOW BE COMPUTED
C
087 WRITEKLLPt1290
088 WRITE^LLP»9o
089 DO 110 I M 1*N
090 VOLTSIn ft AnY %LltLlo - Y SI,Linn
091 110 WRITE*LLPt24nlfV0LTXIn
092 WRITESLLP*12o
093 WRITESLLP» 25o
094 DO 111 I # 1-fLN
095 11 # MC?Itln
096 12 # MCSI*2n
097 AMPZSIo # SSVOLfSIln - VQLT«I.2nn/ZSInn*1750.0
098 111 WRITE«LLPt27nAMPZ*Io,Ilf 12
099 WRITESLLP, 8o
100 DO 105 I » 1 * LN
101 AMPSin # AMPSIn & AMPZSIo
102 11 » MCSI*ln
103 12 n MCSI*2n
104 WRITESLLP, 27oAMPSIn, 11,12
105 105 CONTINUE
106 GO TO 29
107 6 FORMATS20X,8AlOo
108 7 F0RMATS8A10O
109 8 F0RMATS///15X,41HT0TAL'FAULT CURRENT FLOWING THROUGH LINES///o
110 9 F0RMAT£///48X,26HZERG SEQUENCE BUS V0LTAGES//O
111 10 FORMATS10X,21 51F7.5, I3o
112 11 FORMATSlHln
113 12 F0RMAT2////O
114 13 FORMATSIOX , 18HNUMBER OF NODES # ,I5,20H NUMBER OF LINES #,15* 12
11911 SUPPLY POINT Z #,F10.5o
 I
115 14 F0RMAT317X,33HLINES, CONNECTIONS AND IMPEDANCES a
116 15 F0RMAT32I5*F6.4n
117 16 FORMAT 3J10X »9HL INE NO. ,5X934H CONNECTS NODE TO NODE IMPEDANCE//n 1260
118 17 F0RMATX15X,I3,14X,I3*7X»I3,5X,F7.4n
119 18 F0RMAT[*15X920HADMITTANCE MATRIX //□
120 19 F0RMATS2S5X,12F10.4/nn
121 20 F0RMAT^5X»36HINVERSE ADMITTANCE MATRIX - Z MATRIX//o 1300
122 21 F0RMAT$1H1»18HFAULTED BUSBAR N0.»I4»19H FAULT LEVEL £MVAa,F10.2a 1310
123 22 FORM AT !£42X»3QN POSITIVE SEQUENCE BUS VOLTAGESn
124 24 F0RMAT£60XtI496X,F8.4n
125 25 FORMAT3552Xf33H CURRENTS IN LINES JOINING NODES //a
126 26 FORMAT^l5X»59HSUM OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SEQUENCE CURRENTS IN EA
ICO LINEa
127 27 F0RMAT^52X,F8.1,20X,I4t10H TO »I4a

128 129 FORMAT^///10X»24HZERO SEQUENCE QUANTITIES///Q

129 120 PAUSE 900 1400
130 END
 152

APPENDIX 8B

SINGLE PHASE/GRQUND FAULT STUDY DATA PREPARATION

Single line diagrams should be prepared for both the positive and

zero sequence circuit (see Section 2 of this thesis).

Positive sequence values are read in first and the input format is

the same as that described for three phase faults, except that Card 1 will,

in addition, contain the value of the variable IMP which is 1. IMP is a

variable which permits the computer to recognise whether the impedances

being read in are positive or zero sequence impedances. Again, only one

value of impedance per line is supplied and this may be eitherthe

reactance X or |z | = J+ X^. Thus, Card 1 has the followingdata

punched on it: N, LN, SPZ, IMP, in columns 11-15, 16-20, 21-27 and 28-30

respectively.

The next 20 cards contain a schematic diagram of the circuit. Each

card contains a small portion of the schematic diagram which is first

drawn onto a coding* form and is made up of recognisable characters (in

this case the characters 1 and I) as shown in the computer output in

Appendix 8A. Twenty cards must always be used for the schematic diagram

irrespective of the physical size of the actual diagram desired. The next

LN cards contain the two nodes joined and the impedance of the line join­

ing them as for the 30 fault study data.

Another ’’Card 1" is now introduced with the same information on it

as the previous "Card 1" except that the value of IMP used this time is 0,

to indicate to the computer that zero sequence quantities are to be

supplied. Following this will be LN cards, each card containing the two

nodes joined and zero sequence impedance of the line joining them.

The required data set is now complete. Any number of data sets may

be used until a "Card 1" having a "0" in the 5th column is encountered

and computation is terminated.

* A coding form typically has 25 rows and 80 columns ruled on it. The infor­
mation written on one line of the form may be punched onto one 80 column card.
 E.C.N.S.W. GUILDFORD SUPPLY POINT ULTIMATE
************************************************
1 I 1 INODE 1
753 1 1 754 I 759 1 756
1 I I 1
I I I 1
1 I 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 I 1 l
1 1 1 I
1 I 1 1 \
1 I 1 I
1 1 I 1
1 1 H 1 ®~ —— *****-—.~-l I
I 1 1 NODE 3 1 1
1 1 1 I 1
I 1 I I 1
NnnF ? l 1 1 1 1 NODE 4
********************* *****************
FAIRFIELD YENNORA
 NUMBER OF NODES ft 4 NUMBER OF LINES ft SUPPLY POINT Z ft 0*09200

LINES ,CONNECTIONS AND IMPEDANCES

LINE NO. CONNECTS NODE TO NODE IMPEDANCE

1 1 2 0.0360
2 1 2 0.0410
3 2 3 0.0080
4 3 1 0.0700
5 3 4 0.0760
6 4 1 0.1180

ADMITTANCE MATRIX

85.7979 -52.1680 -14.2857 -8.4746 0.0000 J ! ! -

-52.1680 177.1680 -125.0000 0.0000 0.0000

-14.2857 -125.0000 152.4436 -13.1579 0.0000
-8.4746 0.0000 -13.1579 21.6325 0.0000

INVERSE ADMITTANCE MATRIX - Z MATRIX

0.0920 0.0920 0.0920 0.0920 0.0920

0.0920 0.1065 0.1045 0.0996 0.0996
0.0920 0.1045 0.1098 0.1028 0.1028
0.0920 0.0996 0.1028 0.1448 0.1448
 NUMBER OF NODES # 4 NUMBER OF LINES # 6 SUPPLY POINT Z # 0.01740

ZERO SEQUENCE QUANTITIES

LINES»CONNECTIONS AND IMPEDANCES

LINE NO. CONNECTS NODE TO NODE IMPEDANCE

1 1 2 0*1420
2 1 2 0*1640
3 2 3 0.0330
4 3 1 0.2890
5 3 4 0.3140
6 4 1 0.4860

ADMITTANCE MATRIX

76.1289 -13.1398 -3.4602 -2.0576 0.0000

-13.1398 43.4428 -30.3030 0.0000 0.0000
-3.4602 -30.3030 36.9480 -3.1847 0.0000
-2.0576 0.0000 -3.1847 5.2423 0.0000

INVERSE ADMITTANCE MATRIX - Z MATRIX

0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174

0.0174 0.0755 0.0677 0.0479 0.0479
0.0174 0.0677 0.0895 0.0612 0.0612
0.0174 0.0479 0.0612 0.2348 0.2348
FAULTED BUSBAR NO FAULT LEVEL *MVAn 1489.57
POSITIVE SEQUENCE BUS VOLTAGES
0.0000
-0.0000
-0.0000
-0.0000

SUM OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SEQUENCE CURRENTS IN EACH LINE

CURRENTS IN LINES JOINING NODES

0.0 1
0.0 1
0.0 2
-0.0 3
-0.0 3
-0.0 4

ZERO SEQUENCE QUANTITIES

ZERO SEQUENCE BUS VOLTAGES

1 OiOOOO
2 0.0000
3 0.0000
4 0.0000

CURRENTS IN LINES JOINING NODES

- 0.0 1
- 0.0 1
0.0 2
0.0 3
0.0 3
0.0 4

TOTAL FAULT CURRENT FLOWING THROUGH LINES

 0.0
0.0
0.0

r\j
-P- oj oj
-0.0

“0.0
-0.0
0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 i

0.0174 0.0755 0.0677 0.0479 0.0479

0.0174 0.0677 0.0895 0.0612 0.0612
0.0174 0.0479 0.0612 0.2348 0.2348
FAULTED BUSBAR NO. 2 FAULT LEVEL $MVAn 1039.96
POSITIVE SEQUENCE BUS VOLTAGES
1 0.0502
2 0.0000
3 0*0068
4 0.0238

SUM OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SEQUENCE CURRENTS IN EACH LINE

CURRENTS IN LINES JOINING NODES

(\J C\J
4885.0 1 TO
4289.2 1 TO

CO
-2958.6 2 TO

r-l "sf
-2174.1 3 TO
-784.5 3 TO

«
-784.5 4 TO

—
l
ZERO SEQUENCE QUANTITIES

ZERO SEQUENCE BUS VOLTAGES

1 0*2014
2 0.0000
3 Oi0271
4 0.0955

CURRENTS IN LINES JOINING NODES

(\l C\J
2481.4 1 TO
2148.6 1 TO

fO
-1436.4 2 TO

•""<
-1055.2 3 TO

'3* r-»
-381.2 3 TO
-381.2 4 TO

TOTAL FAULT CURRENT FLOWING THROUGH LINES

•w
 r. ■'
7366.4
6437.8
-4395.1

-3229.4

-1165.7

-1165.7

0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174

0.0174 0.0755 0.0677 0.0479 0.0479
0.0174 0.0677 0.0895 0.0612 0.0612
0.0174 0.0479 0.0612 0.2348 0.2348
FAULTED BUSBAR NO. 3 FAULT LEVEL SSMVAn 970.79
POSITIVE SEQUENCE BUS VOLTAGES
1 0*0575
2 0.0X69
3 0.0000
4 0*0225

SUM OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SEQUENCE CURRENTS IN EACH LINE

CURRENTS IN LINES JOINING NODES

3946.3

W W W H t-
3465.1
7411.4
-2876.6
-1037.9
-1037.9

ZERO SEQUENCE QUANTITIES

ZERO SEQUENCE BUS VOLTAGES

1 0.2332
2 0*0705
3 0.0000
4 0.0915

CURRENTS IN LINES JOINING NODE

2004.8 (/)
M
1735.8
H (M

3740.6
-1412.2
W

-510.1
OJ

-510.1
^

TOTAL FAULT CURRENT FLOWING THROUGH LINES

Kj-
 V M

5951.1

^ W W N iH H
5200.9
11152.1
“4288.7
“1548.1
- 1548.1
0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174
0.0174 0.0755 0.0677 0.0479 0.0479
0.0174 0.0677 0.0895 0.0612 0.0612
0.0174 0.0479 0.0612 0.2348 0.2348
FAULTED BUSBAR NO. 4 FAULT LEVEL SMVAn 572.12
POSITIVE SEQUENCE BUS VOLTAGES
1 0* 1007
2 0*0862
3 0.0801
4 0.0000

SUM OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SEQUENCE CURRENTS IN EACH LINE

CURRENTS IN LINES JOINING NODES

o
1414.6 1 TO

\>r
1242.1 1 TO

r
2656.7 2 TO
-1031.1 3 TO
3687.9 3 TO
-2986.9 4 TO

ZERO SEQUENCE QUANTITIES

ZERO SEQUENCE BUS VOLTAGES

1 0.4145
2 0.3563
3 0*3310
4 0*0000

CURRENTS IN LINES JOINING NODES

h-^H-ojrsjr'o
717.8 1 TO
621.5 1 TO
1339.2 ' 2 TO
-505.6 3 TO
1844.8 3 TO
-1492.6 4 TO

TOTAL FAULT CURRENT FLOWING THROUGH LINES

A®!*-!
 CM
2132.4 1 TO

<
1863.6 1 TO

\J
fO r*
3996.0 2 TO
-1536.7 3 TO
5532.7 3 TO
-4479.5

V
 E .C .N .S .W . GUILDFORD 33kV BUS

F a irfie ld Z one S u b s ta tio n /f Y ennora Zone S u b s ta tio n

164
E.C.N.S.W. GUILDFORD 33kV BUS

F a ir fie ld Zone Substation Yennora Zone Substation

165
 166
< <c
sO
CO LO O'
TP vO O'
LO w
Yennora Zone Substation

<
o
CM sO
LO
TP o
o
X
tp
cm r~ o
O' H LO
O o LO
lO
o O'
Is- CO
O CM
o
II II LO
X X i c TP
X X
=H
E.C.N.S.W. GUILDFORD 33kV BUS

Fairfield Zone Substation

TP
o
II r—H
X
CM
<0
-a
2o
<o o
o
O CM
z CM
 167

APPENDIX 9

SEQUENTIAL LINE OUTAGES TO ACHIEVE FAULT CLEARANCE

 168

APPENDIX 9

SEQUENTIAL LINE OUTAGES TO ACHIEVE FAULT CLEARANCE

Protective relaying in a power system* should be such that the

minimum amount of equipment is taken out of operation following the

occurrence of a fault. To ensure correct time grading between relays it

is essential to know the changing fault current distributions following

each switching operation. For the sake of illustration, assume that the

transmission system shown in Fig. 9.1 is protected by overcurrent relays

which are actuated by current transformers in the respective circuit

breakers and have an inverse time-current operating characteristic similar

to that shown in Fig. 9.2.

PENRITH 33kV BUS

Node 1

Faul t

Node 3
Tee Connection

Node 2 Node 4

Windsor Zone Richmond Zone

Substation Substation

Figo 9o1 - Schematic Diagram of a 33kV Subtransmission System

If a fault were to occur at P adjacent to circuit breaker C above, then

the normal switching sequence expected might be as follows:

* See for example, C.R. MASON, The Art and Science of Protective
Relaying, John Wiley, jVew York, 1956-
 169

(a) Circuit breaker C would be opened first due to the fact that

nearly all the fault current would flow through it and therefore be

sensed by the relay associated with it.

(b) Following operation of circuit breaker C, the magnitude of fault

current in all of the lines would change and it would be necessary

to know the new fault current distribution to ensure that the

relay D control mechanism is set such that it operates before

that of any other relay.

100 1000 2000

CURRENT (AMPS.)
Fig. 9.2 - Typical Induction Disc Protection Relay Operating Curve

When matrix inversion methods are used to perform fault calculations,

it is desirable to be able to remove a line at a time and recalculate fault

currents without having to carry out complete inversion of a new admittance

matrix each time. A technique which makes use of Kron's transformation

6
matrices or connection matrices is available for this and it allows for

the addition or removal of branches between existing nodes. This is

discussed below and a numerical example involving an actual 33kV trans­

mission system is included. The result is then verified by use of a

conventional network reduction technique. Initially, it will be assumed

 170

that a new transmission line is to be connected between two existing nodes.

New transmission line

Node K Node L

Fig. 9.3

Assume that the voljtages at nodes K and L were and Vg respectively

prior to the addition of the new transmission line between these two nodes.

To compensate for the inclusion of the new tie branch, oriented from (say)

k to 1, we inject currents +1^ and -1^ at nodes K and L respectively,

so that current leaving a node is positive and that entering a node is

negative. If this convention is adopted, then we may quite readily add

the injected currents +1 and -1^ to the externally injected currents

at the nodes K and L respectively. The first step in the general process

is to set up a tie connection matrix consisting of a column vector

containing N elements which are either 1, -1 or 0, N being the number of

independent node equations. Let the term corresponding to the lower

numbered node (k) be +1, and let that corresponding to the higher numbered

node (i) be -1, and let all the other elements be zero. Let it be required

to perform a fault calculation with line 5 (connecting node 1 to 4 in

Fig. 9.1) removed from service. We will start the analysis by assuming

that the circuit in Fig. 9.4 a exists and that we are about to add line 5.
kl
The appropriate connection matrix which we will refer to as C is

' r
0
(A.9.1)
0
-1
 171

where k refers to node No . 1 and 1 refers to node No.4.

Injected currents + 1^ and -1^ may now t>e added to the node currents 1^

and I. .
J
The matrix of supplementary injected currents is thus

Al = -Ckl Ikl (A.9.2)

These currents will alter the node voltages to

V' = Z (I + A I) (A.9.3)

V' = ZI - ZCkl I , (A.9.4)

kl

The new voltages and must satisfy constraints imposed by Ohms law,

i. e.

V
k
v; 7’
k-1 Xkl
T (A.9.5)

v: t V’ (A.9.6)

Using equation (A.9.3), we have

[ckl] 1 z (i + Ai) (A.9.7)

(A.9.8)

From equation (A.9.5)

ZU rki = M ‘ZI - M1 zckl xki

(A.9.9)

(A.9.10)

-1 t
ZI (A.9.11)

From equation (A.9.4)

t
V’ = ZI - zckl ! zkl+
ckl zckl] -1 [ck3 1 ZI

t
cki -1 [ckl] 1 z] I
- [z - zckl
V’ (A.9.12)
zkl+
 172

By definition, the expression inside the square brackets must be the new

impedance matrix Z' where

V’ = Z' I

Thus

Z' (A.9.13)

The "Woodbury Formula quoted by Laughton and Humphrey Davies gives the

same result as equation (A.9.13)

-1
r , wl ki [Jell t
Z’ y + y; c C (A.9.14)
L k-e . -

Y 1 + [y 1 Ckl] /3 [Ckl] 1 Y 1 (A.9.15)

Y'
k-e
where jB
1 + y;
k-e
Ckl 1 Y 1 ckl

Y' = admittance of the line joining nodes k and 1

K ~0

Now, if the line joining nodes k and 1 was taken into account when

computing the impedance matrix Z, and it is now desired to examine condi­

tions with the line out of service, equation (A.9.13) is still used with

i being the negative of the actual impedance of the line in question.

Consider the situation in Fig. 9.1 when it is desired to calculate

fault currents when circuit breaker C is open and a fault at P has occurred.

The impedance matrix Z' may be computed using equation (A.9.3) and

inserting the negative value of the impedance of the line joining nodes

4 and 1 for Z'^ ^. The diagonal elements of the new matrix Z' are the

Thevenin impedances at each of the nodes in the system when the line

is disconnected. In order to compute the current for a fault at P, it is

merely necessary to now add the impedance of line 5 to Z'^ to obtain the

total impedance between the voltage source and the fault at P. It may

also be desirable to calculate fault currents for a fault at node 4 with

 173

circuit breaker C open in which case Z'^ may be used directly.

A numerical example using equation (A.9.13) to remove line 5 from

the circuit in Fig. 9.1 will now be considered. The inverse admittance

matrix Z for the circuit in Fig. 9.1 has been calculated by digital

computer and is included below.

0
0
1

[-1 0 0 1]

.112 .112 .112 .112 -1

.112 .4532 . 3528 .3022 0

.112 .3528 .3899 .3315 0

.112 .3022 .3315 .4671 1

1902

2195

3551

[cklJl [-1 0 0 l] 0

.1902

.2195

. 3551

3551

-1
h-i 1 zcklL] " -.865 + .3551

-.5009] _1

where Z^^ = -.865 p.u. is the negative of the impedance of the line to

be removed, i.e. the line joining nodes 4 and 1.

 174

-1 .1902
1
7’ + 1 zckl
Zkl .5099
.2195

. 3551

-.3730

-.4305

-.6964

-l -.3730
kl t
ZC
zkl +
'ckl' 1 zckl ckl' -10 0 1
KI
- - - -.4305 -

-.6964

0 0 0 0

3730 0 0 -.3730

4305 0 0 -.4305

6964 0 0 -.6964

-1
7' + ckl" 1 zckl ckl lz =
L kl

0 0 0 0 112 .112 .112 .112

.3730 0 0 -.3730 112 .4532 .3528 .3022

.4305 0 0 -.4305 112 .3528 .3899 .3315

.6964 0 0 -.6964 112 .3022 .3315 .4671

0 0 0 0

0 -.0700 -.0819 -.1325

0 -.0819 -.0954 -.1529

0 -.1325 -.1529 -.2474

 175

r -1
„ r kil t ^„kl Me 11
= z - „„kl
zc _zki +
c ZC C

".112 .112 .112 .112 ' 0 0 0 0 '

.112 .4532 .3528 .3022 0 -.07 -.0819 .1325

.112 .3528 .3899 .3315 0 -.0819 .0945 .1529

.112 .3022 .3315 .4671 0 -.1325 -.1529 .2474

112 .112 .112 .112

112 .5232 .4347 .4347

112 .4347 .4844 .4844

112 .4341 .4844 .7145

This is the inverse admittance matrix of the circuit of Fig. 9.4 below

which is the same as that of Fig. 9.2 with line 5 joining nodes 4 to 1

removed. If now the impedance of this line is added to Z’^ the total

impedance between the generator (bulk supply point) and the fault at the

end of line 5 will be found.

Thus

Z - Z' . + Z, . r-
44 line 5

= .7145 + .865

= 1.5795 p.u.

1.0
633 p.u
1.5795

This result will be confirmed by use of simple network reduction methods.

 176

1.145

Node 2

Node 4

Node 4 Node 4
(c) Fig. 9.4 (d)

The final value of impedance obtained (1.5795) is identical to that

obtained by the matrix methods except for a difference of .0001 which is

due to round-off of error.

Now the impedance of line 5 may be added to give

Z. = .7144 + .865 = 1.5794 p.u.

total
1
and the fault current is .633 p.u., as before.
1.5794