Boiler system above and below creep range

[1015654]

Boiler material selection

Summary Table of Typical Boiler Tube Materials of Construction [EPRI Inherently Reliable
Boiler
Component Design1004324:]

High energy piping damage mechanism + Metallurgy of steel & effect of composition on
microstructure and properties [ EPRI 1012201, 1015505, 1016212]

Cold reheat piping [EPRI 1009863]

Piping design normally follows ASME/ANSI B31.1 Power Piping Design code. Design and operating
temperatures for CRH piping are usually, but not always, below the threshold for significant creep
behavior (approximately 850°F, or 450°C). Where temperature exceeds this threshold, it is still
unlikely that the combination of temperature, pressure, and duration would result in significant
levels of creep.

Cold reheat piping is typically constructed of high-pressure, high-temperature carbon steel (ASTM
A155, Grade 70 is a common specification), with wall thickness ranging from about 5/8 inch to >1
inch (16 to 25+ mm), depending on line size and rated pressure. At the upper thickness range, CRH
piping may experience thick-walled behavior, which involves significant thermally induced stress
during startups and load changes. CRH piping is commonly fabricated from plate that is rolled and
longitudinally seam-welded to form piping spools.

[EPRI 1012098]
Damage mechanism of HRSG tubes & Flow-accelerated Corrosion (FAC) in HRSGs
[1013629]
Flow-Accelerated Corrosion [1012201 + 7-47
Service-related damage in low-temperature piping systems predominantly occurs as a result
of fatigue, corrosion fatigue, or erosion-corrosion (commonly referred to as flow-accelerated
corrosion or FAC). FAC is a significant degradation mechanism that occurs in low-
temperature piping systems and has resulted in a number of failures in both nuclear and
fossil-fueled power plants. Thermal or mechanical fatigue cracking can occur in feedwater
and other lowtemperature piping systems that are exposed to significant thermal shock
events, water hammer, or deficient pipe support conditions. These are localized events that
occur as a result of unit- or operations-specific conditions, as opposed to generic problems.
FAC refers to material wall loss that occurs in piping systems through dissolution of the
protective oxide layer (magnetite or hematite) by localized turbulence from flowing water or
wetsteam. A number of FAC-related failures have occurred in low-temperature piping
systems of fossil-fueled power plants over the years. As was the case with longitudinal seam-
welded failures occurring in high-temperature HRH piping systems, the occurrence of these
failures resulted in various EPRI and other industry-sponsored studies of the FAC damage
mechanism [2-6–2-8].
From these studies, the following major factors influencing FAC susceptibility have been
identified:
• Material composition. FAC has been found to be highly dependent on levels of trace
elements such as chromium, molybdenum, and copper. Chromium (Cr) content, in particular,
offers significantly improved resistance to FAC. In general, FAC is active in piping systems
containing 0%–0.20% Cr with increased susceptibility in systems containing only 0%–0.05%
Cr content.
• Temperature. FAC is generally active at temperatures ranging from 200°F–550°F (93°C–
288°C) with increased susceptibility occurring at 260°F–400°F (127°C–288°C).
• Oxygen content. The presence of dissolved oxygen (O2) in the feedwater system promotes
formation of the protective oxide layer, in turn reducing the susceptibility to FAC. FAC is
generally active at dissolved O2 levels of ≤40 ppb with increased susceptibility at O2 levels of
≤5 ppb.
• pH level. FAC is generally active at cold pH levels of 7.0–9.5, with increased
susceptibility
at levels of 7.0–8.0. FAC is primarily a function of the hot pH, but this is usually difficult to
measure and is usually inferred from the cold pH.
• Fluid velocity. FAC is generally active at fluid velocities greater than 10 ft/s (3.05 m/s),
with
increased susceptibility occurring at rates greater than 17–20 ft/s (5.2–6.1 m/s).
• Fluid quality. FAC is generally active in water or wet steam systems, with increased
susceptibility occurring in a two-phase flow that is 30%–80% steam.
• Flow geometry. FAC can occur in any piping location; areas of flow turbulence—tees,
elbows, reducers, valves, orifices, or other flow control devices—are particularly susceptible.
Piping systems that should be evaluated for potential FAC damage based on the above
parameters include the following:
• Feedwater and economizer inlet lines
• Condensate lines
• Feedwater drips and drains
• Wet steam extraction lines
Piping systems that can be considered immune to FAC (for the most part) include the
following:
• Stainless steel piping systems or low-alloy systems with nominal specified chromium
content
of 1% or greater
• Superheated steam systems with no moisture content
• Raw water systems not subject to strict water chemistry limits, such as service water piping
where dissolved oxygen content is typically high (greater than 1 ppm)
• Single-phase flow systems that operate at temperatures <200°F (93°C).
FAC is well understood and addressed in conventional plant feedwater systems because of
the possibility of safety and fatality issues(21-23). In HRSGs, FAC should be regarded as not
only a possible HTF situation but also THE major generator of corrosion products. Single
phase FAC in feedwater, and LP economizer and evaporator circuits should be addressed by
non-use of reducing agents in the feedwater to ensure the fluid is oxidizing (oxidizing-
reducing potential, ORP, greater than zero)(4)(24)(25). Table 4 indicates however that over 60% of
HRSG operators still use a reducing agent. The two-phase version of FAC occurring in LP
evaporator circuits and LP drums needs to be addressed by optimizing the chemistry and/or
by material changes (use of higher chromium containing materials). The optimum chemistry
options include use of a solid alkali (tri-sodium phosphate or NaOH) in the LP drums. This
option cannot be used, however, if the LP circuit provides feed for the higher pressure
circuits or attemperation(2
[1015505] Two-phase FAC is a common damage mechanism in the ES and heater drain systems,
including damage to feedwater heater shells adjacent to the ES inlet nozzles. A detailed
description of FAC is included in Volume 1: Piping Fundamentals (1012201), and in the EPRI
reports Flow-Accelerated Corrosion in Power Plants (TR-106611-R1) and Guidelines for
Controlling Flow-Accelerated Corrosion in Fossil and Combined-Cycle Plants (1008082) [4-3–4-5].

[1015654] The phenomenon of Flow Accelerated Corrosion (FAC) is well understood. It is a

process in which the normally protective magnetite (Fe3O4) layer on carbon steel dissolves in
a stream of flowing water (single phase) or wet steam (two phase). Under normal conditions
there processes are approximately equal. However, abnormal conditions can reduce or
eliminate the oxide layer and lead to a rapid removal of the base material. In the worst cases,
metal loss continues until the pipe or tube bursts. The rate of metal loss depends on a
complex interplay of many parameters, including the following:
• The feedwater chemistry (ORP, oxygen and reducing agent, pH)
• The material composition, in particular the levels of Cr, Cu, and Mo
• The other materials in the feedwater system
• The fluid hydrodynamics, for example, velocity, geometry, steam quality, temperature, and
mass transfer
The FAC process can lead to very rapid rates of metal loss; wall thinning rates as high as
0.120 inch/year (3 mm/yr) have occurred. Thus, it is important that effective FAC prevention
programs are implemented. Details of the latest EPRI report on FAC are contained in
Guidelines for Controlling Flow Accelerated Corrosion in Fossil and Combined Cycle Plant.
EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA: 2005. 1008082.

4.4.3.1 Flow-Accelerated Corrosion (FAC) [1015654, 1016212]

In flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC), the normally protective magnetite (Fe3O4) layer on
carbon steel dissolves and is mechanically removed in a stream of flowing water (single phase)
or wet steam (two phase). Under normal conditions the oxide growth and removal processes
are approximately equal. However, abnormal conditions (such as FAC) can reduce or eliminate
the protective oxide layer and lead to a rapid removal of the base material. In the worst cases,
metal loss continues until the pipe or tube bursts. The rate of metal loss depends on a complex
interplay of many parameters, including the following:
• The feedwater chemistry, that is, the oxidizing-reducing potential (ORP) that is related to
the dissolved oxygen content and reducing agents, and pH
• The material composition, in particular the concentrations of minor alloying elements such
as copper, molybdenum, and especially chromium
• The other materials in the feedwater system that affect the choice of water chemistry
• The fluid hydrodynamics—velocity, geometry, steam quality, temperature, and mass
transfer
High energy piping can contain single phase (water) fluid flow; two phase (wet steam) fluid
flow, or both, depending on the temperature and pressure conditions [2-1]. FAC mechanisms
(and therefore solutions) differ for these two conditions. Therefore it is important to
differentiate between the two.

Single Phase (Water) FAC

The FAC mechanism involves the dissolution and mechanical removal of metal oxide on the
surface of a component. If the oxide dissolution or removal rate is faster than the oxide
growth rate, oxide protection can be lost, and unfettered iron corrosion can generate very
rapid wall loss.
The surface oxide chemistry, thickness, and growth characteristics are controlled by the
chemistry of the fluid in contact with the component.

When the fluid flowing through a high energy pipe is essentially single-phase water, the
overriding factor controlling corrosion and FAC rates is the feedwater oxidizing-reducing
potential (ORP), or redox potential. For carbon steel components operating in reducing
feedwater chemistry, the surface oxide typically formed is magnetite (Fe3O4), with a
solubility that is strongly influenced by the reducing conditions. The highest solubility occurs
around 302°F (150°C).

Two-Phase FAC
Two-phase FAC can occur whenever a highly turbulent steam-water mixture comes into
contact with a carbon steel surface. Two-phase FAC has been found in conventional fossil
plant drain lines and deaerators and on the shell side of low pressure heaters. In combined
cycle or heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) plants, two-phase FAC has occurred in low
pressure economizer and evaporator circuits. The ratio of the area occupied by vapor to the
total pipe or tube area is the void fraction. The mass transport, and hence the FAC rate, is
affected by changes in void fraction. Void fraction and quality are not equivalent, because the
steam and the water move at different velocities. Steam quality has a significant effect
because FAC can only occur if the wall is continuously wet. FAC does not occur in dry
steam. If steam quality is greater than zero, only the liquid phase produces FAC damage. The
two-phase flow regime is characterized by the metal wall (oxide) being wetted by a flowing
film of water that moves more slowly than the bulk two-phase mixture. Generally two-phase
flow is more turbulent than single-phase, and thus FAC is greater.

Corrosion [1015654]
Corrosion is a generic term for a variety of time-dependent damage mechanisms applicable
to both high temperature (steam cycle) and low temperature (cooling water) components. It is
a form of material deterioration or surface attack by reaction with a chemical environment.
Relevant high-temperature forms of corrosion consist of oxidation (metal oxide scale
formation on exterior surfaces), erosion-corrosion (wet steam impingement), pitting (under-
deposit attack), caustic wastage (boiler tube corrosion), and steam corrosion. Typical forms
of low-temperature aqueous corrosion include uniform corrosion (water-induced attack of
condenser components), galvanic corrosion (dissimilar-metal corrosion between tubes and
tube sheets), pitting corrosion, single-phase erosion-corrosion (also called flow-induced or
flow-assisted corrosion), and cavitation. Consequences of damage include wall thinning,
reduction in cross-sectional area, and general metal wastage. In addition, corrosion may
introduce pits of sufficient size to result in stress concentrations and thus cause propagation
by fatigue.

Feed water system [1015654]

The major components of the feedwater system consists of the condensate pump, often
condensate polishers, low pressure (LP) feedwater piping, LP feedwater heaters, a deaerator,
a boiler feed pump, high pressure (HP) feedwater piping, and HP feedwater heaters. Often the
condensate up through the deaerator is termed the condensate system and from the deaerator
to the boiler, the boiler feedwater system. Generally speaking, water quality also improves as
the polishing demineralizer and the deaerator remove contaminants and gases.
The feedwater piping system carries the condensate from the condenser through the LP
feedwater heaters and deaerator to the HP feedwater heaters, the economizer, and the boiler.
The feedwater piping connects all feedwater heaters and their drains. The boiler feed pump is
part of the feedwater or preboiler system that supplies preheated water to the boiler and
controls the feedwater flow in response to the overall system demands.
In the United States and Canada, feedwater piping is designed in accordance with the
requirements of ASME/ANSI B31.1 [1-2]. Feedwater heaters are designed in accordance
with the Heat Exchanger Institute’s (HEI) standards and ASME. The pressure boundary of
the feedwater heaters are designed in accordance with ASME Section VIII. The feedwater
piping system consists of hundreds of feet of piping, numerous fittings, valves, pumps, and
other components, all of which may be subject to corrosion, deposit buildup, and fatigue
related mechanisms.
Carbon steel piping (for example, ASTM A106 Grade C) is steel commonly used for
feedwater piping.