Foundations On Expansive Soils

2004 EC Mekelle University 2011/2012 GC
Ethiopian Institute of Technology-Mekelle (EiT-M)

Department of Civil Engineering
Geotechnical and Material Engineering Chair (GMEC)
Graduate Program
6. FOUNDATIONS ON EXPANSIVE SOILS

6.1 General
The problems associated with expansive soils were not recognized in Ethiopia for many years for the
obvious reason that most of the modern small masonry or brick houses built were located on sites
that did not cause foundation problems. In the last thirty years, however, residential buildings were
erected in areas where expansive soils are predominant. These are clay soils which may be black or
grey in colour. They have a potential for heaving with an increase of moisture content and they shrink
with a corresponding decrease of moisture content. Numerous research works have been conducted
in many parts of the world to study the behavior of these soils.
Structures crack, if their foundations are not adequately designed to withstand the stresses and
strains caused by alternate heaving and shrinkage of the foundation soil. Cracks do not only affect the
structural safety and aesthetics of the building but also bring about additional financial burden to
wners for repair if the structure is to be salvaged at all.
Before going into the discussion of the design of foundations on expansive soils, it is necessary
to examine briefly the outstanding characteristics of expansive soils.
6.2 Origin, Mineralogical Composition and Characteristics of Expansive Soils

The parent materials of expansive soils may be classified into two groups. The first group
comprises the basic igneous rocks such as basalt, dolerite sills and dykes, gabbros, etc., where
feldspar and pyroxene minerals of the parent rocks decompose to form montmorillonite - the
predominant mineral of expansive soil - and other secondary minerals. The second group
comprises sedimentary rocks that contain montmorillonite, and break down physically to form
expansive soils. There are indications that confirm that the expansive soils of Ethiopia are
derived from both groups[13].
It is a known fact that the three most important groups of clay minerals are montmorillonite,
illite, and kaolinite, which are crystalline hydrous aluminosilicates. Of these groups it is the clay
mineral montmorillonite that presents most of the foundation problems. Essentially,
Lecture Notes on Foundations on Expansive soils by Dr. Tensay Gebremedhin, EiT-M, MU

(From Prof. A. Tefera)
montmorillonite is a three-layered mineral having a single octahedral alumina sheet sandwiched
between two silica sheets. The units are stacked one above the other like leaves of a book.
The bonds are comparatively weak, and water can enter between the sheets causing them to
expand readily. When water is removed from the boundary, the sheets contract. Thus soil
containing substantial amounts of montmorillonite will exhibit high shrinkage and swelling
characteristics. Experience shows that swelling problems arise when soils contain more than
20% montmorillonite mineral.
6.3 Identification of Expansive Soils

In addition to visual identification, laboratory tests are necessary to assess the swelling potential of
the clay. The expansive clay soils prevalent in Ethiopia are either black (black - cotton soil) or dark
grey. The direct tests which provide information on the amount of heaving that is to be anticipated
are free swell and swelling pressure tests. Apart from these direct tests, soil mechanics practice
for determining the engineering characteristics of expansive soils is usually based on the
Atterberg Limits, sometimes in conjunction with grain size analysis. One way of using these test
results was developed by Casagrande[3], who plotted the liquid limit against the plasticity index.
Employing this plasticity chart, many authors found that the A-line in the chart generally defines the
expansive soil, since the great majority of plots, representing soils known to be expansive, fall above
this line. The location of the expansive soils of Addis Ababa is also indicated in Fig. 6.1.
Some authors have related the swelling potential of expansive soils with their respective
plasticity index. Table 9.1 gives the relationship between the swelling potential of clays and the
plasticity index according to Chen.
Table 6.1: Relation between Swelling Potential and Plasticity Index of Clays According to Chen.
Swelling Potential (S) Plasticity Index (PI)
Low 0-15
Medium 10 -35
High 20 - 55
Very High >55
Anderson et al suggested empirical relations from which they were able to relate the degree
of expansion with the plasticity index.
Lecture Notes on Foundations on Expansive Soils by Dr. Tensay Gebremedhin, EiT-M, MU Page -2/12
Following their investigation they came up with the following empirical equation:
S = 0.23PI - 3.12
where S is swelling potential
Ip Plasticity index.
Based on Eq. (6.1), they presented the relationship shown in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2: Relationship between Plasticity Index and Swelling Potential
Degree of Plasticity Index Swelling Potential
Expansion Ip S
Low 20 1.5
Medium 20 - 31 1.5 - 4.0
High 31 - 39 4.0 - 6.0
Very High 39 6
Defining activity as the ratio of the plasticity index to the percentage of the clay fraction(minus 2
micron size) present in the sample, two different types of charts were presented by different authors
to identify the swelling potential of expansive soils. The first chart, known as the Activity chart, is a
plot of plasticity index versus clay fraction. De
Bruyn et al plotted experimental data and found three distinct groupings according to the activity of
the soils. The soils were classified as Bad, Medium and Good according to their property with regard
to their effect on buildings erected on them. Here again the location of the predominant expansive
soils of Addis Ababa are indicated (Fig. 9.2). The second chart is presented by Seed et al [12], where
activity versus clay fraction is presented (Fig. 9.3). Additional information on expansive soils is found
in [14]. Using the above information judiciously, one would get a fair idea of the degree of potential
expansiveness of any soil under consideration.
Activity chart
6.4 Methods of Preventing Damage
In order to minimize or to eliminate the danger of damage to buildings because of heave and
shrinkage, the following methods have been used [4]:
a. Moisture control
b. Soil stabilization
c. Structural measures.
6.4.1 Moisture Control

The main cause of heaving and shrinkage is the fluctuation of moisture under and around the
structure in question. In any site, depending upon the topographical, geological and weather
conditions, the natural ground water fluctuates. In a country like Ethiopia, where there are distinct
dry and wet seasons, the fluctuation of the ground water table during these periods is large. Each site
has its own characteristic active zone. This is the zone under the ground surface in which the
fluctuation of the moisture content is large. In some areas of Addis Ababa, shrinkage cracks as deep
as two to three meters are common occurrences during the dry season. This seasonal fluctuation of
the moisture content along the depth becomes minimal from approximately three to four meters
down-wards. In addition to the fluctuation of the ground water one should also consider free water
which may seep under foundations, or the effect of evaporation which would cause moisture
migration. Hence a satisfactory solution to the problem would be to devise an economical way of
stabilizing the soil moisture under and around buildings. It does not matter whether the moisture
content is high or low, as long as it can be maintained constant throughout the year.
Depending upon the existing conditions, some prefer to keep the soils as wet as possible throughout
the year. Based on this approach, two methods have been presented by Deb and Chandra, India [8].
These methods consist of providing
a. sand drains
b. a flexible water-proof apron with sand drains.
The second method was found to be more effective and applied with reasonable success. Here
auger-bored holes of 20cm in diameter and 2 meters depth are drilled at 2 meters center to center
and about 1 meter away all around the building. The holes are filled with coarse sand and are
connected by surface drains. A watertight apron of 1 meter width is built around the building (Fig. 9.4,
and Fig. 9.5).
The other approach is to prevent the migration or flow of water to the vicinity of the building by
providing horizontal and vertical moisture barriers, and also subsurface and surface drainage.
Horizontal moisture barriers are installed around a building in the form of membranes. The purpose
of the horizontal barriers is to prevent excessive intake of surface moisture. Widely used horizontal
membranes are polyethylene membrane, concrete aprons and asphalt membrane, extending beyond
the limits of backfill.
Vertical moisture barriers are used around the perimeter of the building to cut off the source of water
that may enter the under slab soil. To serve as barriers in this category, one may use polyethylene
membrane, concrete, or other durable impervious material. The depth of the barriers should be equal
to or greater than the depth of moisture fluctuation. Backfill materials may be used as vertical
moisture barriers provided they are well compacted.
The subsurface drainage system is used to intercept the gravity flow of free water, to lower the
ground water or perched water, and to arrest the capillary moisture movement. For this purpose
intercepting and peripheral drains are installed. It should be borne in mind that positive outlets
should be provided for subsurface drainage. For proper surface drainage, the ground surface around
the building should be graded so that surface water will drain away from the structure in all
directions. Roof downspouts must be directed away from the structure so that water does not seep
into the foundation soil. They should extend well beyond the perimeter of the foundation and should
be properly drained away.
6.4.2 Soil Stabilization

Soil stabilization consists of one of the following operations:
 Prewetting or flooding the in situ soil to achieve swelling prior to construction
 Compaction control, i.e., decreasing the density of the foundation soil
 Soil replacement, i.e., replacing the swelling soil by non-heaving soil
 Chemical stabilization, i.e., changing the swelling characteristic of the soil by
addition of chemicals.
6.4.2.1 Prewetting or Flooding

This is an old established procedure. The reasoning behind this operation is that, by completely
flooding the site under consideration prior to construction, the soil will heave and a potential danger
of cracking after the structure is erected will be eliminated. Prewetting may produce successful
results if the depth of the active zone is not too large and if the moisture migration is controlled.
Experience has shown [6] that it is extremely difficult to saturate high plasticity clays within a
reasonable period of time. Expansion of partially saturated clays may continue after completion of
the structure for many years. One should also bear in mind that prewetting may reduce the bearing
capacity of the soil and may also be responsible for causing settlement. Prewetting has been
effectively used for stabilizing soil beneath floor slabs, pavement or canal linings. However, its
application for building foundations is still questionable and risky.
6.4.2.2 Compaction Control

Investigations have revealed that expansive clays expand very little when compacted at low densities
and high moisture, but expand more when compacted at high densities and low moisture. Hence the
approach to compact swelling clays at moisture content slightly above their natural moisture content
and at low density should give good results. The main advantage of using this approach is that the
swelling potential can be reduced without the negative effects caused by introducing excessive
moisture into the soil, in which moisture migration to the underlying moisture-deficient soil takes
place. Even though the required depth of compaction depends on the potential expansiveness of the
soil and on the magnitude of the structural load, it may in general be adequate to compact to a depth
of 1.5 to 2 metres.
6.4.2.3 Soil Replacement

Soil replacement is the simplest and easiest solution for slabs and footings founded on expansive
soils. The expansive foundation soils are replaced by non-heaving materials. The strength of the
method lies in the selection of the replacement material and the depth of replacement. If the active
zone is very deep, it is not desirable that moisture migrate to the underlying expansive soil. For such
condition material selected for replacement should be impervious non- expansive soil. Engineering
judgment should be used in deciding on the thickness of the replacement. It should always be
remembered that the replaced soil serves as a cushion, and even if the deep-seated soil swells, the
movement due to heave will be regulated. A combination of soil compaction and soil replacement
may be economical if the depth of replacement is large. The area of replacement should extend
beyond the perimeter of the envisaged structure.
The required degree of compaction of the replaced soil depends on the type of the structure.
90% of Standard proctor density should be adequate for slabs. For footings the degree of
compaction of95% to 100% should be achieved.
Soil replacement provides the safest method for slab-on-ground construction. The slab should be
separated by slip joints from the rest of the structure. Surface drainage should be properly provided.
6.4.2.4 Chemical Stabilization

By chemical stabilization is meant the process of mixing additives like lime, cement, organic and
inorganic chemicals to expansive soils, so as to retard their potential expansiveness.
The addition of lime reduces the plasticity of the soil and hence its swelling potential. Lime has been
used as a stabilizing agent for centuries. The amount of lime required to stabilize expansive soils
ranges from 2 to 8 per cent by weight. Its relative abundance makes its use popular. It is often used
successfully in the construction of highways and airports.
The action of cement on clay minerals is to reduce the liquid limit, plasticity index and the potential
volume change. Tests indicated that the effect of cement and of lime was about the same in reducing
soil expansion, but the shrinkage of air-dried specimens was reduced from 25% to 50% with cement
stabilization [16]. Even though cement stabilization has been mainly used in highway construction, it
appears to have also a great potential for use to stabilize the under slab soil in structures.
Some organic and inorganic chemicals have also been tested for their effectiveness in stabilizing
expansive soils. Most of the chemicals were tested in laboratories. Their economical use in the field
has not yet been reported.
6.4.3 Structural Measures

The structural measures that should be undertaken in order to mimmrze or, if possible, to eliminate
damages of structures due to heaving are dependent on the design of the structure. One may opt for
one of the following three methods, depending upon the site and architectural conditions. The
methods are
a. Floating foundation
b. Reinforcement of brick walls
c. Foundations on piles.
6.4.3.1 Floating Foundation

The term floating foundation is used in a broad sense. In this category are included stiffened slabs,
rigid rafts and flexible rafts. The types of foundations in this category that have been tried in Ethiopia
are the stiffened slab and rigid rafts. Flexible rafts have not yet been used and will not be discussed
here.
Stiffened slab foundations are essentially slab-on-ground construction with mam beams supporting
the wall loadings.
The slab and the beam rest on compacted, non-heaving material. The non-heaving material that is
frequently used and which is abundantly available in Ethiopia is red volcanic ash.
The slabs are designed assuming that they are anchored (fixed) in the beams and that a pressure of
20 kN/m2 acts from the soil. This magnitude is indeed small when considering that swell pressures
varying from 300 to 500 kN/m2 are commonly found. The beams are designed as beams on an elastic
foundation, using the appropriate modulus of sub grade reaction.
Before the slab and beams are cast, about one meter of the expansive soil is removed from the plan
area of the building. The soil is flooded with adequate water, and sufficient time is given for it to
swell. For practical reasons it is preferred to continuously saturate the foundation soil rather than
prevent the migration of moisture. On top of the expansive soil the compacted red ash is placed at
high water content. Sand drains are also provided around the plan area of the building. The sand
drains are 20cm in diameter and 2 meter deep and spaced at an interval of 2 meters, center to center
and at about 1.0 meter away all around the building. The holes are filled with coarse sand and are
connected by surface drains. A watertight apron of 1.0m width is paved around the building. It is
provided with a gradient sloping away from the building so that the accumulated water will be
directed into the surface drains. It is suggested to cover the surface drains with perforated precast
concrete slabs in order to retard evaporation. At times it may be necessary to add extra water to keep
the sand drains saturated all the time (Fig. 9.4 and Fig 9.5).
Such a method of construction has been tried in Addis Ababa, and the results have been mixed. In
some areas the buildings did not show any sign of distress, while in some areas considerable cracking
has been witnessed. Systematic research on such a phenomenon has not been done. It is clear from
the outset, however, that such methods of construction would be effectively used in areas where the
fluctuation of the ground water table is not too large. Before deciding on this method, the engineer
should get sufficient information regarding topography, ground water level if available, drainage and
depth of the expansive soil.
Design procedure for such stiffened slab has been recently published [9]. The effectiveness of the
method has yet to be proved in the future.
The other type of floating foundation that has been used in the design of dwellings on expansive soils
is a rigid mat. A heavily reinforced rigid mat is placed on leveled soil. The walls and columns are then
built on the foundation. The rationale in this design is that the rigid mat will eliminate any differential
heave, and the structure will "ride on" without suffering any internal distress. Cost-benefit analysis
should be made before deciding on such a design.
6.4.3.2 Reinforcement of Brick Walls

Investigations in South Africa indicate that reinforced brick walls seem to offer the most
satisfactory and economical solution to the problems of heaving [13].
Before full-scale houses were built on expansive soils, a number of single walls were built
subjected to various loadings. Artificial heaving conditions were produced by jacking the
bottom of the wall, and crack patterns were studied.
After making the necessary observations, a full-scale house was built so that the information gained
from the tests on a model house and in single walls could be checked when applied to a complete
house.
The experimental house was made as flexible as possible by not joining the internal walls to the
external walls, and by having breaks in the brickwork at most of the internal doorways. The internal
walls were thus broken up into smaller units, preferably of either "T" or "L" shapes for stability
against overturning. One of the aims of this semi-empirical design method is to strengthen the brick
walls by including reinforcement in the brickwork in areas where cracking takes place. From
experimental observations, it was found that cracks appear at the top and bottom of walls and where
openings exist, i.e., windows, doors, etc.
The other aim is to make the structure semi-flexible. Hence one should provide open joints in the
brickwork so that when a heave takes place the building will conform to the new ground shape, and
consequently reduce the bending moment developed in the walls.
The two recommended ways of forming such open joints are either to leave straight vertical gaps of
approximately I.5cm width in the brick work, with no mortar, piping, conduit, wood or other materials
in the gap; or to construct certain internal doorways so that they act as open joints.
To form an open joint at an internal doorway, the door frame must go up to the ceiling level with no
brickwork over the frame; the area above the door can either be fitted with a fanlight or be closed in
with a cardboard panel.
Typical wall details of open joints are reproduced in Fig. 9.6[10].
A large number of houses were built in South Africa, and the design procedure of Boardman [2],
which is summarized hereunder, has proved to be successful.
(i) Layout
The first consideration in the design of a building is the layout of the walls and the location of the
open joints. The internal wall should be so laid out and jointed that the individual wall units form "T"
and "L" shapes in plan, for stability against overturning.
Points at which open joints should be made are:
 wherever an internal wall meets an external wall, except for short straight
internal walls which should be unstable laterally, unless built continuous with the
exterior walls.
 at re-entrant angles in the external walls.
 in straight walls longer than 15 meters.
 at most of the internal doorways, so that the internal walls are divided into
smaller units which move independently without cracking.
The number and size of openings in the wall must be kept to a minimum. For the method to be
successful it is desirable that the following conditions are observed:
a) There should be no window opening wider than 2.5 meters.
b) There should be 1;10 door opening or opening of similar height wider than 1 meter in
external walls.
c) No opening in an external wall should be nearer than 1 meter from the end of the
wall. Verandahs or porches which require very large openings in walls should be
separated from the main structure by open joints if possible, and should be placed in
front of the facade or should be placed beside the main structure.
(ii) Loads
The loads considered are the dead load of the walls, the roof load, and the load due to any floor
carried by the wall. The total load is divided by the length of the wall and is considered as a uniformly
distributed load which is carried by the wall itself.
(iii) Bending Moment
The bending moment in the wall is calculated using the following equation:
M= wl2/16
where
w uniformly distributed load
length of wall.
(iv) Suggested Allowable Stress in Reinforced Brickwork
a. Stress in mild steel, fs = 12 kN/cm2.

b. Compression in brickwork, fc = 0.28 kN/cm2.
c. Bond strength between rods and brickwork, u = 0.060 kN/cm2.
d. Shear stress in brickwork, r = 0.020 kN/cm2.
e. Modular ratio, n = 24.
(v) Main Steel at Top and Bottom of Wall
The main steel calculated is placed in the first two continuous horizontal joints in the brickwork
comprising the foundation, that is, after concrete strip footings have been built with brickwork to
form one horizontal surface over all the footings. An equal quantity of steel is also placed in the last
two horizontal joints at the top of the wall. Some or all of the main steel should be bent around the
corners.
(vi) Horizontal Steel above Opening
The beams over openings must be at least six courses of brickwork high and the following steel
should be placed in the first horizontal joint above the openings in a wall:
a. Openings up to 1.0 meter span require two steel bars of ~ 10.
b. Openings over 1.0 meter and up to 2 meters span require two bars of ~ 12 or three of
~ 10.
c. For openings over 2 meters span, the beam over the opening must be designed to carry its
dead load plus the roof load carried by it, using the usual formula for designing reinforced
concrete structure with appropriate reinforced brickwork constants. The reinforcement
must not be less than two bars of ~ 12, if the opening exceeds 2 meters span.
The steel should extend at least 60 diameters past the sides of the openings. If the ends of the steel
over adjacent openings are less than 30cm apart, the rods should not be cut but should be run
continuously over those openings.
Hangers made of galvanized wire should pass over this steel and extend down into the vertical joints
between the soffit bricks. This will prevent any of the soffit bricks falling away from the steel.
(vii) Horizontal Steel below Openings
This steel should be placed in the first continuous joint below the opening:
a. When the sum of the widths of openings in a wall is less than 30% of the length of the wall,
the same steel should be placed under the opening as is to be placed above the opening.
b. When the sum of the widths of openings in a wall is more than 30% but less than 50% of
the length of the wall, the steel just under the openings should be 1 ~ times that above the
openings and continuous where possible.
c. When the sum of the widths of the openings is more than 50% but less than 70% of the
length of the wall, the steel below the openings should be the same as the main steel and,
where possible, run the whole length of the wall.
d. When the openings are so numerous that the columns between the openings are very
slender, the wall must be considered as two separate beams acting together, the one below
the windows and the other above. It is recommended that such walls should not be used
with this type of construction, as it is not possible to reinforce the vertical column between
the openings satisfactorily.
(viii) Vertical Steel
The diameter of the vertical steel must be ~ 12 or more. Vertical rods should be placed at the end of
walls and on each side of all openings. The number of rods required at any particular point is as
follows:
a. If the sum of the spans of the openings is less than 30% of the length of the wall, one rod
should be placed at each end of the wall and one rod adjacent to each side of each opening.
b. If the sum of the spans of the openings is more than 30% but less than 50% of the length of
the wall, two rods must be placed at each end of the wall, and two rods adjacent to the
sides of the openings nearest each end. One rod must be placed on each side of all other
openings.
c. If the sum of the spans of the openings is more than 50% but less than 70% of the length of
the wall, two rods must be placed adjacent to all openings and three rods at each end of
the wall.
d. Any wall with openings of more than 70% of its length must have the same vertical
reinforcing as in c above, but fine cracks will develop when movement takes place.
The vertical steel should start just below the main steel in the bottom of the walls. To give the vertical
steel good end anchorage to assist the bond, it must be firmly held at the ends against the brickwork.
The best way of achieving this is by threading the rods for a length of 2cm at the bottom and Scm at
the top, and using nuts to hold 5 x 5 x Yz em steel plate washers against the brickwork. When building
in the vertical steel, care must be taken to see that the bottom washer is tight against the bricks laid
on top of it, and that the nut is against the underside of the plate.
When the brickwork is complete to the top of the wall, a portion of the threaded top end will
protrude, and the washer is placed over this, and the top nut is then tightened. Typical wall
reinforcements are given in Figs. 9.7 to 9.9.
ix) Design Details
Besides the provision of open joints and incorporation of steel, there are many other details of special
nature which have to be correctly executed.
a. Damage to the floors can be avoided by suspending them from the foundation walls.
b. Special attention must be given to the edges of the ceilings by not attaching them to the
wall.
c. Damp proofing of the walls below floor level is essential. The method of damp proofing, as
it forms a plane of weakness, is equally important. It would be sufficient to use a layer of
asphalt-impregnated felt sheeting. However, the sheeting should be stepped up and down
at about one meter interval as shown in the illustrative example (Fig. 9.7).
d. The outside steps must not be built against the brickwork but must have a layer of soft-
board built in between the steps and the brickwork.
e. Water piping coming out of the ground and through an external wall must be cranked so
that it will have only a slight anchoring effect before being deformed.
f. It is extremely important that earthenware sewer pipes be jointed with bitumen and not
cement mortar, so as to render them slightly flexible. Asbestos pipes with flexible rubber
joints should be used for the sewers. Experience has shown that glazed stoneware pipes
fail at almost every joint with seasonal movements of the
ground, resulting in serious leakages which greatly increase the ground movement.
g. To prevent rain soaking into the ground near the house, impervious channels should be
provided to lead the water from the down pipes and to discharge it well away from the
building, into a storm-water drain if available.
Since reinforced brickwork is unknown in Ethiopia, brick layers, foremen and other supervisors are
unfamiliar with the techniques required when including reinforcement in brickwork. Further, the
importance of correctly placing the steel and attending to small details may not be fully appreciated.
It is stressed that when using this method all joints in the brickwork must be carefully filled.
Faults, repeatedly noticed on various housing projects carried out in other parts of the world, which
would have been eliminated with a full appreciation of what is required, were inaccurate placing of
steel bar
a. the vertical steel starting at wrong levels
b. the vertical steel not being of the correct length
c. the mortar not being well worked around the vertical steel
d. the vertical joints in the brickwork not being properly built
e. the clear gaps not being kept free of mortar
f. the clear gaps not being thoroughly cleaned after plastering the walls containing them
g. the plumbers and electricians placing pipes and conduit in a clear gap to save cutting
the separate chases in the brickwork.
It is also important that the mortar used should be of good quality. It is recommended that no lime be
used in any mortar for reinforced brickwork. A suitable mortar is one part cement to four parts of
clean sand.
Corrosion of the steel reinforcing is a very important factor in reinforced brickwork, and must always
be considered before adopting this type of construction.
6.4.3.3 Foundation of Piles
Pile foundations provide a suitable solution for a variety of structures located on heaving soils. They
may prove economical in areas where considerable heave is to be expected, and the additional cost
can be balanced against the saving in future maintenance. In the category of pile foundations, one of
the following may be used:
a. Straight bored piles for foundations in shallow expansive soils
b. Belled or single under-reamed piles for foundations of light structures in deep layers of
expansive soils
c. Double under-reamed piles for foundations of heavier structures in deep layers of expansive
soils.
The piles should be placed well below the active zone where the seasonal fluctuation of the moisture
content is minimum. Depending upon the depth at which the moisture content is constant, one opts
for one of the above three methods (Fig. 9.10).
In the design of the pile foundation in expansive soils, two factors should be considered. These are
(i) the ultimate bearing capacity
(ii) the tensile stress developed along the shaft as result of heaving.
The ultimate bearing capacity may be determined by using Eq. (8.70). In calculating the skin friction
component, the friction over the first two meters' length of piles at the top should be neglected since
over this length, generally, major shrinkage cracks exist.
For the straight bored piles, if the combined effect of the weight of the dead load and the skin friction
does not balance the uplift force due to swelling, the whole pile may be lifted and cause structural
damage to the building. One may estimate the total uplifting force from the following relations (Fig.
9.1 a)
where
D diameter of pile
u swelling pressure
h depth of pile in the active zone
J coefficient of uplift between concrete and soil
U total uplift force.
)
According to Chen [4], the value of J may be taken as 0.15, and the value of the swelling pressure
acting on the pier for soils with high degree of expansion is about 490 kN/m2, and for soils with
medium degree of expansion is about 245 kN/m2.
The critical factor which should be considered is the tension force produced within the pile as the
result of the swelling pressure. This force becomes more critical on belled or under-reamed piles
located in deep layers of expansive soils.
The principle underlying the use of under-reamed pile foundations for structures erected on
expansive soils is one of anchoring the building down, at that depth where changes in the moisture
content and the subsequent volumetric expansion of the soil will be negligible. The bottoms of the
piles are belled out with special under-reaming tools, and it is this under-reamed section which
provides the anchorage for the pile.
In order to understand the mechanics of the development of tensile stresses in the piles, it is
adequate to discuss the simple theory of Collins [5].
Consider an under-reamed pile of circular cross-section anchored to the bottom of an expanding layer
of soil as shown in Fig. 9.11.
Due to the skin friction between the soil and pile, tensile forces should be expected to be produced.
Considering elemental strip as shown, the small increment of tension will be
where
F = frictional force per unit area between pile and soil at the depth h
Ah = elemental strip at depth below the expanding soil
D = pile diameter.
Total tension at depth h:
The surface of a drilled cast in-situ pile is rough; hence one can assume an intimate contact between
soil and pile. It is reasonable therefore to assume that the frictional force occurring between the soil
and the pile at any point is equal to the shear strength of the soil in a vertical direction at that point.
When a certain amount of movement has been developed it could mobilize the whole of the shear
strength which is given by Coulomb's equation:
where
inter granular pressure acting normal to the surface of sliding
cohesion
angle of internal friction.
Ignoring corrections for pore water pressure and identifying k as the ratio between inter granular
pressures on the horizontal and vertical plane, i.e.,
Then,
Henc
eeee
For a uniform diameter pile, it can be assumed that the friction on the surface of the pile can be
considered as equal to the shear strength of the soil in a vertical direction, i.e., F = S.
Hence
The finally gives the following relationship:
At the bottom of the pile, T equals zero. Hence there must be a transition zone near
the under-
reamed section and the tension variation along the pile is as indicated in Fig. 9.11c.
If a vertical load P is applied at the top of the pile, one obtains
or
The effect of P is to shift the zero line of the force diagram by an amount P. The above
equation holds good for all points between the surface of the soil and the top of the
under-ream, and the unknowns in the expression are k, c, andy. The values of c, ¢, and y
can be obtained from laboratory tests on undisturbed samples. It should be pointed out
that the type of test carried out will have an influence on the value of c and ¢ for the
same soil.
The two types of tests that are usually carried out for determining the soil parameters
are unconsolidated drained or consolidated drained triaxial tests. In tests conducted in
South Africa, actual cracks in test piles occurred at depths which conform to the
conditions k = 1, and with shear characteristics as found in the consolidated drained
triaxial tests.
Once the probable curve for the tensile forces in piles has been obtained, it can be
extended to greater depths.
Using the soil parameters for the k condition adopted, and repeating the calculations for
a range of pile diameter, a chart can be compiled [13].
From the chart, values of T + P can be read off for any pile with dimensions within normal
limits. Thus if the diameter and the load of the pile are known, the required amount of
tensile steel at any depth can be determined.
For the safe anchorage power of the under-ream, Collins [5] suggests the values given in
Table 9.3. The values have been compiled with a factor of safety of 2 for a 25cm diameter
pile. For piles other than 25cm in diameter, values may be obtained by assuming that,
other factors being equal, the anchorage power varies as the square of the diameter.
Table 9.3: Safe anchoring power of under-ream on 25cm diameter pile in kN[5]
Under-Ream Ratio Depth in meters

BID 3 6 9 12
1.5 18 27 36 45
2 59 90 118 150
2.5 122 191 255 318
3 232 345 473 595
While using under-reamed pile foundations, it is necessary to consider the following:
a. There should be a clear space of at least 50cm under all grade beams, and this space must
remain clear throughout the life of the building. If the soil in between the piles rises, and if
the space becomes completely closed, the soil will press upwards against the beam and
might cause damage to the building.
b. Attention must be paid to drains and water pipes so that considerable movement can take
place without rupture of the pipes.
c. External constructions in contact with the soil must be completely free of the building.
Exercise Problems
1. Design a footing foundation for the following soil profile. (Depth of foundation, Proportioning
of area, total reinforcement required)
Soil data:
all (kPa) Uplift pressure, Unit weight, 
U (kPa) (kN/m3)
Layer 1 145 100 15.4
Layer 2 195 165 16.7
Layer 3 270 200 17.8
Loading:
PGK=600 kN, PQK=150 kN
RC data: C-25, S-300
Column Date: Reinf. 416, 40 cm x 25 cm
2. For the soil profile shown below, design a pile foundation which is to be placed at a level of -
7.5 m.
Layers 1 and 2 are the same soil types. But layer 1 is the active zone.
Data: qu = 150 kPa, end bearing capacity at a depth of 7.5 m is 560 kPa, swelling pressure, U = 165
kPa, the negative skin friction f’ = 25 kPa,  of pile is 30 cm. Adopt a factor of safety of 2. (Determine
capacity of a single pile, check for uplift, check the tension condition in the pile,…)
Determine the allowable loads for the double under-reamed pile foundation shown below
penetrating the soil profile indicated.

Foundations On Expansive Soils

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2004 EC Mekelle University 2011/2012 GC

Ethiopian Institute of Technology-Mekelle (EiT-M)

6. FOUNDATIONS ON EXPANSIVE SOILS

6.2 Origin, Mineralogical Composition and Characteristics of Expansive Soils

Lecture Notes on Foundations on Expansive soils by Dr. Tensay Gebremedhin, EiT-M, MU

6.3 Identification of Expansive Soils

6.4.1 Moisture Control

6.4.2 Soil Stabilization

6.4.2.1 Prewetting or Flooding

6.4.2.2 Compaction Control

6.4.2.3 Soil Replacement

6.4.2.4 Chemical Stabilization

6.4.3 Structural Measures

6.4.3.1 Floating Foundation

6.4.3.2 Reinforcement of Brick Walls

(iii) Bending Moment

(iv) Suggested Allowable Stress in Reinforced Brickwork

a. Stress in mild steel, fs = 12 kN/cm2.

(v) Main Steel at Top and Bottom of Wall

(viii) Vertical Steel

6.4.3.3 Foundation of Piles

a. Straight bored piles for foundations in shallow expansive soils

The finally gives the following relationship:

If a vertical load P is applied at the top of the pile, one obtains

Under-Ream Ratio Depth in meters

While using under-reamed pile foundations, it is necessary to consider the following:

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