o m

t . c
a r d in g
a
m
y e Re

u d l i n k s
s t r O
n oo
- b
.e b
fo E
d
we H
u an
w Th
w

1
 ASSIGNMENT SOLUTIONS GUIDE (2018-2019)
M.P.A.-11
State, Society and Public
Administration

m
Disclaimer/Special Note: These are just the sample of the Answers/Solutions to some of the Questions given in the

o
Assignments. These Sample Answers/Solutions are prepared by Private Teacher/Tutors/Authors for the help and guidance
of the student to get an idea of how he/she can answer the Questions given the Assignments. We do not claim 100%

c
accuracy of these sample answers as these are based on the knowledge and capability of Private Teacher/Tutor. Sample

.
answers may be seen as the Guide/Help for the reference to prepare the answers of the Questions given in the assignment.

t
As these solutions and answers are prepared by the private Teacher/Tutor so the chances of error or mistake cannot be
denied. Any Omission or Error is highly regretted though every care has been taken while preparing these Sample Answers/

r g
Solutions. Please consult your own Teacher/Tutor before you prepare a Particular Answer and for up-to-date and exact

n
a i
information, data and solution. Student should must read and refer the official study material provided by the university.

d
This assignment consists of Sections I and II. There are five questions in each section. You have to answer

a
m
a total of five questions in about 500 words each. It is necessary to attempt at least two questions from each

Re
section. Each question carries 20 marks.

y
SECTION – I
Q. 2. Analyse the reasons responsible for changing nature of state.

d e s
Ans. The Marxist Perspective: Karl Marx, Friedrik Engels, Vladimir Lenin and Trotsky are the main founders

n
i k
u
of Marxist perspective for a state. The perspective is commonly known as ‘class theory of state’.

l
Marx neither did a theoretical analysis of the state nor focused directly on its complexities. Marx and Engels

t n oo
have not given any clear unitary theory of the state. Marxism has tried to explain a state on the basis of the economy,

s O
as an economic unit. State is taken as a universal but temporary phenomenon that has to wither away. Marxists

b
favour communism, a stateless condition as an end of history and class struggle.

r -
.e
According to Marx, state never originated for the purpose of common good and has never made any effort to

fo E
achieve common good. It has always been a class organisation. A modern representative state is just a weapon in the
hands of powerful class people to torture the weaker class. As a class organisation, state aims to protect the interests

b d
we
of the ruling class.

u a n
For Marx and Engel, state is an instrument of class exploitation and class oppression. It expresses human

H
alienation. They supported the communist society to eliminate all forms of alienation for individuals-from nature,

w Th
from society and from humanity. It will establish true democracy to work for the development of all. The transitional
state-the ‘Dictatorship of the Proletariat’–lies between the destruction of capitalism and the attainment of communism.

w
Initially, Marx was in favour of democratic state, rule of majority for the welfare and development of all. Marx
changed his views on the state during 1840-52. He accepted Engel’s notion of state that dictatorship was necessary
to fill the vacuum that would come up as a result of destruction of the old order till the creation of the new order. But
he also explained that it did not mean a permanent rule of one person or group; rather it was to be an extraordinary
power during an emergency for a limited period.
Marx continued to criticize the existing bureaucratic military state and that it should be replaced with the
‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ that is absolutely democratic and majoritarian. He believed that state and its bureaucratic
institutions are class instruments and they work for the interests of the ruling class. A state is a means through which
economically dominant classes overcome their problems, fulfil their interests and suppress the subordinate classes.
A critical analysis of the Marxist perspective revealed that Marx sketched but never developed a systematic
theory of the state. Hence, the idea of a political economy remained over-determined and not described politically.
In this process, he just ignored the details that were necessary for managing a society based on equity, reward and
freedom.

2
 Q. 3. Explain the institutional strategies and devices for building citizen-administration relationship.
Ans. Institutional Devices and Strategies: According to Santhanam Committee on Prevention of Corruption,
use of discretionary powers by government officials has resulted in increasing harassment, malpractices and corruption.
The Administrative Reforms Commission considered the complaints of general public about rampant corruption in
administration and agreed to the fact that there was widespread inefficiency and unresponsiveness of the administration
towards public needs.
In developing countries like India, institutional devices to correct administrative defects play an important role.
Public administration systems in these countries usually have a tendency to ignore the needs of population at large.
The decision-making powers usually rests with a small minority of political-socio elite class. Besides, the social set-
up in these countries is usually highlighted by societal divisions across language, ethnicity, castes and economic
categories. This results in domination of certain powerful groups over government procedures.

m
Due to lack of economic means and education, the majority of the population ends up being non-reactive and
subversive. As a result, public administration tends to respond to the demands of a small minority of social elite.

o
Thus, the adminis-tration becomes a captive agency in the hands of the party in power with opposition parties being
literally treated as enemies rather as partners in governance.

. c
These very economic, political and social conditions existing in many developing countries have together resulted
in the public administration system losing the ‘public’ aspect from itself.

t
The administration system has become unhealthy due to some other factors too, namely:

r g
1. Expanding government activities enable the lower ranking administrators to possess greater discretionary

n
powers. This, combined with lack of effective supervision, results in corruption.

a i
2. Increasing complexities in the legislative work lead to the legislative granting more discretionary powers to

d
the executive. A delegated legislation tends to increase executive’s powers and discretion.

a
m
3. In many developing countries, the executive is also increasingly also dispensing justice.

e
Administrative discretion, delegated legislation and administrative adjudication have made the executive more

y e R
powerful. Thus, institutional strategies are required to check the executive’s rise and protect against corruption and

d
administrative injustice.
Although there is a need for rapid socio-economic development in countries like India but the scenario is faced

i n s
u
with scarce resources. To tackle such situations, strong political will and steady development of political and economic

l k
t
infrastructure is needed. There should be an effective check on the working of administrative agencies and identification

n oo
of development activities that could be handed over to voluntary organisations.

s O
An emphasis should be on decentralization of powers by empowering local municipal bodies and panchayats.

r - b
Besides, there should also be de-bureaucratization of developmental activities with a focus on people’s empowerment.

.e fo E
Decentralization and increasing people’s participation are measures to reduce bureaucracy whereas administrative
reforms are supposed to provide better bureaucracy. To tackle corruption in the administration and redress citizen’s

b d
grievances, some procedural changes and institutional innovations have been adapted in many countries.

we u an
In this respect, it is important to recall two traditional systems already in place–Ombudsman and Administrative
courts.

H
w Th
Q. 4. Define the concept of social equity and discuss the changing norms for citizen participation in public
administration.
Ans. Concept of Social Equity: The norm of social equity is relatively new and although it is generally understood

w
as equality, its meaning now has being specifically understood in the context of social justice. It is also called social
engineering in the present context. With changing context, the norm has incorporated newer inputs and witnessed a
broadening of its scope.
For instance, earlier social equity usually focused on caste reform and removal of untouch-ability etc. However,
in the current context, its sphere is much wider as it also includes issues like making the society more equitable in
terms of social and human resources, gender equality, educational awareness, demographic composition etc. Besides,
it also includes factors of common good, community services, cultural freedom human rights etc.
With the world globalizing rapidly and becoming like one big global village, people are migrating in numbers to
economically better regions and states. This has led to many countries witnessing a change in their demographics,
having a mix of people from different backgrounds and ethnicity. This new influx of people is also contributing
economically to their new societies. This has trend has made it vital for countries to further tune their administrative

3
structures to maintain social harmony and cultural freedom. Similar trend can also be witnessed in India as people
move and settle from their native state to another state for better prospects.
With democracy and human rights finding increasing acceptance amongst the people, social equity would be
difficult to realize if the state and the society does not respect their social diversity and maintain harmony.
Some theorists have also illustrated social equity as a principle that every citizen has the right to equal treatment
by the political system. If a state’s public administration system only focusses on efficiency and economy, then it is
bound to disregard the aspect of social equity.
According to George Frederickson, social equity implies a combination of three types of equalities.
 Individual equality: Implies one class of equals like one-person one-vote.
 Segmented Equality: Stems from categories of work classes in a society. While equality might be there in a

m
particular segment of a society, there might be differences of treatment amongst different social segments,
e.g. Laws of professional conduct for practicing lawyers may be quite different from that of medical

o
professionals like doctors.

c
 Block Equality: It stands for equality within a group like women army officers seeking equal remuneration

.
as their male counterparts in the army.

t
He also indicated that each of the above equalities is limited to its domain and cannot be applied outside of it.
Changing Norm of Participation

r g
The norms of citizens’ participation in governance have changed over time. Traditional concepts of democracy

n
a
involved direct participation by citizens in policy-making. In the current modern context, citizen’s participation has

d i
become more ‘indirect’ and is through representation. However, research by behavioural specialists has discovered
levels of participation to be faulty and half-hearted. The actual participation in representative democracies usually

a
m
rests with the influential and the powerful.

Re
Thus, new norms of participation must ensure that all classes of people are adequately represented in the political

y
process in a participatory democracy.

d e s
The concept of participation takes the form of ‘empowerment’ when it is understood in context of opportunities
available to the unprivileged and disadvantaged sections to engage in the political process. This would allow them a

n
i k
u
better and decent control over the various resources available in the society. The Indian Constitution’s 73 rd and 74th

l
t
amendments have allowed new ways for the political parties and citizens to participate in the democratic process.

n oo
A positive step in this direction has been the recent trend of ‘Panchayati Raj’ in India. Since they began, they

s O
have provided a platform for the rural poor to actively participate in governance at the rural levels.

r - b
It is important to note that the voices in favour of increasing citizen’s participation from various sections of the

.e fo E
society have been due to the perceived failure of bureaucracy in fulfilling policy needs, especially in the rural areas.
Participation is essential for effective governance. Since 1950s or so, the need to increase the involvement of

b d
citizens in administrative decision-making has been growing steadily. Several factors contributed to this trend. First,

we u a n
people were becoming indifferent towards their administration. Second, traditional modes available to the people
for putting their views in response to administrative decisions were not adequate.

H
w Th
The overall trend of increasing citizen’s participation has been a part of the bigger process of making the state
more representative, responsive and accountable.

w
Some important benefits of citizen’s participation in administration are as follows:
(a) Better understanding between the people and their governments that further results in a more integrated
society.
(b) It promotes a feeling amongst the citizens that they, in unison, control the government. This also makes the
government more moral in its thinking.
(c) Lends legitimacy to the government, which in turn, promotes a general feeling of obedience in the citizens,
making them more law abiding.
(d) Inadequate citizen’s participation makes the government less representative, responsive and more authoritarian.
There are several factors that make it imperative for people’s participation in public administration. Many
practical issues faced by the administration now-a-days seldom have ready-made solutions. Besides, while addressing
one particular problem by way of a solution, another new issue comes up that needs to be tackled further. It is
interesting to note that even though administration officials feel the need to involve the citizens to help in their
decision-making process, they are unable to find the right way to involve them.

4
 From another perspective, citizen’s participation in administration is not without obstacles. One of the main
obstacles in this process is that most of the society usually possesses very little power to initiate the participation on
its own. This further leads to its passiveness. Another obstacle is the situation called ‘co-option’ that was articulated
by the thinker named Selznick. People’s participation does not always lead to leaders representing their constituencies.
Instead, they get into an illegal alliance with the local administration that further silences them. Representatives
begin representing their own selfish interests rather then the interest of their constituency when interacting with the
administration.
It has also been observed that citizen’s participation may actually be counter-productive and result in unnecessary
delays and red-tapism if it is not executed in the right direction in the first place.
Thus, it becomes imperative not only to select the right citizen’s representatives but also to educate the society
at large about the attitude about participation, in order for the participation process to be effective and fruitful.

m
One needs to ensure that under the cover of people’s participation, the actual developmental programmes etc.
are not undermined and harmed. Local vested interested should be firmly kept out. Thus, participation of citizens in

o
administration becomes a fundamental political process in making the public administration more representative,
responsive and accountable to the people/society at large.

. c
SECTION-II
Q. 6. Highlight the different characteristics of Weberian Bureaucracy and describe the role of Bureaucracy

t
in India.

r g
Ans. Characteristics of Bureaucracy: Bureaucracy has been defined by various thinkers and theorists in their

n
own terms. According to Herman Finer, ‘Bureaucracy is a professional body of officials, permanent, paid and

a i
skilled’. In the words of Arthur Davis, ‘Bureaucracy is an integrated hierarchy of specialized offices defined by

d
systematic rules, an impersonal routinsed structure wherein legitimized authority rests in the office and not in the

a
m
person or the incumbent’.

e
Weberian definition describes bureaucracy as being in both-public and private organisational form. While

y e R
describing bureaucracy, Weber focused on factors like division of work, rules and regulations, hierarchy, difference

d
between private and official, documents and legal authority systems while describing bureaucracy.
The main characteristics of bureaucracy as per Weber’s definition are as follows:

i n s
u
 Hierarchy: Bureaucratic work is based on clear division of labour, competence, authority, responsibilities

l k
t
and other factors. There is clear hierarchy in terms of official positions and department levels.

n oo
 Professional Qualities: All officials are selected and placed as per their merit in respective positions. All

s O
official work is carried out by them in formal manner using proper protocol. The nature of their service is

r - b
permanent too.

.e fo E
 Rules and Procedures: In a bureaucracy, all official work follows a system of clearly defined rules and
procedures with clear responsibilities and accountabilities.

b d
 Specialisation: In a bureaucracy, work is also divided across functional lines, with a specialised department

we u an
for each activity.
 Organisational Resources: In a bureau-cracy, organisational resources are clearly meant for official use

H
w Th
only. It is very improper and illegal for any bureaucrat to use them in personal capacity.
It is interesting to note that these features based on Weber’s definition are considered to be ‘ideal’ and thus may

w
be difficult to implement in its intended form.
Role of Bureaucracy in India
Bureaucracy is any country is never a closed concept and it continues to be influenced by several factors like
liberalization, globalization, privatisation, societal changes and trends, technology trends and developments and
many others.
In India too, the bureaucracy is affected by these and many other factors. Our bureaucracy has several characteristic
features like a strong binding character, giving non-partisan advice to politicians, ability to manage and administer,
leadership, multi-agency coordination and others. In this chapter, we would specially understand role of bureaucracy
with respect to ‘delegated legislation’ and ‘administrative adjudication’.
Delegated Legislation
Delegated legislation implies the use of legislative powers by a subordinate authority. Although theoretically,
bureaucracy does not have any legislative function but in reality, it does carry out some legislative work as a result

5
of the authority delegated to it by the legislature. This function primarily concerns with furnishing all the details
while making policies, giving them depth of meaning and clarity–the legislature is unable to do this task due to the
constraints of time, resources, abilities and knowledge. This function of delegated legislation has been on the rise
over time.
However, it is making the bureaucracy even more powerful and influential then it already is. This is now becoming
a cause of concern as many feel that the bureaucrats may begin acting on their own whims and dictates, overlooking
the citizen’s interests and focusing on their own. The objectives of social justice, fairness and equity may be
compromised while making rules and regulations.
An important method to control this delegated legislative authority is through ‘Administrative Adjudication’.
Administrative Adjudication

m
Administrative adjudication is a power similar to ‘delegated authority’, vested with the judiciary to specifically
check the abuse of delegated legislative powers of the bureaucracy. There are no defined legal rules for conduct that

o
form any guide for administrative adjudication. The adjudicator is guided by statutory standards of common good
and public interest. Here again, arbitrary authority of the administrative adjudicator is kept in check by the judiciary

. c
through judicial review. Besides courts, there are other administrative bodies too that carry out adjudication and
ensure that citizens get justice.

t
In India, administrative adjudication consists of the following:

r g
(i) Administrative Tribunals: These bodies operate to maintain a balance between personal rights and public

n
welfare. They provide the common man with impartial and fair hearing when faced with administrative

a i
malpractices and misuse of power. They provide quick justice but have only been successful in a few areas

d
of economic administration.

a
m
(ii) Publicity and Consultation: While making rules, the public and other affected parties should be consulted

Re
with. This can be done by sending draft rules to the affected parties, holding meetings and providing public

y
hearings to any interested party who wishes to testify.

d
(iii) Parliamentary Scrutiny: Delegated legislation can also be scrutinized by Parliamentary committees like

e s
Parlia-mentary Accounts committee, Estimates committee etc.

n
i k
u
(iv) Judicial Review: Is another process by which bureaucracy’s delegated legislative authority is kept in check

l
t
by the judiciary. Here, the courts can observe whether the delegated authority is within the limits of the

n oo
Constitutional provisions and other legal boundaries. In case it exceeds, the courts can then step in and

s O
declare offending rules and regulations as null and void.

r - b
Q. 8. Discuss the features of contemporary bureaucratic paradigms.

.e fo E
Ans. Contemporary Bureaucratic Paradigm: The Four Main Approaches That Emerged In The Contemporary Bureaucratic
Scenario Were New Public Administration, New Public Management, Organisational Humanism And New Public Service.

b d
New Public Administration (NPA)

we u a n
This approach to the traditional public administrative system stressed on openness, trust and communication
within the organisation. It recommended qualitative changes within the bureaucracy, essentially covering the following

H
w Th
areas:
 Relevance: Public administration should be relevant to the prevailing social environment and should ideally
be guided by political and moral implications of their actions.

w
 Value-based administration: The public administration must be based on certain values and principles that
reflect societal good. It has to keep social problems in mind and follow an ethical and participative/ inclusive
way of operating.
 Equity: This is an important criterion that must be followed by any public adminis-tration while formulating
policies and carrying out development and governance activities.
 Change: Public Administrative officials are also expected to be open to change, both in the internal and the
external environment. They should not operate with a closed and ‘as is where is’ mind-set.
New Public Management (NPM)
This was an approach to reforming the existing management set ups in public sector enterprises that began in
developed countries like the UK, New Zealand and then spread to developing countries. The approach articulated
that a traditional adminis-tration’s large structure and complex system of working was an obstacle in initiating
change. It observed that aspects like organisational rigidity, low level of responsiveness and low bureaucratic

6
accountability to citizens plagued existing systems and hindered efficient functioning of the administration. In this
backdrop, NPM propagated and encouraged a management-oriented functional approach in public administration. It
felt that administrative officials should adopt a management-oriented work culture that believed in efficiency, operating
economies, result and goal-oriented and accountability. Common citizens that formed their end-customers should be
provided with a choice of services and their needs should be kept in mind while delivering these services.
The NPM approach has also laid down certain tasks that bureaucracy must perform; they are as follows:
 Development of a vision: Defining a ‘mission’ statement, just like any corporate enterprise, would provide
the bureaucracy with a specific direction in which to move while carrying out development and governance.
This vision can also be at national and state-level and would help in setting objectives, responsibilities and
levels of operating efficiency amongst others.
 Disaggregation of the administrative structure: NPM approach believes in making the large, traditional

m
administrative structure into smaller, decentralized departments with the necessary levels of operating
independence. This would again help in operating efficiencies, responsibilities and accountabilities, along

o
with a clearer set of overall goals to be achieved.

c
 Downsizing civil services: The NPM approach also encourages a review of existing human resource positions

.
and posts so that redundant positions can be done away and a leaner, more efficient and effective organisation

t
can be brought together.
 Decentralisation of powers: Decentra-lization of powers includes shifting local functions to state and local

r g
governments. This would make the administration more ‘participative’ as it would bring decision-making

n
a
closer to the citizens.

d i
 Service delivery: This includes monitoring grievances of common people, including channels and system of
feedback. It also encourages simplification of rules and regulations that are easy to follow-for both the officials

a
m
that implement them as well as common citizens.

e
Organisational Humanism

y e R
The traditional administrative organisation only promoted a ‘formal’ human relationship structure based on

d
hierarchy and discouraged informal human relations. However, as the external environment has changed rapidly
with a focus on larger concerns of people, both internally and externally, it is becoming essential for the administration

i n s
u
to allow informal human relationships to exist within its structure. Many thinkers support this view as it encourages

l k
t
potential for growth, innovation and developing human skills. The older, authoritative structure usually ended up

n oo
creating a ‘choking’ environment for its personnel that seldom led to an efficient and effective working environment.

s O
New Public Service (NPS)

r - b
New Public Service was another administrative model that emerged as an alternative to traditional bureaucratic

.e fo E
systems. This approach advocated that bureaucrats and administrative officials should primarily focus on serving
the interests of the public. They should give up their elitist-mindset and rather work with common citizens. This new

b d
NPS model based itself on democratic citizenship and community service in public interest.

we u an
‘Democratic Citizenship’ theory was based on public interest and it included the concepts of democratic values
and community. An important assumption here is that people are not self-centred but rather guided by community

H
w Th
values and feelings. People participate in community affairs, have a sense of belonging and bond with the community
where they live in. Therefore, the administration must respect this ‘feeling of democratic citizenship’ in the people

w
and respond by encouraging the participation of people in governance and decision-making.
‘Community’ was the other factor in the NPS approach. People have never lived in an isolated environment in
any society but rather formed a group or a ‘community’. This usually included a collection of people wherein people
associated with each other for common welfare. It provided them with a social system that they could be a part of
that provided mutual care and respect, encouraged conflict resolution and provided a participative environment with
teamwork.
Due to the above important role of a community, the administration must work towards building communities
and work to maintain good relations– whether inter or intra-community. This would help the administration in better
understanding the actual needs of these communities and deliver development services accordingly. Eventually, this
would help in better governance too.
n n