PERFORMANCE IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IN THE TESO REGION:

AN EXPLORATORY STUDY

FINAL REPORT

By
Silas Oluka, PhD;
Charles Opolot-Okurut, PhD
CONSULTANTS

SUBMITTED TO THE UGANDA NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR UNESCO

KAMPALA, UGANDA

JULY, 2008
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

On behalf of the Research Team, I wish to acknowledge the financial and moral contribution
given by UNESCO for this study. Secondly, I would like to thank Uganda national
Commission for UNESCO for entrusting us to carry out this study which is a contribution to
the great need of identifying and addressing the problems and challenges of primary education
in the Teso region and for all the support they rendered us during the exercise.

I wish to extend my sincere gratitude to the District Education Officials, head teachers,
teachers, parents and the community together with pupils of the 32 primary schools that
participated in the study. Your responses, willingness to participate in the interviews,
cooperation and valuable time accorded to us made it possible for us to carry out the study
smoothly.

I am further indebted to our Research Assistants who enthusiastically did their bit and
contributed to the wealth of data collected.

Finally, I would like to appreciate the contribution of the different stakeholders who gave
positive critique of the draft report during the dissemination workshop. Further appreciation is
extended to the Minister of state for Primary education, Hon. Peter Lokeris for his
participation in the workshop; an indication of the importance the MOES attaches to this
effort.

Charles Opolot-Okurut (Ph.D)

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title…………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………….............. 2
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………. 3
List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………… 5
List of Acronyms……………………………………………………………………….. 6
Executive Summary…………………………………………………………….............. 7
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………… 9
Background and the problem……………………………………………………… 9
Purpose of the Consultancy……………………………………………….............. 11
Terms of Reference………………………………………………………………… 12
Situational Analysis – Dimensions of Primary Education effectiveness…………… 13
Purpose and Research Objectives…………………………………………………… 25
Research Questions………………………………………………………………….. 26
CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………. 27
Research Design………………………………………………………………………27
Sampling Procedure………………………………………………………………….. 28
Sample………………………………………………………………………………...29
Instruments of Data Collection………………………………………………………. 31
Reliability and Validity of Measures…………………………………….................... 33
Procedure…………………………………………………………………………….. 34
Data Analysis………………………………………………………………………… 35
CHAPTER THREE: THE FINDINGS…………………………………………………. 36
Trends of Performance in Primary Schools………………………………………….. 36
School Based Factors………………………………………………………………... 42
Teacher Based Factors………………………………………………………………. 44
Parents-Community Factors………………………………………………………….46
Curriculum Related Factors………………………………………………………… 47
Pupil Based Factors……………………………………………………………….. 48
Policy Factors………………………………………………………………………. 52
CHAPTER FOUR: DISCUSSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 54
Discussion…………………………………………………………………………… 54
Recommendations…………………………………………………………………… 61

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 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………… 65
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………… 70
APPENDIXES…………………………………………………………………………… 74
APPENDIX A: LIST OF INSTITUTIONS CONTACTED……………………. 74

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Performance of PLE in Teso region for the Period 1997 – 2007……….. 10
Table 2: PLE Performance Trends 1982 – 2007 by Grading Divisions…………. 37
Table 3: PLE Performance in English over the Years 1982 – 2007 by Grades…… 38
Table 4: PLE Performance in Mathematics over the Years 1982 – 2007 by Grades.. 39
Table 5: PLE Performance in Science over the Years 1982 – 2007 by Grades…….. 40
Table 6: PLE Performance in Social Studies over the Years 1982 – 2007 by Grades 41
Table 7: Primary School Preferences…………………………………………………49
Table 8: Schools, Teachers in the Schools and Pupils Enrolment by District………..51

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 LIST OF LIST OF ACRONYMS

ABS - Absent
C - Credit 3, 4 5 or 6
D - Distinction 1 or 2
DEO - District Education Officials
DES - Directorate of Education Standards
DOSATE - Department of Science and Technical Education
DPO - Deputy Principal i/c Outreach
F - Fail
GoU - Government of Uganda
MoES - Ministry of education and Sports
NCES - National Centre for Education Standards
NCDC - National Curriculum Development Centre
P - Pass 7 or 8
PLE - Primary Leaving Examinations
PTA - Parent-Teachers’ Association
PTC - Primary Teachers College
R - Rural
SES - Socio-Economic Status
SPSS - Statistical Package for Social Sciences
SST - Social Studies
TEPES - TEso Primary Education Study
TIMSS - Third International Mathematics and Science Study
TOS - Teachers Observation Schedule
U - Urban
UNEB - Uganda National examinations Board
UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
UPE - Universal Primary Education

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 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

A key word in this report is performance in primary education. It is used to refer to a pupil’s
academic achievement in the teaching and learning process. In the seven-year primary school
cycle in Uganda, an indicator of this performance is the grade achievement in the national
Primary Leaving Examinations (PLE) administered by the Uganda National Examinations
Board (UNEB). In the context of this study, pupil achievement is perceived as not simply
being a matter and result of what happens in school but also as what pupils can do makes a
significant difference. Research has identified numerous factors which affect pupil success.
Seven categories of variables identified as affecting pupil achievement are presented in this
study, namely: (1) Teacher (2) School, (3) Pupils, (4) Infrastructure and teaching-learning
materials (5) organizational and management practices (6) the Parents and community (7)
Social Incentives, and (8) Socio-Economic Conditions.

Analyses of the examination results for the Primary Leaving Examinations of the Uganda
National Examinations Board (UNEB) in Uganda shows that academic achievement at the end
of the seven-year primary education cycle in the Teso region of Uganda is very poor, and
consistently so, compared to the Busoga region and appears to be a similar scenario in relation
to the rest of the country.

To determine the factors that may have caused this poor academic performance, a survey
research design using descriptive methodology with a combination of qualitative and
quantitative approaches was implemented.

Six district education officials, 24 head teachers, 83 teachers and 149 pupils were interviewed
in 24 schools in Teso region. An additional two district officials, eight head teachers, 48
teachers and 73 pupils in eight schools in Busoga region were similarly studied to provide a
comparative picture of performance.

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Ten instruments were developed targeting 24 selected schools in the Teso region that were
responded to by the District Education Officials in the eight districts (Amuria, Bukedea,
Kaberamaido, Katakwi, Kumi, and Soroti) and 8 schools in the two districts of Jinja and
Iganga in Busoga region. The respondents were 32 head teachers of the primary schools used;
teachers of primary 3, 5 and 7; primary 3, 5, and 7 pupils; 32 parents and community members
and one Deputy Principal in charge of Outreach in a core Primary Teacher’s College in the
Teso region. A check-list of infrastructure, availability of instructional materials and other
educational facilities in the primary schools was also used. Teaching delivery as a factor was
assessed using a lesson observation guide that facilitated assessment of lesson preparation
(schemes of work and lesson planning), lesson introduction, lesson development, methods
used and the nature of classroom interactions, use of learning materials and teaching aids,
classroom management skills, assessment of student work and professional conduct of
teachers in class.

The factors that were found to disproportionately affect primary pupils’ achievement in the
Teso region in comparison to pupils in Busoga schools were: teacher characteristics – in
particular - poor teacher knowledge of the subject matter in the disciplines such as science and
mathematics and lack of commitment to teaching both of which manifest in poor teaching
abilities and impact on student achievement; lack of preparation by teachers; large class sizes;
poor school facilities; lack of or minimal homework for pupils; lack of reading culture among
teachers and pupils alike; lack of sound and efficient leadership in the school administration;
and inadequate amount of time allocated to teaching and learning. These observations bore
high significance in the Teso region rural schools relative to urban schools. Busoga region
demonstrated better standing irrespective of school location in most of these factors compared
to the Teso schools. Also observed were other factors, including policy-related, environmental
and social/parental factors affecting pupils’ achievement. Suggestions for improvement are
made, the key ones being provision of committed all-round support to teaching and learning
activities in schools and continuous professional development for teachers targeting subject
knowledge development as well as pedagogical skills in aspects like cooperative learning,
inquiry-based approaches, problem-solving and communication skills.

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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background and the Problem

This report is a result of a request to conduct this study by the Uganda National Commission
for UNESCO, Kampala, Uganda. The Uganda National Commission for UNESCO, closely
examined the performance of primary seven pupils in Uganda over the last decade, and noted
consistent poor performance of pupils in all the districts of the Teso region, comprising of the
districts of Amuria, Bukedea, Kaberamaido, Katakwi, Kumi and Soroti. Driven by a need to
enhance equitable access to quality education and in line with commitments by the
government of Uganda towards achieving education for all citizens, the Ministry of Education
and Sports implemented the Universal Primary Education (UPE) Policy in 1997. Under UPE,
tuition-fee-free education is provided for school going children per family in Uganda. As a
consequence, the number of school going children enrolling in primary schools in Uganda
increased from 2.7 million in 1997 to approximately 7.3 million 2003 (Government of
Uganda, 1998; MoES, 2004).

Uganda has achieved near-universal enrolment in primary schools (96 percent of 6-14-year-
olds have attended school in 2006, compared to less than 20% before UPE in 1992), (Lloyd,
Kaufman, & Hewett, 1999). However, current educational data show that the surge in primary
school enrolment has not been matched by quality performance, particularly in the north and
north eastern districts of Uganda. In the relatively more peaceful parts of the country, such as
Kampala, Mukono, Kabale, Mbale, Mbarara, Jinja, Iganga, Tororo and Masaka, the relative
failure rate (ratio of failures to total enrolment) is noticeably much smaller.

Despite the notable improvement in enrolment since the onset of UPE, Teso region has fielded
very poor results at the annual national Primary Leaving Examinations (PLE) for a larger part
of the last twenty years. The impact of insurgency, cattle rustling, and a spate of natural
disasters such as the 1998 and 2007 floods have created significant and long-standing social
dislocation and deprivation that have combined to entrench people in the region into perpetual
trauma for the last twenty-one years. Uganda is party to the UNESCO Convention against

9
discrimination in education (UNESCO, 1960) as well as to the International Convention on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Article 2 of the Convention requires the consenting
parties to "achieve and realize the rights to education by providing free and compulsory
primary education and continuously improving the conditions of teachers…" (UNESCO,
2001, p.12) Scheenes (1999) supports and echoes the notion that teachers and teaching could
be made more effective by ensuring that all teachers have access to further professional
training and development throughout their careers. These two observations call for strategies
for capacity building for primary teachers to uphold equitable quality education which are
critical in Uganda. Table 1 illustrates the concern for performance in Primary Leaving
Examinations in Teso Region.

TABLE 1: PERFORMANCE IN PLE IN TESO REGION FOR THE PERIOD 1997-

2007

Year TESO REGION

GRADES BY DIVISIONS (%)
1 2 3 4 U ABS TOT
1997 4.9 44.6 17.5 20.8 10.2 1.9 1153
1998 2.5 29.5 19.7 26.5 17.7 4.1 1482
1999 3.2 35.5 14.9 28.6 14.4 3.4 1517
2000 1.3 33.8 23.6 19.9 16.1 5.3 1525
2001 2.2 49.8 23.2 11.7 9.8 3.2 1250
2002 4.7 56.9 18.0 7.6 8.3 4.5 1390
2003 7.8 53.1 14.8 8.3 5.8 10.2 1117
2004 4.9 58.5 14.8 10.5 5.5 5.8 1324
2005 1.9 55.0 24.0 10.6 5.4 3.2 1286
2006 5.0 66.7 17.2 5.1 2.8 3.3 1270
2007 8.0 65.2 17.8 5.6 2.5 0.9 1116

Source: Uganda National Examinations Board: 2007 results.

Table 1 displays an overall picture of performance in the Teso region on the basis of
Divisions. Division 1 relates to a performance with total aggregate 4 to 12; Division 2
aggregate 13-20; Division 3 aggregate 21-28; Division 4 aggregate 29-36. The un-graded
category of students represents those who failed both mathematics and English. The ABS
reflects registered candidates who do not appear for the examinations. In the past eleven years,
the Teso region had less than 100 pupils who scored aggregate 4-12. In the years 2001and
2000, the whole of Teso region had only 28 out of 1250 and 20 out of 1525 candidates
respectively, in Division 1. The bulk of candidates have performance in Division 2 (i.e.

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aggregate 13-20). For a country committed to quality education, this level of passing is
appalling.

Few studies of institutional effectiveness in education have examined those aspects of

schooling that are most conducive to exploring initial enrolment and retention and the
subsequent pass rates. Such studies have focused instead on those aspects of schooling more
directly associated with the development of cognitive competencies. The completion of
primary school has been associated not only with large economic returns but also with many
social returns, including, in the case of women, lower fertility, lower infant and child
mortality, better child health and education, reductions in gender inequality within the family,
and later ages of marriage (Summers, 1994) as key tools to social and economic
transformation.

It would appear that in an early phase of a country's economic and educational development,
school effectiveness is likely to depend equally on other factors beyond attendance and
retention, to include those factors more directly linked to the development of cognitive
competencies. This is because children would not have sufficient exposure to schooling to
achieve even the minimal cognitive goals set out in most national education plans for basic
schooling without initial enrolment and steady attendance at a basic level. Uganda is one such
a developing nation where enrolment is not yet universal; repetition and dropout rates are
substantial in the primary school level. An approach to exploring institutional effectiveness in
education by determining factors affecting the test scores of students in school presents an
important part of the story pertaining to the contextual issues surrounding quality of education
as central elements of school effectiveness.

1.2 Purpose of the Consultancy

UNESCO and its partners have recognised the dilemma facing education in Uganda, and the
need to explore the underlying factors underpinning poor performance in regions like Teso.
Ensuring that schools at the primary level are implementing quality education activities that
are responsive to the learning needs of all children is crucial to achieving the cherished goals
of universal basic education. Since the year 2000, the Ministry of Education and Sports
(MoES) with the development partners that include UNESCO are focusing attention to the

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quality question of the ten-year old UPE initiative in Uganda. In recognition of the need to
proactively address the poor performance at primary school level in the Teso region, this study
was commissioned to carry out an exploration and in-depth analysis of the endemic poor
performance in the primary education sub-sector in the region. This report presents key factors
and their underlying causes, alongside recommendations for interventions by the government
of Uganda and its development partners.

1.3 Terms of Reference

The examination of the underlying forces causing perennial poor performance in Primary
Education sub-sector in the Teso region led to undertaking the following tasks as spelt out in
the Consultancy Terms of Reference:
1. Studied the Terms of Reference on the UNESCO document, developed an inception
paper and established a credible research team to facilitate an exploration of the issues
driving poor performance in primary education in the Teso region.
2. Conducted a pre-visit to Teso region districts, (and to two other districts where
academic performance in primary schools with comparative social structure) to
organise fieldwork.
3. Conducted a survey of primary schools in the Teso region and identified representative
primary schools for study of factors underlying poor performance and two comparative
districts in Busoga.
4. Developed appropriate range of data collection instruments to facilitate comprehensive
data collection from all key stakeholders in primary school education in the study area.
5. Carried-out a document analysis and literature review. Concurrently reviewed the
history of the Teso region particularly in the last twenty-five years (1983-2007), and
the challenges in the provision of primary education over this period. This included:
(i) Teacher establishment, teacher qualities and teacher competencies.
(ii) Nature of classroom activities
(iii) Institutional facilities for teaching and learning, school environment/culture
and programming of educational and other activities
(iv) Administrative structures in schools and their links to the district and
national framework in support of quality UPE.

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 (v) Socio-economic and family-related factors and their influence on primary
education.
6. Selected and trained a study team and jointly planned for fieldwork in the Teso region
and comparative districts.
7. Conducted the fieldwork in the study districts as per defined scope of activities and
time frame.
8. Analysed collected data.
9. Facilitated the development of draft ToRs for critical studies related to further
investigation, policy review, and implementation of quality education at UPE level in
poor performing districts.
10. Prepared a Teso Region Primary Education Status Report based on the study findings
for 25 years (for the period 1982 – 2007).
11. Presented findings to a national stakeholders’ workshop under the auspices of
UNESCO.

1.4 Situation Analysis - Dimensions of Primary Education effectiveness

This report presents the complex dimensions of government primary school life encountered
in the Teso region and creates a framework within which the crisis of primary education under
UPE can be understood. The document is guided by informative primary data, offers a broad
perspective on the possibilities for primary school improvement, and provides candid
commentary on some of the more intractable problems which confront government primary
schools.

This study builds on a wealth of research findings worldwide, and previous work at the
Department of Science and Technical Education (DOSATE) in Makerere University, which
expose the malaise surrounding the dominance of transmissive, teacher-centred rote-based
teaching, learning and assessment of pupils (DOSATE, 2005; Mulemwa, 1997). The study
further draws on strong research base on student active learning with in-built formative
assessment, and teacher professional development. It addresses a need for better research on
teachers' effective instructional fidelity in pedagogy.

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The wars in Southern Sudan, and Northern Uganda, have had a sense of impact on the state of
education and education research in the region. Teachers are both under-qualified and poorly
motivated. The curriculum reform is often inspired by poorly conceived adaptation or
adoption of corresponding western models. Examinations, rather than development of
applicable, self-reliance based knowledge determine the ‘worth of knowledge.’ Memorization
and rote learning are the dominant forms of teaching; and the science and mathematics
subjects’ links to technology and relevance to student’s everyday experience are hardly
emphasized (Fuller, 1987; Sjoberg, 2005). For Uganda, one of the consequences of a socially
and contextually delinked curriculum is that less than 0.5% of the initial school-entering
cohorts are available to opt for study programmes in higher education (DOSATE, 2005). The
other notable influence of these factors is the limited subscription and enrolments in various
disciplines such as sciences, technology and engineering – which are central to national
development.

To understand the nature of the continuing crisis in public education in Uganda is to recognize
that government schools in the country are embedded in a society in which multiple tensions
confront schools and other core institutions. These multiple tensions are generated by several
larger crises, including a crisis of social and political democracy, a crisis of capitalism, and a
crisis of personal well-being sought by a society plagued by insecurity, hunger, poverty and
homelessness.

The crises of our social and political democracy is exemplified by regional-, age- and gender-
based inequities and by a persistent view that government functions in the interests of large
corporate structures propelled by a market driven economy. What has been lost is a sense of
the common or public good. In turn, many citizens have withdrawn from the public arena, and
schools are evaluated by the extent to which they enhance the personal rather than the
common good.

Economic globalization, driven by the reinvestment needs of a market economy, has generated
profound tensions as productivity and efficiency have come to dominate economic decision-
making. The idea of the market economy is suffused with an aura of inevitability, suggesting
that no one is in charge. This obscures the role that individual decisions have played in

14
creating the current economic structure. In turn, schools are admonished to produce workers
who possess those qualities which will contribute to corporate success in the global
marketplace.

The crisis of personal well-being, a profound social phenomenon, has been created, in part, by
political alienation, by personal or family economic insecurity, and by perceptions that core
values have eroded. Thus, the search for solutions to the "crisis in education" has had intensely
personal overtones. Alternatives to UPE schools country-wide have become popular strategies
as families attempt to cope with these multiple crises even though many are beyond the reach
of the school.

The demands on public schools generated by these crises have produced an extraordinary
variety of school, educational programme improvement efforts and also a variety of public
attitudes and expectations regarding public education. While it may be unreasonable to expect
that government schools can ameliorate the injustices of regional inequity, social class
divisions, the consequences of market economy, and the perceived unresponsiveness of the
political system, the impact of these circumstances on schools is profound.

This is an education that does not accrue to an industrial age as aspired by a poor nation like
Uganda. The current status of national development and the cherished goals of poverty
alleviation and social transformation through education may remain elusive, hence badly
failing the youth - upon whom the future of our society depends. Without redress, the affected
sections of our society will remain condemned to marginal, retrogressive and dehumanising
conditions of life.

This study is situated within a broadened framework for the on-going debates on effective
teaching in primary level, which includes both the more traditional elements identified in the
school-effectiveness literature related to the development of cognitive competencies as well as
some additional elements hypothesized by the authors to be important to access, retention and
performance in quality education provision environment. This framework is then applied
empirically using our Ugandan data. Data on patterns of school dropout by sex, age, and
district as well as data on various dimensions of the school environment will provide a

15
background for the presentation and discussion of the multivariate results. The many
methodological issues pertinent to the implementation of our exploratory survey model are
addressed fully as part of the presentation of our results.

Much research on the determinants of school enrolment, retention, and ultimate grade
attainment in developing countries has been confined to an exploration of the role of
individual and family factors (Loyd & Blanc, 1996), often with particular attention given to
the ways in which these factors may operate differently for boys and for girls. Although for
some time institutional effectiveness in teaching and learning has been recognized as
potentially important to school outcomes Behrman & Birdsall, 1983), data constraints have
presented problems for the identification of the specific dimensions of institutional
effectiveness in education that matter. To-date, two types of approaches have been taken in
order to assess the importance of institutional effectiveness in learning for enrolment,
retention, and ultimate grade attainment. The first and more typical approach has been applied
when only data from a population-based survey are available, whereas the second approach
has been applied in a few cases when school data could be linked with a population-based
survey.

In the common approaches, crude aggregate measures of institutional effectiveness in

education are developed, such as distance to school as a measure of the availability or
accessibility of schools or resources per student, teacher credentials, and student/teacher ratios
at the level of the sample community, the administrative district, or the country (Behrman &
Birdsall, 1983). In these studies, quality is uniformly statistically significant when introduced
into a regression analysis of the determinants of individual enrolment, dropout, or grade
attainment, with better quality leading to higher enrolment and grade attainment.

In the second approach, latent school-quality variables are derived by various explanatory
factors at the individual and family level and on a set of variables that emerge from each of the
schools attended by students in the sample during the inquiries. These latent quality variables,
which are based on the primary interview/workshop data, are then debated upon in workshops
among various stakeholders in education to establish the determinants of enrolment, dropout,
or attainment (Lloyd et. al., 1997). This indirect but more comprehensive approach is hoped to

16
identify key factors and interventions into the effects of quality, in an aggregated and latent
form and their relationship with girls’ enrolment and attainment in schooling, and will
contribute to further debate and analysis of the determinants of enrolment, retention, and
attainment, effectiveness of these in enhancing teaching and learning has never been measured
directly nor has any attempt been made to analyse the critical elements that matter.

However, school-effectiveness studies have gone a long way toward identifying the key
dimensions of the educational production process that have potential implications or the
development of cognitive competencies (Khandker et al.; 1994) and in measuring their
statistical impact on performance in various types of standardized tests. Such studies, which
necessarily must confine themselves to students who are enrolled in school, have mainly
measured the direct effects of institutional effectiveness on student achievement. Largely
neglected are the indirect effects that operate through institutional effectiveness on entry,
retention, and ultimate grade attainment (Lockheed et al., 1991). These approaches are,
therefore, better suited to measuring school effectiveness in settings where the age of school
entry is uniform, where enrolment is near universal, and where attrition between grades is
relatively minor.

In a poor country like Uganda, these conditions do not apply. Indeed, in such settings, some of
the most important potential effects of investments in institutional effectiveness in education
may come through their implications for school entry, enrolment, and retention. The potential
importance of this point is ably underscored by the research of Glewwe and Jacoby (1994) in
Ghana, which demonstrated that improvements in material resources, such as repairing a leaky
roof or providing more textbooks, affect test scores directly through their effects on the
learning environment and indirectly through their effects on retention (Glewwe & Jacoby,
1994).

Three broad aspects of the educational process have been identified in the school-effectiveness
literature as contributing to positive outcomes on various types of standardized tests. Each of
these has been associated with many individual elements: (1) time to learn, such as the hours
school is in session and the time spent in the classroom; (2) material inputs, such as

17
classrooms, books, desks, and libraries; and (3) effective teaching, such as pedagogical
practices and teachers' competence (DOSATE, 2005). We would certainly expect many of the
individual elements identified in the school-effectiveness literature to be important not only to
academic achievement but also to retention in the school because students who benefit from
them and perform well will be encouraged to continue. Surely parents' perceptions of a given
school's quality may be important in the initial decision as to whether or not they enroll their
children, in particular, the girls in the school. Other elements in addition to those mentioned
above might be important in encouraging the continued attendance of the middling and the
lower-ranked students, more so girls once they have been enrolled. In particular, teachers'
attitudes can be critical in enhancing learning outcomes, especially among girls and learners
from groups marginalized by civil strife and a range of other socio-economic factors, who are
typically constrained from a young age. For this reason, an expansion of the traditional
framework for enhancing learners’ persistence (once enrolled) and their performance is critical
to overall quality assurance and goals in education. Reforms in education, and effectiveness of
educational institutions should encompass a variety of elements, including various dimensions
of school policy, class room dynamics, and teachers’ attitudes, professionalism and academic
competencies that are important to the overall success in schooling.

The first aspect of quality-time to learn-includes not only the total time the school is in session
over the academic year but also various factors that can reduce the actual time (or learning
below what is allowed by the school calendar, such as un-scheduled closures due to weather,
natural disasters, political disruptions, absences, and time taken during the day for students'
non-academic activities, such as chores or duties and punishments. The time-to-learn
dimension of institutional effectiveness in primary education is defined in entirely quantitative
terms and provides the temporal dimension within which the other elements of material inputs
and school and classroom dynamics can operate.

The traditional list of material inputs includes facilities, instructional materials, and teaching
staff. Under facilities, not only are infrastructure and equipment included but also amenities
such as toilets, electricity, and water that, while not necessary for learning to take place, may
have profound implications for the comfort of students and the attractiveness of the school to

18
parents and, therefore, potentially for the attendance and retention of students (Glewwe &
Jacoby, 1994). Textbooks have been singled out in the literature as the most essential of
instructional materials, but it is not always clear to what extent they are provided by the school
or must be purchased by the family.

The usual list of material inputs is expanded in our framework to include curriculum beyond
the core, such as sports, the arts, and more practical types of education that teach skills for
living, such as family life education, as well as the presence of non-academic staff, such as
student advisors and a nurse or a doctor. Although these other inputs have not been as directly
linked with learning, they are, nonetheless, related to dimensions of education that are
potentially valued by parents and students. As noted by Smith and Tomlinson (1989), a
successful transition to adulthood is one in which a young person is allowed to grow to
develop her or his full potential physically, intellectual, and emotionally before taking on adult
roles. School has therefore, much to contribute to the full development of human capabilities
beyond the acquisition of academic knowledge and skills. Education has consumption as well
as investment value, as Sen asserts in explaining his preference for the concept of human
capability rather than the more familiar concept of human capital. Investments in human
capability not only enhance individuals’ productive capacity not only enhances individuals'
productive capacity but their ability to lead freer and more fulfilling lives. This calls for a
broader curriculum to provide opportunities to students who are less academically inclined.
Benefits accruing from such a programme include: family life education to provide the youth
the skills to avoid sex, sexually transmitted diseases, and pregnancy, thus reducing the chances
of dropout; the availability of qualified medical workers could improve health conditions that
lead to better attendance and retention; and a more supportive advising at school could
intervene to support students when they feel discouraged or when their parents are not
supportive or unable to meet tuition payments.

Various aspects of the school and classroom environment beyond pedagogical practices are
important in relation to school and classroom dynamics. The orderliness and organization of
the school are potentially important to overall school performance (Sadker & Sadker, 1995).
In addition to the use of instruction time and language spoken, we would expect that the extent

19
of student participation, the quality of teacher/student interactions (in terms of encouragement
or discouragement), and the way in which classes are grouped randomly or by ability) will all
affect not only the effectiveness of the teacher in imparting knowledge and developing skills
but also the quality of classroom experience for the students. If academically competent
students become discouraged, they are more likely to drop out. Underlying teachers'
behaviours in the classroom are attitudes about the capabilities and appropriate roles of boys
and girls that may result in differential discouragement for girls. These attitudes relate to boys'
and girls' innate abilities, their teachability, and their sexuality and may be reflected in school
policies like administrative practices that treat boys and girls differently. To date, most authors
are aware of only one empirical study conducted in Uganda attempting to measure the effect
of teachers' attitudes on school outcomes, but the analysis was restricted to the determinants of
exam scores and did not examine effects on enrolment and grade attainment (DOSATE,
2005).

An element of institutional effectiveness in education could have a gender dimension either

because it is differentially available within a school to boys and girls or because, while
uniformly available, it has a potentially different effect on boys and girls. Thus, girls and boys
may experience the same school differently. For example, if systematic differences exist
within a school between boys and girls in the time devoted to their duties and punishments,
then boys and girls cannot be assumed to have the same time to learn. Furthermore, if such
differences exist, they could have additional discouraging effects on girls that go beyond the
simple difference in the time that they have in which to learn because of the gender messages
embodied in such practices. If sports facilities or equipment are lacking for girls, they will
have less opportunity to develop physical skills and experience teamwork and at the same time
will receive clear messages about appropriate gender roles.

The quality of teacher-student interactions is another dimension of the school experience that
may impact pupil performance in school. While (Fuller et. al., 1991) found no differences
between the treatment of boys and girls in Botswana classrooms; they acknowledge that it
remains an open question whether differential treatment of boys and girls-where it occurs-
might explain outcomes.

20
Other elements of the school environment may be shared by boys and girls but nonetheless
have differential implications for either gender. For example, limited or poor-quality toilet
facilities may have differential implications for girls in terms of enrolment and attendance
because of their special needs during their menstrual periods, as well as their vulnerability to
sexual harassment on their way to or from the toilet. The sex ratio of teachers is another
dimension of the school environment that might be more important for girls' enrolment given
the potential importance of female professional role models in a gender-stratified society to
their encouragement and success. While a few studies have explored gender differences in tile
impact of certain elements of institutional effectiveness and achievement (Fuller et al, 1991),
none have explored their implications for academic achievement given the multiple,
cumulative challenges experienced by a society like in Teso. All cases where a potential
dimension is hypothesized, either because it might be differentially available or because it
might have a differential effect, will be highlighted in detail during the exploration process.

The early literature on school effectiveness placed an emphasis on the ability and social
backgrounds of students as factors that shape academic performance, and suggested that
schools had little direct effect on student achievement. Coleman et al. (1966), for example, in
a major study of US schools seemed to cast doubt on the possibility of improving school
achievement through reforms to schools. They found that differences in school achievement
reflected variations in family background, and the family backgrounds of student peers, and
concluded that 'schools bring little influence to bear on a child's achievement that is
independent of his background and general social context A later analysis of the same dataset
by Jencks and his colleagues reached the same conclusion: “our research suggests ... that the
character of a school's output depends largely on a single input, namely the characteristics of
the entering children. Subsequently, everything else such as the school budget, its policies, the
characteristics of the teachers [are] either secondary or completely irrelevant” (Jencks et al.,
1972, p. 256)

Criticisms of this early work suggested that the modelling procedures employed did not take
into account of the hierarchical nature of the data, and was not able to separate out accurately

21
school, student and classroom factors (e.g. Raudenbush & Williams, 1991). More recent
school effectiveness research has used multi-level modelling techniques to account for the
clustering effects of different types of data. The results of such studies show, according to the
meta-analysis of school effectiveness research undertaken by Bosker and Witziers (1996), that
school effects account for approximately 8 to 10 per cent of the variation in student
achievement, and that the effects are greater for mathematics than for language or other
subjects. A number of studies have shown that there are substantial variations between schools
(Lamb, 1997; Mortimore et al., 1988; Nuttall et al., 1989; Smith & Tomlinson, 1989).

Several studies have concluded that classrooms as well as schools are important and that
teacher and classroom variables account for more variance than school variables (Scheerens,
1993; Scheerens, Vermeulen, & Pelgrum, 1989). Schmidt et al. (1999) in their comparison of
achievement across countries using TIMSS data reported that classroom-level differences
accounted for a substantial amount of variation in several countries including Australia and the
United States. This thus begs the question: What are these differences due to teacher
characteristics, classroom organisation, pupil management practices or other factors?

Recent work on classroom and school effects has suggested that teacher effects account for a
large part of variation in achievement, particularly in mathematics and the sciences. In the
United Kingdom, a recent study of 80 schools and 170 teachers measured achievement growth
over the period of an academic year, when using start-of-year and end-of-year achievement
data (Hay Mcber, 2000). Using multi-level modeling techniques, the study modeled the impact
teachers had on achievement growth. The report on the work claimed that over 30 per cent of
the variance in pupil progress was due to teachers. It concluded that teacher quality and
teacher effectiveness, rather than other classroom, school and student factors, are large
influences on pupil progress.

Several Australian studies have also pointed to teachers having a major effect on student
achievement. In a three-year longitudinal study of educational effectiveness, known as the
Victorian Quality Schools Project, Hill and his colleagues (Hill, 1994; Hill et al., 1996; Rowe
& Hill, 1994) examined student, class-teacher and school differences in mathematics and

22
English achievement. Using multi-level modelling procedures to study the interrelationships
between different factors at each level--student, classroom and school--the authors found in
the first phase of the study that, at the primary level, 46 per cent of the variation in
mathematics was due to differences between classrooms, whereas at secondary level the rate
was almost 39 per cent. Further analyses showed that between-class differences were also
important in examining student growth in mathematics achievement, and those differences in
achievement progress located at the classroom level ranged from 45 to 57 per cent (Hill et al.,
1996; Hill & Rowe, 1998).

In explaining the large classroom-level differences in student achievement in mathematics,

Hill and his colleagues highlighted the role of teacher quality and teacher effectiveness. They
contended that, although not fully confirmed, they had `evidence of substantial differences
between teachers and between schools on teacher attitudes to their work and in particular their
morale and this supported the view that `it is primarily through the quality of teaching that
effective schools make a difference (Hill, 1994). In further work that examined the impact of
teacher professional development on achievement, they again argued that differences between
teachers helped explain much of the variation in mathematics achievement (Hill et al., 1996).

The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (Lokan et al, 1996) preliminary
investigations of the TIMSS data in Iran indicated that there is a positive relationship between
students’ achievement in mathematics and home background variables such as “parents’ level
of education”, “number of books at home”, and “possessing dictionary, computer and study
desk”. However, Iranian students “who come from a family with the highest level of education
of either parents” (8% of the students), “possess all the three educational aids” (5% of the
students), and “have more than 200 books at home” (9% of the students) score much lower
than the international average score (Kiamanesh & Kheirieh, 2001). Furthermore, the relation
between the index of mathematics self-concept and math achievement was positive and
significant. The math achievement score of Iranian students who benefited from high self-
concept was much higher than that of those who had medium or low self-concept (Kiamanesh
& Kheirieh, 2001). Moreover, these investigations indicated that students who have positive

23
perceptions or attitudes towards mathematics showed better achievement in both mathematics
and science (Kiamanesh, 1997).

However, Hill and his team advanced alternative explanations for the large classroom-level
differences. They pointed to the possibility that classroom-level pupil management practices
such as streaming and setting could account for the class effects. This was not pursued by the
authors who stated that in all the schools they surveyed, the classes were of mixed ability
(Hill, 1994; Rowe & Hill, 1994). Another possibility was an under-adjustment for initial
differences, that is, they did not control adequately for prior achievement differences. A
further explanation considered was the possibility of inconsistency in teacher ratings used in
the measure of student achievement in mathematics. This possibility was also deemed by Hill
and his colleagues as unlikely to have had a major bearing, though its influence was not ruled
out. The authors did not use, or argue for the use of more objective, independently assessed
mathematics tests.

Other studies have shown that contextual variables such as student body composition and
organisational policies play an important role in mathematics achievement. Teacher
background attributes such as gender, number of years in teaching and educational
qualifications have been shown to be important factors in student achievement (Larkin &
Keeves, 1984; Anderson, Ryan, & Shapiro 1989), as have a variety of school effects such as
school size (Lee & Smith, 1997) and mean student social composition.

In Uganda, and within the Teso region, little efforts have been directed at intervening into
poor performance of schools. For example, a study by the Uganda National Examinations
Board (UNEB, 2003) explored achievement of primary pupils in Uganda in English Literacy
and numeracy. They found that the central region excelled in literacy and numeracy followed
by western, and northern, with the eastern region trailing. A similar study by Links
Community Development (LCD, 2007) project in the Ministry of Education and Sports and
reports from Okol (2007); DEO Katakwi (2007); DEO Amuria (2007); DEO Kaberamaido
(2007); DEO Bukedea (2007) delved into school and teacher characteristics in Soroti and
other districts inform of very poor infrastructure, lack of teaching materials, low teacher

24
commitment, large classes and hunger among pupils as key factors to poor performance in
primary schools in the respective districts.

All these studies suggest that classrooms and schools matter, as well as student background. A
range of studies have examined different effects; however few have been able to use the range
of contextual variables available in TIMSS.

A key issue is to investigate whether teacher quality and classroom effectiveness account for
classroom-level and or school variation in achievement or whether there are other factors that
are of more importance. To do this, we examined patterns of primary seven-pupil achievement
by conducting a meta-analysis of primary leaving examinations for the last 26 years
triangulated with experiences of teachers, head teachers, district education officials, parents
and pupils to tease out possible factors that could account for achievement variance that can be
explained at the student, classroom, policy, parent-community and school levels. By probing
into these different variables, we were able to explore the extent to which factors linked to
school, teachers, parents/community, policy and those linked to classroom organisation and
practice influence achievement.

1.5 Purpose and Research Objectives

This study provides opportunities for better understanding of primary school processes,
teacher – pupil engagements in learning, and the nature of the school and the wider social
environment and how these mesh to generate the performance indicators in PLE results in the
Teso region. In order to expose and deepen our understanding of the underlying problems in teaching
and learning, institutional practices and overall effectiveness of primary schools in the Teso region, the
following objectives guided the study:

1. To critically study the history of the Teso region for the last twenty five years with a
focus on challenges faced in the provision of primary school education in the region
(The key aspects for exploration will include teacher-based factors; school culture and
environment; social/parental and community support and influence; and external
management influences).

25
 2. To examine performance in Primary Leaving Examinations (PLE) in the region for the
last 25 years and to map out a trend and possible “driver” influences.
3. To provide descriptive correlates between identified factors and poor performance.
4. To examine findings for critical factors upon which to provide recommendations for
intervention and further investigations.

1.6 Research questions

In exploring the concerns embedded in the above objectives the study sought to identify gaps
pointed out in the school-effectiveness literature by addressing the key research question:
What aspects of the nature of schooling in primary schools in Teso influence the teaching and
learning transactions in the primary school cycle and the subsequent performance of boys and
girls in the national Primary Leaving Examinations (PLE)?

The study sought answers to the following specific research questions:

1. What is the social and economic context of primary school?

2. What is the professional context of the school (educationally)?
3. What are the common teaching and learning practices in primary school? How do
these manifest in real classroom situations?
4. What are teachers’, pupils’, the surrounding community and other stakeholders’ views
about the quality of education in their primary school?
5. To what extent does the school infrastructure and environment meet the demands of
school activities?
6. What is the trend of performances in primary schools in the Teso region for the last 26
years? (How does the Teso region primary school effectiveness data compare in your
school over the last 26 years?)

26
 CHAPTER TWO

METHODOLOGY
2.1 Research Design

The 32 primary schools used in the study were selected so as to represent a range of learning
environments, a variety of teacher practices, a spectrum of pupils’ experiences and different
contexts. The research design and methods were developed within a qualitative research
paradigm. Data generation and analysis was informed by a constructivist conceptual
framework (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998). The data in this study was collected mainly through
interviews. Interview approach was guided by the consideration that “interviews as a principal
method of gathering information can be used to suggest assertions and as a means of
following-up some interesting and unexpected behaviour” (Silverman, 2001, p. 113). It was
intended that the findings of the interviews in this study, which are exploratory will inform the
design of further research to examine schools’ effectiveness. Using this interviews approach,
data was generated through semi-structured interviews using DEOs, head teachers, teachers,
parents and the community, Deputy Principals Outreach and pupils together with Teachers’
questionnaire. Multiple sources of data and data collection allowed for triangulation and
crosschecking of emergent assertions from the data collected.

The theoretical framework for the methodology for this study was derived from the literature
on effective schools, schools change, and classroom environment and teachers practices. We
sought information on school factors, teacher factors, district factors, parent and community
factors that might be important to explain the state of pupils performance and achievement.
The naturalistic inquiry methods used enabled the researchers to explore complex and covert
aspects of the sites as well as particular observations that were identified a priori. In fact,
Patton (1990) clearly articulated conditions under which interviews are suitable to delve into
the interviewee’s world as follows:

We interview people to find out from them those things we cannot directly
observe…we cannot observe feelings, thoughts, and intentions. We cannot observe
behaviours that took place at some previous point in time. We cannot observe

27
 situations that preclude the presence of an observer. We cannot observe how people
have organised the world and the meanings they attach to what goes on in the world.
We have to ask people questions about those things. The purpose of interviewing,
then, is to allow us to enter into the other person’s perspective (Patton, 1990, p.196).

Ironically, figures and numbers from quantitative data do not provide answers to the questions
about ‘how?’, ‘what?’ and ‘why?’ certain things happen the way they do (Neuman, 2000) that
qualitative data can.

2.2 Sampling Procedure

For the purpose of this study the target population was all stakeholders involved in primary
education sector in the two regions of Teso and Busoga. The eight districts where the study
was conducted were purposively selected in both regions. The two regions were selected
because they had similar characteristics on their levels of pupils’ performance at the national
level to warrant comparisons. In each district the highest available District Education Official
(DEO) was used for the study. The DEOs willingly granted permission for the schools in their
districts to be accessed for the study. The schools that participated in the study had to satisfy
the criteria that the schools had existed since early 1980s and were located in either an urban
or a rural setting and they had similar or dissimilar levels of performance in each district. The
schools were identified with the help of the DEOs.

The head teachers of the schools selected for the study were automatically used as informers
for the study, which they readily accepted. In each school teachers of P.3, P.5 and P.7 were
identified and requested to participate in the study, which they accepted. On average two
teachers in each class were used for the study except in schools where there was only one
teacher in those classes. Three pupils were purposively selected in each class such that there
were, a high ability pupil, an average ability pupil and a low ability pupil, according to their
teachers; these pupils were interviewed in each school. In each school a parent or a community
member, with interest in the school was identified with the help of the head teacher and
interviewed. Furthermore, in each area a Deputy Principal in charge of Outreach (DPO) was
consulted at the nearest Core Primary Teachers’ College (PTC) and interviewed.
Unfortunately only one such a DPO was available.

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2.3 Sample
This section provides the details of the sample structure and characteristics for the
study disaggregated to the different strata of participants and institutions.

Districts. Eight districts were used for the study, which included all the six districts of Teso
region and two comparative districts from Busoga region. The districts are located in the
eastern Uganda. These districts are among the districts in the country whose general
performance in the Primary Leaving Examinations (PLE) has nosed down over time for the
worse. On one hand, the districts in the Teso region have particularly suffered from both
human made ills such as insurgency, cattle rustling and natural calamities such as floods. On
the other hand, the districts in the Busoga region have been relatively stable.

District Education Officials. Eight DEOs (one per district) were interviewed during the study.
The DEOs were (seven males and one female). They had served in this position for a period
ranging from two to 15 years, so they were quite experienced.

Schools. A total of 32 primary schools were selected for the study in the two regions. Four
schools were purposively selected in each district that satisfied the following criteria: the
school has existed since early 1980’s; and is located either in the rural, urban or peri-urban
setting. Two rural and two urban schools were selected from each district. All the schools used
were government aided. The schools are from eight districts in eastern Uganda located in
urban or rural setting. One of the schools was a girls’ only school and another was a boys’
only school the rest of the schools were mixed. The schools pupil population ranged from 319
to 1806 pupils with the number of teachers ranging from eight to 39 teachers. Several of the
schools included pupils from a wide range of cultural and tribal backgrounds. The PLE
performance of the schools varied from the lower quartile to upper quartile in the national
comparisons.

Head Teachers. A total of 32 head teachers were interviewed (24 from Teso region and eight
from the Busoga region). Four head teachers were used in each district.

29
Teachers. A total of 158 primary school teachers (92 male and 66 female) completed the
Teachers’ Practices Questionnaire. From this group 131 teachers were interviewed (83 from
the Teso region and 48 from the Busoga region). The teachers were all qualified and
certificated to teach in primary schools. Among the teachers were 92 Grade IIIs, 58 Grade V
or diploma holders and 8 graduate teachers. Eighty four of the teachers were located in the
urban areas and 74 were from the rural schools. Six of the teachers were from the girls’ only
school and six were from the boys’ only school, the rest (146) of the teachers were from mixed
schools. The teachers’ teaching experience ranged from one year to 38 years with a mean age
of 13 years. The majority of the teachers (52.6%) have been teaching for between seven and
15 years.

Pupils. A total of 221 pupils (110 boys and 111 girls) from primary schools were interviewed
for the study. The pupils were selected from the primary three (P.3) class 74 pupils (40 boys
and 34 girls; 23 (13 boys and 10 girls) pupils from Busoga and 51 ( 27 boys and 24 girls) from
Teso); from the primary five (P.5) class 74 pupils (38 boys and 36 girls; 25 (15 boys and 10
girls) pupils from Busoga and 49 (23 boys and 26 girls) from Teso), and from primary seven
(P.7) class 73 (32 boys and 41 girls, 24 (13 boys and 11 girls) from Busoga and 49 (19 boys
and 30 girls) from Teso) in each school. The pupils were ages ranged between eight and 14
years. The social class of the pupils in the school populations ranged from poor peasant
farmers to medium socioeconomic status level.

Parents and Community. A total of 32 parents and community leaders were interviewed (24
from Teso region and eight from the Busoga region), one parent or community member or
community leader such as Chairperson of the School Management Committee, was contacted
per school.

Deputy Principal Outreach (DPO). Only one deputy principal was available for the study.
There was one male DPO who has been in this position for the previous two years.

30
2.4 Instruments of Data Collection

A total of ten instruments were developed by the authors and used to investigate the state of
education in the entire six districts of the Teso region and the two comparative districts in the
Busoga region. These instruments included:

District Education Officials Interview Guide. The District Education Officials Interview Guide
was intended to capture the officials’ views about the state of primary education in the
districts. It consisted of two sections on demographic information (nine items) and on social
environment (11 items). There were probe questions for most of the items. The items were
read to the interviewees and the responses entered into the open spaces in the interview guide.
The interviews were conducted in the DEO’s offices and lasted, on average, about one hour
each.

Head Teachers Interview Guide. The Head Teachers’ Interview Guide was intended to capture
the head teachers’ views on the state of primary education in their schools. It consisted of
eighteen items in two sections. Section A was on demographic information (seven items), and
Section B was on the school and environment with eleven items. There were probe questions
for most of the items. The items were read to the interviewees and the responses entered into
the open spaces in the interview guide. The interviews were conducted in the head teachers’
offices and lasted on average about 45 minutes each.

Teachers’ Interview Guide. The Teachers’ Interview Guide was intended to capture teachers’
views on their practices. It consisted of fourteen items. There were probe questions for some
of the items. The items were read to the interviewees and the responses entered into the open
spaces in the interview guide. The interviews were conducted in the most convenient space
available in the school free from distractions and interruptions lasted on average about one
hour each.

Teachers’ Questionnaire on Primary Education. The Teachers’ Questionnaire on Primary

education was intended to capture the teachers’ perceptions on their instructional strategies. It
consisted of three sections: Section A was on demographic information (five items); Section B

31
was on school information (six items); and Section C was on teacher instructional practices
(20 items) where teachers expressed the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with ideas
expressed in the items. The respondents answered the questionnaires by expressing their
opinions where the responses were made on a five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly
disagree to strongly agree. The item reliability estimate for the Teachers’ Questionnaire on
Primary Education was established using Cronbach alpha coefficient as a measure of internal
consistency. The coefficient of consistency was established as 0.84, this value was considered
reasonably high for research purposes (Guilford & Fruchter, 1978).

Teachers’ Observation Schedule. The Teachers’ Observation Schedule (TOS) was intended to
capture teacher practices in their teaching by documenting the lesson phases, activities, and
engagement. The researchers filled the TOS as they physically observed teachers’ lessons.
Altogether seventy-six lessons were observed among the same number of teachers. The
researchers entered their accurate observation of what transpired in the classroom on the TOS.

Pupils’ Interview Guide. The Pupils’ Interview Guide was intended to capture pupils’ views
on their schooling. It consisted of four sections: Section A was on demographic information;
Section B was on School information; Section C was on school culture and environment; and
Section D was on teachers’ instructional practices. There were probe questions for some of the
items. The items were read to the pupils and the responses entered into the open spaces in the
interview guide. The interviews were conducted in the most convenient space available in the
school free from distractions and interruptions lasted on average about 45 minutes each.

Parents and Community Interview Guide. The Parents and Community Interview Guide was
intended to capture parents and community views about the state of primary education in their
school. It consisted of a total of 24 items in four sections. Section A was on demographic
information (two items); Section B was on school information (six items); Section C was on
school environment and performance (five items); and Section D was on school culture and
practices (11 items). There were probe questions for most of the items. There were probe
questions for some of the items. The items were read to the interviewees and the responses
entered into the open spaces in the interview guide. The interviews were conducted in the most

32
convenient place available outside the school, such as home that was free from distractions
and interruptions lasted on average about 45 minutes each.

Deputy Principal Outreach Interview Guide. The Deputy Principal Outreach Interview Guide
was intended to capture information from deputy principals in charge of outreach’s views
about the state of primary education in their catchments area and the school environment. It
consisted of a total of 24 items in four sections. Section A was on demographic information
(two items); Section B was on school information (six items); Section C was on school
environment and performance (five items); and Section D was on school culture and practices
(11 items). There were probe questions for some of the items. There were probe questions for
some of the items. The items were read to the interviewees and the responses entered into the
open spaces in the interview guide. The interview was conducted in the DPOs office and
lasted about one hour.

Profile of Primary Schools Performance 1982 – 2007. The Profile of Primary School
Performance 1982 – 2007 was the data obtained from the Uganda National examinations
Board (UNEB) database for each of the four examinable subjects, namely English,
Mathematics, Science and Social Studies for the period 1982-2007 indicating both the grades
pupils obtained and the summary of the division passes obtained by candidates in each school
each year. The data for the study schools were generated form the UNEB database over a
period of three weeks.

Checklist of teaching and learning Materials and Resources. A checklist was used to gather
information on the status of the schools’ infrastructure and teaching and learning resources. It
consisted of 22 items on availability and quality of the teaching and learning materials and
furniture in the schools. The checklist was filled by the researchers as they made observation
within the school environment and in the classrooms they made lesson observations.

2.5 Reliability and Validity Measures

The interview instruments were judged according to positivist criteria of credibility,

transferability, dependability and conformability (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994). The data collected
were further interrogated, strengthened and supported through near similar criteria suggested

33
by Lincoln and Guba (1985) as: credibility; triangulation, through the use of different data
sources and various methods of data collection to confirm similarities and differences in data;
peer debriefing, through discussion of their findings between the principal researchers; study
members checks, by checking observations and inferences with respondents’ confirmation and
correction of data; and negative case analysis, through including counter examples, alternative
views and dominant positions. These criteria were adhered to in the conduct of the research.

2.6 Procedure

The researchers worked as a team to understand the literature on effective schools and
effective teachers in order to prepare the framework for the interviews and observations that
enabled us write the questionnaire and the interview guides and to refine our own interview
techniques. Research assistants were trained so that they had similar approaches to data
collection approaches in each school. In each district the study involved contacting the DEOs
office to introduce the project and to seek permission to visit schools in the district. The DEOs
were interviewed following interview guide in Appendix A. The possible study schools were
identified. In each school-visit contact was made with the head teacher to spell out the purpose
of the study, explain what would be involved in school visit and adherence to research ethics
of confidentiality and anonymity that would be followed throughout the study, in the data
collection and reporting. Research assistants made plans with the head teachers for the visits to
each school. Interviews were conducted with the head teachers using the interview guide in
Appendix B, with teachers of P.3, P.5 and P.7 using the interview guide in Appendix C, and
with the pupils of P.3, P.5 and P.7 using interview guide in Appendix D, and with the parents
or community members using interview guide in Appendix E. The teachers also completed a
Teachers’ Questionnaire on Primary Schools on their perceptions and practices in Appendix F,
Observation was conducted in at least one class in each school with the assistance of the
Observation Guide in Appendix G. The research assistants also filled the checklist of the
materials available in each class visited with the help of the Checklist in Appendix H. During
the school visits the researchers wrote field notes of the interviews and observations. These
field notes provided the basis for the study report and discussion.

34
UNEB was requested to avail pupils achievement records for the last quarter a century from
their database that the accepted to do readily. The UNEB data obtained was analyzed to give
the trends of the performance of the schools under study in the main subject examinable,
namely English, Mathematics, Science and Social Studies.

2.7 Data Analysis

The qualitative data analysis in this study followed an interpretive approach guided by
grounded theory perspective that sought to distinguish the processes that explain what was
happening in a social setting (Strauss & Corbin, 1990, 1994) was followed. The interview and
observation data were analysed using the constant comparative method (Merriam, 1998; Miles
& Huberman, 1994; Strauss & Corbin, 1990, 1994). According to Merriam (1998), when using
the constant comparative approach:

The researcher begins with a particular incident from an interview, field-notes, or

document and compares it with another incident in the same data or in another set.
These comparisons lead to tentative categories that are then compared to each other
and to other instances (Merriam, 1998, p. 159).

Key concepts, events, phenomena, incidents and ideas were identified from the data through
open coding. All the data were manually coded. Open coding involved the naming the
phenomena or concepts that give meaning to the data collected. Substantive ‘in vivo’ codes,
derived from the verbatim words that the participants used were identified as giving meaning
to the same data were used where necessary. Questions were generated continuously from the
data and one concept was compared with another and each interview script was probed against
alternative sources of the same information. As new ideas emerged further comparisons were
made. Assorted formulations of categories were derived.

The quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics through the use of frequency
counts, percentages, means and standard deviations using the Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS) version 15.

35
 CHAPTER THREE
THE FINDINGS

This section provides the results of the study that investigated the challenges and problems of
primary education in the Teso region of Uganda. Question 1: What is the trend of
performances in primary schools in the Teso region for the last 26 years? (How does the Teso
region primary school effectiveness data compare in your school over the last 26 years?).

1. Trend of Performance in Primary Schools

Table 2 shows the trends of the PLE performance in percentages by divisions over the last
quarter of a century ranging from 1982-2007 for the schools that were used in this study
within the two regions. The number of pupils entered for examinations appear to be declining,
but remain high, contrary to expectation that they should be rising because of the huge
enrolment under Universal Primary Education (UPE) programme. In both regions the majority
of the pupils obtained division 2 pass, which is not good enough for entry into some of the top
secondary schools in the country. However, the good thing is that the number of ungraded
pupils in both regions is declining. The schools in Teso region had only between 1.3% and
12.4% pupils in division 1 and passed candidates with over 10% in division 1 in four years
over this period. In contrast, in Busoga region the pupils in division 1 ranged from 9.1% to
38.5% of the total candidates entered. There were more pupils entered for examination in the
Busoga region than in the Teso region despite the fact that there were more schools (24) used
in Teso region against eight schools in the Busoga region for the study. There was relatively
better performance of pupils in the Teso region in the 1980s and a decline set in from 1990.
These results are disaggregated into the component subjects in the next section so as to show
the contribution of each subject to this global result. One possible explanation for these
differences is the difference in the number of candidiates that are enrolled in the two regions.
The way that teachers are committed to their work in Busoga may help their doing
comparatively better.

36
Table 2: PLE PERFORMANCE TRENDS IN PERIOD 1982 – 2007 BY GRADING
DIVISIONS

Year TESO REGION BUSOGA REGION

GRADES BY DIVISIONS (%) GRADES BY DIVISIONS (%)
1 2 3 4 U ABS TOT 1 2 3 4 U ABS TOT
1982 10.5 38.9 14.6 15.8 0.2 19.9 1253 18.3 33.7 15.7 15.4 0 16.9 338
1983 6.2 45.7 16.9 12.0 0 19.1 1365 9.1 46.9 16.8 10.6 0 16.6 595
1984 10.7 43.6 13.5 18.6 5.5 8.1 1155 16.1 45.3 9.8 13.2 8.4 7.2 583
1985 7.2 34.6 15.3 20.3 10.2 12.4 1201 18.3 38.4 9.2 12.5 12.7 8.9 575
1986 2.1 34.4 9.8 20.3 14.5 18.9 1150 18.9 42.1 8.8 13.6 9.7 7.2 487
1987 9.7 37.1 9.3 9.1 18.8 16.1 485 12.6 40.0 11.1 16.2 11.6 8.4 628
1988 12.4 46.8 13.7 13.0 11.7 2.3 299 16.9 46.1 14.1 13.0 9.7 0.2 462
1989 10.0 43.6 11.7 18.9 8.5 7.3 752 23.3 40.4 10.7 14.9 4.8 6.0 503
1990 5.7 46.8 11.6 19.0 9.6 7.3 899 22.8 34.6 11.0 15.8 9.6 6.2 500
1991 5.3 47.6 14.4 15.0 15.2 2.4 374 30.2 39.8 9.0 10.5 5.7 4.8 334
1992 8.4 38.3 15.2 17.8 15.9 4.5 1098 27.7 29.0 10.0 14.0 12.9 6.4 549
1993 8.7 37.8 20.3 17.7 11.7 3.7 1006 33.5 29.3 13.1 8.7 11.4 4.0 597
1994 3.7 35.2 16.1 23.3 15.1 6.6 1023 35.4 26.9 8.0 13.3 7.8 8.7 540
1995 2.2 29.0 19.3 30.4 14.1 4.9 871 34.8 34.3 9.8 10.6 6.5 4.0 632
1996 3.2 39.0 16.4 21.0 12.0 8.4 1053 29.4 28.6 9.4 14.4 11.0 8.7 625
1997 4.9 44.6 17.5 20.8 10.2 1.9 1153 28.0 29.3 14.8 16.8 9.7 4.0 690
1998 2.5 29.5 19.7 26.5 17.7 4.1 1482 22.1 24.5 14.8 19.4 11.7 7.0 815
1999 3.2 35.5 14.9 28.6 14.4 3.4 1517 27.6 33.6 6.6 12.6 2.6 1.4 776
2000 1.3 33.8 23.6 19.9 16.1 5.3 1525 22.9 27.9 9.9 13.4 20.7 7.5 816
2001 2.2 49.8 23.2 11.7 9.8 3.2 1250 27.2 31.8 14.9 10.6 11.6 17.0 852
2002 4.7 56.9 18.0 7.6 8.3 4.5 1390 33.4 32.3 12.5 5.5 10.7 5.1 1034
2003 7.8 53.1 14.8 8.3 5.8 10.2 1117 33.4 33.9 11.8 7.5 9.5 3.9 918
2004 4.9 58.5 14.8 10.5 5.5 5.8 1324 38.5 38.0 9.5 7.4 3.6 3.0 839
2005 1.9 55.0 24.0 10.6 5.4 3.2 1286 23.7 49.4 14.8 5.4 2.8 3.9 1012
2006 5.0 66.7 17.2 5.1 2.8 3.3 1270 31.2 45.0 14.4 4.3 1.9 3.3 1043
2007 8.0 65.2 17.8 5.6 2.5 0.9 1116 33.2 49.5 9.7 2.7 2.8 2.1 960

Legend: 1 = Div 1, 2 = Div 2, 3 = Div 4, U = Ungraded, and ABS = Absent

Table 3 shows the trend of performance in the PLE in the two regions in English over a 25-
year period, 1982 – 2007. Throughout this report the grades are indicated as they are recorded
in the national examinations but as percentages. The grades have been combined as follows: D
stands for D1 or D2, C stands for C3 or C4 or C5 or C6, P stands for P7 or P8, an F stands for
F9 (Fail) and an ABS stands for Absent from the examination. However, these results were
not disaggregated by gender and school location that can be done at a later stage. Furthermore,
Table 2 indicates that there are differences in the number of pupils who obtain the various
grades in the two regions and within the Teso region in English. There is a discrepancy
between the numbers of pupils who obtained D-grades between the two regions. In the Teso
region the percentages range from 0.2 to 13.7 and the percentage exceeded 10 of the

37
candidates entered in only three years. Meanwhile in the Busoga region the percentage are all
in double digits except in 1985 and ranges from 6.8 to 37.6. The number of pupils who did not
sit the examination is nearly the same except for Teso in the year 1987 that was exceptionally
high for the subject. There are more pupils who failed English in the Teso region than in the
Busoga region. One possible explanation for these differences is the amount of contact time
that teachers give to the students and the support that are given to the teachers.

Table 3: PLE PERFORMANCE IN ENGLISH OVER THE YEARS 1982 – 2007 BY

GRADES

Year TESO REGION BUSOGA REGION

GRADES (%) GRADES (%)
D C P F ABS TOT D C P F ABS TOT
1982 8.6 60.0 15.6 7.2 8.5 1229 19.6 47.7 20.1 4.8 7.8 373
1983 8.6 59.2 11.7 14.9 5.6 1346 18.1 51.8 16.0 7.7 6.5 742
1984 10.1 59.8 6.9 14.8 8.5 1254 19.3 52.0 10.5 9.0 9.2 631
1985 4.9 52.2 12.5 19.0 11.3 1298 6.8 54.7 13.9 15.0 9.5 618
1986 5.3 48.8 14.1 16.0 15.7 1159 16.3 45.7 18.4 13.9 5.7 527
1987 6.5 47.9 11.1 8.9 25.7 495 16.4 45.3 21.6 10.5 6.2 707
1988 13.7 62.7 12.9 10.7 0 410 10.5 54.8 22.2 12.5 0 504
1989 13.7 58.1 10.6 14.2 3.5 776 23.0 51.3 16.5 4.1 5.0 556
1990 8.8 60.3 13.7 12.5 4.7 963 27.6 42.6 15.2 8.8 5.7 453
1991 3.6 50.2 26.7 17.5 2.0 663 35.3 38.1 18.1 4.4 4.2 360
1992 9.7 51.6 19.5 14.9 4.2 1102 27.2 39.4 13.7 13.1 6.6 518
1993 8.0 47.5 26.0 15.0 3.5 1030 29.0 44.5 11.5 10.8 4.2 566
1994 8.2 55.1 16.2 16.3 4.3 1003 25.0 44.9 16.4 7.9 5.8 572
1995 3.7 50.7 23.3 17.9 4.5 873 37.6 39.5 13.8 6.0 3.1 585
1996 3.4 52.4 20.8 20.5 3.0 1113 28.2 34.3 20.5 15.3 1.7 659
1997 0.8 50.9 23.2 23.0 2.1 1164 20.1 46.4 18.6 13.4 1.5 681
1998 1.7 48.1 23.8 22.2 4.2 1676 14.2 47.4 19.9 15.3 3.1 797
1999 1.3 44.6 21.1 31.3 1.7 1542 20.1 43.6 13.4 20.7 2.3 783
2000 0.2 41.3 29.2 24.1 5.3 1534 16.0 40.0 12.9 26.3 4.8 792
2001 4.8 55.2 25.7 11.0 3.2 1251 30.4 36.1 18.2 11.5 3.7 861
2002 3.8 62.4 18.1 11.1 4.5 1407 32.8 32.7 16.3 11.9 6.3 923
2003 9.1 60.7 12.3 7.7 10.2 1112 30.6 40.2 15.3 10.1 3.8 941
2004 4.9 62.4 15.0 12.0 5.7 1326 37.1 40.3 11.9 7.8 2.9 862
2005 2.9 71.2 17.0 5.8 3.2 1297 26.5 50.2 16.5 3.2 3.6 1074
2006 4.1 74.0 14.2 4.5 3.2 1293 28.7 49.7 15.4 4.0 2.2 1077
2007 5.8 81.1 9.1 3.0 1.0 1251 34.0 48.5 12.6 2.4 2.5 1025

Legend: D = Distinctions 1 & 2, C = Credits 3, 4, 5, & 6, P = Passes 7 & 8, F = Fail 9 and ABS = Absent

Table 4 shows the trend of performance in the PLE in the two regions in Mathematics over a
25-year period, 1982 – 2007. Table 4 demonstrates that there are differences in the number of
pupils who obtain the various grades in the two regions and there are differences in grades
within the region in Mathematics. There are comparable numbers of pupils who were absent

38
from examinations in the two regions. In the Teso region the percentage of the distinction
passes continue to be in single digits except in 1988 and ranges from 0.1 to 10.0. Meanwhile
in the Busoga region the percentage of pupils scoring distinction passes are mostly in double
digits, except for four years (1982, 1983, 1998 & 2005) and ranges from 6.7 to 23.6. There
were more pupils who failed Mathematics in the Teso region than in Busoga region. The
Busoga region returned out more credit passes ranging between 28.4 and 54.1 than the Teso
region that recorded credit passes ranging between 16.5 and 50.0. In 1995 the Teso region
failed half (50%) of its pupils. One possible explanation for the differences my relate to the
displacement of communities due to cattle rustling that occasioned the year in the eastern and
north-eastern Teso region.

Table 4: PLE PERFORMANCE IN MATHEMATICS OVER THE YEARS 1982 - 2007

BY GRADES

Year TESO REGION BUSOGA REGION

GRADES (%) GRADES (%)
D C P F ABS TOT D C P F ABS TOT
1982 7.1 38.6 15.7 31.4 7.2 1190 8.3 43.5 10.1 29.6 8.6 338
1983 3.2 37.7 17.2 36.7 5.2 1352 6.7 42.2 16.0 27.7 7.4 661
1984 7.8 39.6 15.3 30.4 6.9 1237 12.8 43.9 12.5 21.6 9.3 602
1985 3.2 28.7 18.1 39.4 10.5 1306 14.1 43.0 15.0 19.3 8.7 575
1986 2.3 34.5 13.8 33.7 15.7 1129 14.0 47.6 12.7 19.7 6.0 487
1987 5.6 40.0 12.4 18.6 23.5 468 10.2 40.9 16.7 24.8 7.3 628
1988 10.0 47.2 16.3 26.5 0 411 13.8 48.4 16.5 18.1 3.1 508
1989 6.2 44.9 17.7 28.0 3.2 761 16.1 43.8 13.9 19.9 6.2 502
1990 3.2 45.2 21.6 25.1 4.9 951 15.3 36.6 17.3 25.4 5.4 445
1991 2.0 39.1 22.4 34.5 2.1 653 14.4 50.2 14.4 16.5 4.5 333
1992 4.3 41.3 24.5 25.6 4.3 1091 17.4 34.6 18.7 23.1 6.2 546
1993 4.8 32.3 27.6 32.5 2.8 1019 22.9 34.7 17.4 20.9 4.0 597
1994 1.3 25.4 30.0 39.0 4.3 995 23.6 32.8 16.9 20.6 6.1 539
1995 1.0 16.5 29.2 50.3 2.9 865 18.0 39.8 18.5 20.8 2.8 610
1996 2.2 22.7 34.0 38.3 2.8 1090 18.5 28.8 24.0 27.0 1.7 653
1997 3.4 32.2 30.2 32.3 1.8 1148 19.6 31.6 23.8 23.6 1.4 690
1998 1.0 26.1 19.7 48.9 4.3 1629 7.6 34.7 16.3 38.3 3.1 815
1999 0.9 34.5 22.9 40.0 1.6 1517 12.4 46.0 10.4 28.9 2.3 776
2000 0.1 26.5 43.0 25.5 5.1 1504 12.6 28.4 28.7 25.1 5.1 816
2001 0.2 25.1 52.9 18.9 3.0 1249 12.1 36.2 28.4 19.6 3.8 852
2002 1.6 46.9 36.7 10.3 4.5 1368 23.0 37.0 25.7 7.9 6.4 901
2003 2.5 38.3 37.7 12.0 9.4 1080 21.5 37.3 25.1 11.6 4.6 909
2004 0.8 45.6 36.6 11.3 5.7 1306 18.6 50.4 22.9 5.1 3.0 839
2005 0.3 23.4 53.0 20.1 3.2 1301 7.0 43.0 38.5 7.6 3.9 1012
2006 1.4 42.0 42.9 10.5 3.2 1339 14.6 48.1 29.3 5.7 2.3 1038
2007 1.6 50.0 41.0 6.3 1.2 1188 14.1 54.1 24.2 5.0 2.6 986

Legend: D = Distinctions 1 & 2, C = Credits 3, 4, 5, & 6, P = Passes 7 & 8, F = Fail 9 and ABS = Absent

39
Table 5 shows the trend of performance in the PLE in the two regions in Science over a 26-
year period, 1982 – 2007. The PLE performance trends in Science are shown in Table 4. An
examination of Table 5 indicates that there are differences in the number of pupils who obtain
the various grades in the two regions and differences in grades within the region in Science.
The pupils in Busoga region performed better than those in Teso region scoring more
distinctions in all years except in 1983, 1987 and 1988 and the distinction grades ranging
between 3.2 and 38.2 in Busoga and ranging between 0.6 and 9.5 in Teso. There are
comparable number of failures in both regions ranging between 1.7 and 20.5 in Teso and
ranging between 2.0 and 25.1 in Busoga. Overall it is clear that the performance of pupils in
the Teso region is poorer than that in Busoga region.

Table 5: PLE PERFORMANCE IN SCIENCE OVER THE YEARS 1982 – 2007 BY

GRADES

Year TESO REGION BUSOGA REGION

GRADES (%) GRADES (%)
D C P F ABS TOT D C P F ABS TOT
1982 6.5 55.2 16.5 13.1 8.7 1048 11.6 59.5 16.5 8.3 4.1 121
1983 5.1 58.9 15.4 15.1 5.5 1373 3.2 60.8 16.6 11.8 7.6 661
1984 5.7 59.6 13.3 13.9 7.6 1256 6.0 60.6 13.2 11.1 9.0 612
1985 3.6 51.3 13.5 20.5 11.1 1352 14.1 54.3 7.8 14.3 9.5 538
1986 2.2 46.9 13.7 18.3 18.8 1158 14.6 57.5 11.1 10.9 6.0 487
1987 7.9 50.4 7.2 7.6 26.9 484 7.3 55.7 15.3 14.7 7.0 627
1988 5.3 70.7 12.5 11.5 0 399 4.3 65.3 17.4 12.8 0.2 461
1989 8.6 57.5 15.7 14.9 3.3 778 15.9 54.9 12.1 11.3 5.8 503
1990 3.5 63.6 16.2 11.6 5.0 962 12.6 52.4 15.1 14.6 5.4 445
1991 3.9 55.5 26.7 11.7 2.3 660 23.7 48.2 17.4 6.3 4.5 334
1992 9.4 48.8 18.5 19.1 4.2 1096 22.3 44.7 15.0 11.7 6.3 539
1993 8.1 58.5 19.7 10.1 3.5 1015 20.3 48.9 16.6 10.2 4.1 591
1994 5.2 48.0 23.4 19.2 4.3 1005 34.4 33.5 12.0 13.7 6.3 540
1995 5.0 48.3 32.5 11.5 2.8 862 31.1 51.5 11.1 3.3 3.0 610
1996 2.8 47.8 26.1 20.4 3.0 1116 17.9 41.7 17.5 21.2 1.7 633
1997 3.0 64.4 20.1 10.3 2.2 1155 22.2 44.6 19.4 12.3 1.4 690
1998 3.7 58.0 20.4 13.6 4.3 1737 17.2 44.8 16.5 18.5 3.0 831
1999 0.6 50.9 26.6 20.2 1.7 1542 15.3 53.7 12.1 16.4 2.4 776
2000 1.7 52.0 21.8 19.4 5.2 1553 20.8 36.0 13.0 25.1 5.0 816
2001 5.4 59.6 22.0 9.9 3.1 1261 29.1 39.9 13.8 13.4 3.8 849
2002 4.6 70.9 12.8 7.2 4.6 1377 26.9 40.5 13.0 13.0 6.5 891
2003 5.0 63.7 14.6 6.5 10.2 1113 28.9 45.1 12.2 9.9 3.9 918
2004 9.5 63.3 16.2 5.3 5.7 1325 38.2 42.1 10.9 5.9 2.9 862
2005 4.2 73.1 15.8 3.6 3.1 1296 24.9 59.4 9.8 2.1 3.9 1012
2006 6.9 80.0 8.3 1.7 3.2 1332 30.1 56.1 9.5 2.0 2.3 1040
2007 8.9 76.3 10.9 2.8 1.1 1197 27.5 58.8 8.1 3.0 2.7 978

Legend: D = Distinctions 1 & 2, C = Credits 3, 4, 5, & 6, P = Passes 7 & 8, F = Fail 9 and ABS = Absent

40
Table 6 shows the trend of performance in the PLE in the two regions in Social Studies over a
26-year period, 1982 – 2007. An examination of Table 6 for the PLE performance in Social
Studies (SST) indicates that there is a sinusoidal curve of percentage performance in both
regions. The distinction passes in the Teso region are ranging between 2.1 and 9.9, while in
the Busoga region the range was between 2.7 and 36.9 distinction passes. The Teso region has
more credit passes ranging between 42.6 and 83.0, while in the Busoga region credit passes
ranged between 33.2 and 67.7. There were similar numbers of failures in both regions. These
findings are contrary to the dominant position of the DEOs, head teachers and the teachers that
the best done subject is usually SST. The explanation for the similar performance in SST
cannot be ascribed to common factors: a complexity of subject, school, pupil and teacher
characteristics could be involved, calling for further investigation.

Table 6: PLE PERFORMANCE IN SOCIAL STUDIES OVER THE YEARS 1982 –

2007 BY GRADES

Year TESO REGION BUSOGA REGION

GRADES (%) GRADES (%)
D C P F ABS TOT D C P F ABS TOT
1982 5.2 59.4 14.7 15.5 5.2 251 5.0 45.3 23.9 13.9 11.9 201
1983 5.2 58.4 17.0 13.7 5.7 1364 2.7 64.5 15.5 9.5 7.7 660
1984 4.9 59.5 15.6 12.9 7.2 1254 13.3 56.3 11.1 10.0 9.3 592
1985 2.8 50.8 12.9 22.4 11.1 1326 9.7 53.9 11.3 16.7 8.5 575
1986 1.8 42.6 16.7 23.4 15.5 1139 8.8 58.9 12.3 13.8 6.2 487
1987 9.9 44.6 10.5 8.3 26.7 484 7.2 49.5 17.1 18.4 7.7 608
1988 7.7 65.4 12.5 14.4 0 416 13.2 60.6 14.1 12.1 0 462
1989 3.7 54.1 21.1 17.7 3.4 762 13.1 58.8 13.9 8.5 5.6 503
1990 2.2 52.9 21.8 18.6 4.5 953 13.7 48.2 17.3 13.1 7.7 444
1991 2.5 62.7 19.5 13.2 2.1 668 14.1 67.7 8.4 5.1 4.8 334
1992 3.7 46.5 25.5 20.1 4.1 1097 18.2 39.1 19.9 16.4 6.4 548
1993 3.7 62.1 19.7 11.1 3.4 1032 29.4 42.5 15.8 8.2 4.0 595
1994 2.8 46.5 33.2 13.6 3.9 1001 20.4 45.6 15.7 12.0 6.3 540
1995 2.3 45.1 37.9 11.8 2.9 871 31.8 49.3 11.3 4.8 2.8 610
1996 6.5 58.8 21.5 10.1 3.1 1106 30.7 38.0 15.1 14.5 1.7 635
1997 9.2 68.2 14.6 6.2 1.8 1170 27.2 48.7 14.6 8.0 1.4 690
1998 2.8 57.6 23.3 12.3 4.0 1616 15.8 50.2 16.3 14.6 3.1 815
1999 8.9 66.6 12.1 10.8 1.6 1524 34.7 38.9 12.4 11.9 2.2 776
2000 2.1 62.0 17.6 13.0 5.4 1504 22.7 44.0 15.9 12.3 5.1 798
2001 7.9 67.9 12.6 8.4 3.1 1250 28.5 43.7 12.3 11.6 3.9 852
2002 5.2 68.2 13.6 8.5 4.5 1387 37.1 32.2 12.8 11.5 6.4 901
2003 8.2 65.7 12.0 4.0 10.1 1104 34.6 40.3 12.5 8.6 3.9 915
2004 7.0 72.1 10.5 4.7 5.7 1324 36.9 47.8 8.1 4.2 3.0 839
2005 2.3 74.0 15.4 5.3 3.0 1295 19.8 61.9 9.7 4.8 3.9 1012
2006 4.2 83.0 7.3 2.3 3.2 1320 28.1 57.4 9.4 2.8 2.4 1044
2007 6.8 77.0 12.0 3.1 1.1 1198 30.0 58.9 6.2 2.2 2.7 981

Legend: D = Distinctions 1 & 2, C = Credits 3, 4, 5, & 6, P = Passes 7 & 8, F = Fail 9 and ABS = Absent

41
Overall, the 25-year PLE performance in Teso is dismally poor, with the bulk of PLE
candidates scoring at lower “credit” and “pass” levels in all subjects, presenting a significant
negative skewness in performance. The few distinctions, accounting for below 10% of
enrolment each of the years, were often distinction 2: confirming poor achievement and
quality primary education performance in the region. The corresponding performance in
Busoga region is much more superior, with the proportion of candidates scoring at distinction
level being at least three times higher than that in the Teso region, with only a few exceptions.
The only notable concern in the Busoga PLE results is a relatively higher absenteeism of
candidates from examinations, especially in mathematics and science: a matter calling for
further investigation. The regional differences communicate possible school-, pupil,
community and teacher-based factors as likely reasons for poor performance in the Teso
region.

(a) School-based factors

The study team explored a range of school-related factors using interviews among head
teachers, teachers, pupils and parents. A comprehensive check-list and observation guided
were also used to elicit information about availability of various infrastructures, teaching
materials and the general layout of the school and how teaching and learning activities are
programmed and coordinated. We particularly noted a discrepancy between urban and rural
schools in both regions in terms of most the key features of school organisation, with Teso
trailing in comparison to Busoga in many respects.

Infrastructure in most primary schools is in place: it is a matter of its adequacy for the large
class enrolments. Most primary schools in both regions were designed for no more than fifty
pupils, but are now housing between 80 and over 100 pupils. For example, a school in
Kaberamaido had a class being taught under a tree; the school has no playing field for pupils
and a latrine block constructed a few years back collapsed due to shoddy work by contractors.
All the primary school classrooms have (very crowded) desks, with hardly any provision for a
teacher’s desk or table. None of the schools had any form of storage facility for teaching
materials within a classroom setting. This means that the teachers carried every lesson

42
requirements themselves, which we observed to be basic items like chalk, a rug for a duster,
and a few sheets of lesson notes. Not a single school in Teso had a library or reading space for
children out of class. There were hardly any schools with charts for teaching. Only three out of
the twenty-four primary schools in Teso had some chart displays, as opposed to four out of
eight schools in the Busoga region. The older schools started in the 1960s and 1970s had
challenges of disrepair, with leaking classrooms reported in both regions. Overall urban,
boarding schools presented better infrastructure and its use, than day schools. For instance,
one day school in Soroti, located in a slum environment, needed to be fenced so as to
safeguard it from the vices of its environment, amidst reports by teachers and pupils that used-
condoms were sometimes found in its classrooms and compound and had non-lockable
classrooms. We are arguing that limited infrastructure, lack of it, and or its poor state are
incompatible with an enabling teaching and learning environment, and negatively impact on
students’ achievement.

Availability of learning materials. Learning materials are central to effective teaching and
learning that require wide and equitable availability of learning materials. In many schools in
the Teso region this is not the case. Most pupils in the Teso region acknowledged accessibility
of basic learning materials, but pointed out that it was their parents and guardians who bore
the responsibility to provide these materials, at a cost. One of the indicators of materials’
accessibility used in the study was the number of exercise books per subject each pupil in a
primary school had. It was clear that among boarding primary schools, (there were a total of 4
in the study in Teso region), more than 80% of the pupils reported having 3 exercise books per
subject. This sub-group of pupils explained the use of the 3 exercise books as being: one
exercise book for each of (1) class work and notes, (2) homework and tests (3) remedial work
given by teachers. But, privileged pupils in rural schools had one exercise book per subject to
cater for class work, notes, assignments and any revision work assigned by the teacher, others
(often one third of the class or more, had a couple of exercise books for all the subjects. This
shows a significant limitation on exercise books per subject compared to the boarding-based
pupils. When probed, the pupils pointed to poverty of their parents and caregivers as the
limiting factor to affordability of exercise of books.

43
The second indicator we used to map-out accessibility of learning materials to pupils was
availability of any reading materials at home. In Teso region, out of the 150 pupils contacted
in the study, only nine acknowledged that they had extra reading material (books for primary
subjects, some newspapers and a Bible) available at their homes. This situation calls for urgent
attention, including the rethinking of policies governing production and distribution of
textbooks and other learning materials and the training of teachers in how to use learning
materials more effectively, in line with good teaching practice. For nineteen out of 24 schools
in Teso, providing every pupil with a complete set of textbooks is only an ‘ideal target’. The
Busoga region had a slightly better advantage over Teso, arising from offers by parents (the
majority of whom were reported as economically able) to provide financial resources for
purchase of text books for teachers and pupils. One primary school out of the eight visited in
the region had a small (but available) reading space for pupils, constructed by parents.
Generally for the Teso region, accurate data on textbook availability was often scarce or
nonexistent. The lack of textbooks in classrooms appears to be a result of an inefficient
distribution system, not a shortage of resources.

(b) Teacher-based factors

Our findings on the theme of pedagogical competence of teachers and teacher development in
the Teso region were that:
i. Undesirable teaching practices persist. The teachers use a lot of drill, and are
authoritarian, hence inhibiting intellectual and collaborative learning development
among pupils.
ii. The teaching practices could be described as following a rigid, chalk-and-talk,
teacher centred/dominated, lecture-driven pedagogy or rote learning. Such
pedagogy places pupils in a passive role, limiting their activity to memorizing facts
and reciting them to the teacher. It is also reflected in classroom assessment
practices.
iii. These teaching practices are the norm in the vast majority of classrooms in both
Teso and Busoga regions alike.

44
Time-on-task as a component of teacher factors investigated, relates to intended instructional
time. The study noted that the maximum amount of time set out in national curriculum
statements is not the same as actual learning time. Our investigations, supported by statements
from District Education Officials in the districts studied reveal disparities between intended
instruction time, actual time allocated in schools, the time learners spend actually learning
(time on task) and the time they spend on academic tasks (academic learning time outside the
classroom). The amount of time decreases from the first to the fourth of these categories,
especially in schools in poor communities. The study team noted that considerable amounts of
time allocated for instruction are lost because of teacher and learner absenteeism, classroom
shortages and lack of learning materials, as well as more universal phenomena such as lack of
discipline and difficulty in maintaining learners’ attention, poor reading culture among pupils
and teachers alike, and parental retention of pupils to do home chores like gardening and baby-
sitting. Pupils also cited seasonal school activities such as sports and music competition
among schools occasionally taking a chunk of learning time, often for a couple of weeks.

For example, in one school in Soroti district, teachers were noted to group themselves into
two: one half teaches while the other half go to their gardens; the next time, they switch the
roles. Among other effects (like lack of effective preparation in resultant delegation of
teaching, there is gross negligence of duty involved. Loss of instructional time and
commitment to professional roles deserves a high degree of attention, as it is a major
constraint on improving quality. It can be remedied, however, primarily through better school
management and organization and more effective teaching strategies, both of which were
lacking in most schools in the rural locations in both regions. The driving force to observed
lack of commitment by teachers to teaching was reported by teachers themselves as accruing
from poor remuneration, lack of accommodation for teachers and poor motivation. The district
education officials interviewed, including parents, attributed poor teacher performance and
absenteeism to inadequate monitoring by head teachers and by Directorate of Education
Standards (DES) - the Inspectorate arm of the Ministry of Education and Sports.

Assessment practice in primary schools as part of teacher-based factor was found to be

summative assessment. It is often used to determine whether students are stable academically,

45
doing better, or deteriorating. This usually relies on one-off examinations. The option for a
continuous assessment, which is a combination of summative and formative assessments,
appeared unexplored by all the primary schools studied. This situation is partly attributable to
lack of understanding on the part of teachers about formative assessment, but also reflects the
pressure of external summative assessment of UNEB’s PLE examination at primary seven
level on teaching and learning. Moreover, effective formative assessment requires adequate
resources, teachers trained in assessment techniques and relatively small class sizes –
requirements which do not fit the realities in all the thirty two schools investigated in this
study. The study observed that some head teachers and teachers have very limited knowledge
about assessment and various modes of examining and grading their pupils; and do not apply
appropriate evaluation system in grading end of term results. This contributes to overall poor
assessment by teachers and inadequate monitoring by head teachers.

(c) Parent-Community factors

Communications with the Community: Seventy five percent of parents contacted feel there is
lack of communication between the school and community about student programs and
services. This compares with 10% who feel communication is adequate and 15% who are
uncertain. Furthermore, 51% of teachers say that many parents have very low expectations for
their children, or have absolutely no idea or interest on what the schooling process will entail
for their children. The district education officials have a strong view that there should be
greater emphasis on writing in all subjects and at all grade levels as a means to bolster a
reading and writing culture, alongside developing analytical skills among pupils.

Eighty two percent of teachers would like their respective districts to create programs to
encourage parents to become more involved in the education of their children. The study
interviewed pupils to elicit their perceptions and experiences of how their academic
performance could be enhanced. Provision of school fees, school uniform, study materials and
supply of basic necessities (shoes, slippers, under wear, sanitaries and basic cosmetics) were
top of the list among all pupils in the two regions. Pupils from Teso region, especially girls in
Primary 5 and 7, added the need for tender care, love and the provision of regular
encouragement as important aspects of parental support. Pupils in both regions within

46
boarding school environments were particularly sentimental on parental love and attention,
given that they had only one visitation per term. The pupils in this situation expressed being
emotionally affected when a parent or guardian failed to turn-up on a visitation.

In Busoga region, six out of eight schools studied acknowledged existence of a Parent-
Teachers’ Association (PTA), to which parents of all pupils made monetary as well as other
good-will gestures such as active participation in school development activities. A fraction of
the PTA funds are apportioned to teachers as salary top-up every month. This acts as a boost
of teacher morale, and potentially impacts performance.

All district education officials in the eight districts studied expressed a liking for more
integrated approaches to teaching, in which teachers from different subject matter areas work
together as teachers, but in close partnership with parents on a regular basis towards a holistic
approach to socializing children to taking schooling and learning seriously.

Question 2: To what extent does the school infrastructure and environment meet the
demands of school activities?

(a) Curriculum Related factors

The study noted four key curriculum-related concerns in the primary schools in the whole
Teso region as pointed out by the District Education Officials and the Deputy Principal of
Teachers’ College in charge of out reach. These are:

1. The teachers do not adequately understand the primary school syllabus provided by the
National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC) both in terms of scope and
conceptual demands.
2. Teachers therefore, do not accurately interpret the syllabus, leading to sub-standard
teaching activities and learning experiences among pupils.
3. Teacher guides from NCDC are also incomprehensible to teachers and some head
teachers, contributing to failed lesson plans and schemes of work.

47
 4. The poor conditions under which the teachers work do not allow them sufficient time
to prepare schemes of work, lesson planning, and conduct of all lessons in a
comprehensive manner. This leads to poor curriculum management and
incompleteness.

The District Education Officials acknowledged that inappropriate introduction and

dissemination of curricula techniques by both the Ministry of Education and Sports, and the
NCDC was partly responsible for the inadequacies.

(b) Pupil-based factors

A closer scrutiny of the Busoga region pupils’ age range for all the three class levels revealed
that the older students in all the three classes were either from the Teso region or the northern
districts of Gulu, Pader, Kitgum and Lango. Interviews with these older pupils uncovered the
interference of insecurity, family displacement and lack of fees to their “normal” progression
in the schooling process. Their respective teachers also ranked these displaced children as
those of “lower academic ability”.

One hundred and twenty one pupils interviewed from the Teso region were parented by
peasants or person doing simple business. Fourteen were parented by working persons.
Fifteen were either orphaned or did not know of the whereabouts of parents. In Busoga
region, 40 had peasant parents, 39 had working parents and 3 were orphaned. Very few pupils
(8 out of 150) in the Teso region were rated by their teachers as having a high learning ability;
all the pupils in this category were from boarding primary schools. An equal number of pupils
(71) were rated as having middle or low ability. A slightly higher number, approximately 10%
of the number studied (N=72) were rated as having a high ability and just under 15% were
rated as having a low ability. The rest were pupils of middle ability. Based on this subjective
ranking, we noted that the Busoga region had an edge in pupil academic abilities, over their
Teso region counterparts.

When asked about how many meals they have in a day, pupils in boarding schools reported
having three meals a day. Day scholars in urban settings reported having two to three meals a

48
day. All the pupils in the rural schools reported taking only one meal a day. This characteristic
spanned both the Teso and Busoga regions. The content and or quality of the meals provided
in boarding schools were decried in both Teso and Busoga regions. One pupil from a school
in Busoga that is essentially a day school but has boarding facilities for primary 7 pupils
boldly observed the following:

‘Feeding in the pseudo-boarding should be improved by adopting a balanced diet, and food
should be well cooked. Even clean and safe water should be provided my friend who is a
boarder has typhoid.’ (P.7 girl pupil).

Preferred subject in Primary School: The study explored pupils’ subject preferences and
possible career outlook. We noted a mixed subject preference that was generally supported by
the respective class teachers’ ratings of the pupil’s academic achievement.

Preferences on subjects are summarized in the Table 7. English Language and Social Studies
had comparatively higher preferential rates in both regions compared to Mathematics and
Science. There was a disproportionate number of uncertain pupils in the Teso region, most of
whom were from rural primary schools. This group consisted of pupils who were visibly
timid, appeared listless in terms of educational purpose and resigned to fate.

TABLE 7: PRIMARY SCHOOL PREFERENCES

Subject Teso Busoga Reason

Boys Girls Boys Girls
English 10 26 7 6 It is a medium of
communication.
Social Studies 19 26 11 13 Easy to understand; relates to
life.
Mathematics 12 7 9 5 It is applicable in most stations.
Science 09 11 7 4 It is useful after school.
Undecided Pupils 14 16 3 7 Things are hard!

Reading abilities: All Primary 5 and 7 pupils in the two regions indicated their confidence and
competence in being able to read and write in English. For the Teso region 131 confessed
their inability to read and write in the indigenous Ateso language, while 47 in Busoga
expressed their inability to read and write in the indigenous Lusoga language. In both regions,

49
the primary 3 cohort only expressed moderate ability to read some words in English, but not
write.

The reading and writing abilities in boarding and/or urban schools appeared superior to that in
rural schools. We conducted a simple test in one urban and one rural school in each district
among primary 3 pupils. The test proceeded as follows:

Please stop everything you are doing. Pick up your pen or pencil and open a fresh page of our
English exercise book. We have a quick test. [Then the following was written on the
chalkboard]: 1) What is your father’s name? 3) Where does he come from? 3) What does he
do? The pupils were then asked to respond in five minutes.

We observed serious difficulties among primary 3 pupils in responding to this simple test.
After a further five minutes, we then stated that there was a second test, which simply
involved having the same three questions vocally stated. There was an amazing difference, in
that there was an immediate and class-wide effort among pupils to respond to the three
questions. The unease on the first part of the test reflected inability among pupils to read.
Based on these alone, rural schools in Kaberamaido, Amuria, Bukedea and Katakwi featured
in terms of higher numbers of pupils with poor reading and writing skills among Primary 3
pupils. The study team noted poor reading and writing abilities as being linked to little time
spent for homework and general reading as part of interest and growth among pupils.

Time at task: Among rural day pupils in both regions, most pupils indicated 0 –1 hour as time
spent in school related homework. Day pupils in urban settings indicated a corresponding 1 to
2 hours of school related homework, and had moderate abilities to read and write as compared
to their rural counterparts. Pupils in Boarding Schools had two sessions of reading time
everyday in the morning and evening times, totaling at least 3 hours available for revision and
homework per day.

Hunger: The lack of provision of meals at school particularly for day scholars visibly sapped
the energy of pupils. At the time of this study, the study team noted streams of children
dashing to the nearest mango trees (where they existed in the neighbourhood of the schools) in
search of something to eat. In two schools studied in Teso, some teachers joined the pupils in

50
sharing the mangoes. In localities where there were no mangoes, kids played wrap-balls (balls
made out of scrap, often dried, soft leaves).

Furthermore, 78% of the teachers and all the District Education Officials explained that many
children are not interested, responsive, or highly motivated towards learning due to a plethora
of factors ranging from poor living conditions at home, poor teaching, lack of mentoring and
poor parental attitude to schooling. This view was most pronounced among the educators from
the Teso region and among urban school administrators in the Busoga region. Eighty-two
percent of teachers would like access to science laboratories with hands on facilities, and to
computers and related information technology for students and teachers.

Teacher deployment: the pupil enrolment data do not necessarily guide teacher deployment
across schools in the Teso region, leading to unrealistic and inequitable teacher-pupil ratios.
For example, as Table 8 shows that an urban school in Bukedea with 319 pupils has eight
teachers, while a school in Amuria with twice the enrolment has nine teachers. In
Kaberamaido, one school has 566 pupils with eight teachers, while a rural school in Soroti
district with a comparable number of pupils (614) has 14 teachers. Similarly, an urban school
in Katakwi has 1,019 pupils with a teaching staff of 16; while a rural school in Iganga with a
comparable pupil population of 1,080 has 33 teachers. These staffing imbalances tend to
favour schools, pupils and teachers where the teacher: pupil ratio is higher as opposed to those
with a thinner staffing, potentially contributing to poor pupil performance.

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TABLE 8: SCHOOLS, TEACHERS IN THE SCHOOLS AND PUPILS ENROLMENT
BY DISTRICT

District Schools Teachers Pupils

KUM 1–U 20 (13M – 7 F) 734 (G)
2–U 22 (9M – 13 F) 707 (345B – 362G)
3–R 10 (4M – 6 F) 551 (272B – 279G)
4–R 14 (13 M – 1 F) 785 (395B – 390G)
BUK 1 – U** 8 (5M – 3F) 319 (169B – 150G)
2–U 12 5M – 7F) 727 (363B – 364G)
3–R 8 (4M – 4F) 472 (237B – 235G)
4–R 14 (9M – 5F) 1,026 (533B – 493G)
SOR 1–U 26 (8M – 18F) 920 (383B - 537G)
2–U 27 (10M – 17F) 1,181 (497B -684G)
3 – R+ 16 (9M – 7F) 926 (479B -447G)
4 – R++ 14 (4M – 10F) 614 (304B – 310G)
KAT 1–U 28 (18M – 10F) 1,615 (787B -826G)
2 – U* 16 (10M – 6F) 1,019 (522B – 497G)
3–R 12 (8M – 4F) 572 (308B – 264G)
4–R 11 (9M – 2F) 464 (233B – 231G)
AMU 1–U 13 (7M – 6F) 960 (446B – 514G)
2 – U** 9 (7M – 2F) 662 (338B – 324G)
3–R 23 (15M – 8) 1,016 (471B – 545G)
4–R 13 (9M – 4F) 604 (302B – 302G)
KAB 1–U 17 (14M – 3F) 1,023 (514B – 509G)
2–U 12 (5M – 7F) 688 (374B – 314G)
3–R 9 (7M – 2F) 735 (433B – 302G)
4 – R++ 8 (6M – 2F) 566 (294B – 272G)
IGA 1 – U+ 29 (24M – 5F) 953 (B)
2–U 25 (14M – 11F) 1,377 (598B – 777G)
3–R 17 (6M – 11F) 959
4 – R* 33 (15M – 18F) 1,080
JJA 1–U 39 (16M – 23F) 1,806
2–U 26 (10M – 16F) 1,158 (543B – 615G)
3–R 30 (15M – 15F) 1,326 (648B – 678G)
4–R 21 (5M – 16F) 912

Legend: U = Urban; R = Rural and Comparable schools by numbers of teachers with same signs: *, **,
+, ++

(c) Policy factors

We found that 53% of teachers and all DEOs pointed out policy decisions that impact
performance in their schools, such as:

1. The staff-transfer policy: The staff policy has led to teacher transfers even in the
middle of a school term, is very annoying and discouraging. Most transfers are not
reciprocated by recruitment or replacement by another in-transfer. This creates

52
 overload for remaining staff. Some teachers threatened to quit the profession on early
retirement, and confessed to being held back due to poor retirement benefits and
payment compliance by the public service.

2. Lunch provision for pupils: The no charge for lunch policy undermines efforts to
ensure children have a meal at school.

3. Automatic promotion policy: The promotion of pupils who may not have shown
academic growth to the next class is a disservice to quality education under the UPE
programme. One parent sarcastically pointed out:

“Soon we will have even graduates who cannot read and write, since same
policy is being implemented in the universal secondary education.”

Other policy-related issues pointed out as impacting pupil academic achievement were:
teacher motivation in relation to their promotion and terms of service. The explanation
provided to this concern by one DEO was that an increasing number of primary school
teachers who are dedicated and or have acquired additional qualifications such as diplomas,
and degrees often return to the same salary scale of Grade III, and retire at the same level they
were appointed. This is unlike in other professions such as nursing where there is promotion
based on additional qualifications, years of dedicated service and innovations.

Large classes of up to 120 pupils per class per teacher also attracted concern.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.1 Discussion
In the exploration of factors determining student achievement in the Teso region, the study
team examined resource inequalities across schools, explored trends in achievement, held
interviews with teachers, head teachers, pupils and members of the school community at each
school site. These approaches facilitated the team’s access to detailed information of the
school and classroom factors that most influence student achievement.

PLE Scores as a Reflection of Achievement: To examine pupils achievement, the researchers

focused on pupils’ Primary Leaving Examinations (PLE) scores, compared various pupil-
cohort achievements over time. Tables 2-6 show a summary of pupils’ achievement for the
two regions of Teso and Busoga. As is evident in the Table 2, Teso schools consistently
perform very poorly in all the PLE subjects compared to the Busoga region. In the subject
specific data on achievement where the two regions appear to be at par in pupil achievement,
we observe that absenteeism on subject-examination, especially science and mathematics is a
contributory factor. From our lesson observation data, beginning early in their educational
experiences at the lower primary, pupils appear to exhibit large variations in achievement that
are systematically linked to poverty (pupils have no exercise books, pencils/pens, and are
hungry); lack of grounding in reading; numeracy; learning motivation and confidence-
building. Pupils in the Teso region, irrespective of whether based in urban or rural schools
significantly lag behind pupils in Busoga in performance. The researcher team also found that
although the achievement gap narrowed between 2000 and 2003, it nonetheless remained very
large between the schools in the two regions.

The most economically disadvantaged pupils exhibit lower scholastic achievement from the
outset of their schooling, with an insurmountable risk of never catching up. We noted that the
average reading achievement in primary seven in the most disadvantaged schools is about the
same as the reading level in primary three in the most affluent urban schools. These

54
achievement grade and class effects probably work through a number of channels, which can
be categorized into the direct effect of a strong peer group (evident in boarding schools which
accord longer pupil-pupil contact through interaction in the classroom and dormitories) and
indirect effects (such as rigor which a teacher may introduce into a class that is particularly
strong or the other way round: teacher incompetence, inconsistency and inadequacy in
treatment of subject matter in teaching and learning negatively impacting pupil achievement).

Among other factors, we found that class size does influence reading achievement in the lower
primary. With regard to teacher qualifications, we found sporadic and varying effects between
lower primary (P.3) and upper primary (P.7) as well as between math and reading abilities. In
general, from our observation data and interviews with teachers, headteachers and pupils, class
size appears to matter more in lower primary than in upper primary, whereas teacher
qualifications such as experience, level of education, and subject area knowledge appear to
matter more in the upper classes.

School-based factors: School effectiveness research, including several studies in the 1970s
and early 1980s, shows the availability of relevant, good-quality, affordable textbooks having
a positive impact on achievement. In Uganda, textbook prices have been reduced by 50% as a
result of liberalization (Eilor et al., 2003). The opening of the textbook market has helped
increase availability and decrease prices in many countries. Liberalization is not a panacea,
though. For example, study in Zambia indicated that less than 10% of books procured had
actually reached classrooms (Silanda, 2000). A survey in Guinea found wastage of up to 67%
of textbook stock (Sow, Brunswic & Valérien, 2001). The multiplicity of interests involved in
textbook provision can lead to malpractice and corruption, which also contribute to
inefficiency (Leguéré, 2003). To address this problem, the worldwide trend is to liberalize
textbook production and distribution and decentralize procurement.

In Russia it has led to regional inequity in availability and price (Borovikova, 2004).
Liberalization can also result in replacement of a state monopoly by a few large, often
international publishing houses, to the detriment of local publishers. High import taxation on
paper, printing equipment and the like also hurts local textbook production (Montagnes,
2001). In some countries, libraries are set up to provide supplementary reading material. Such

55
teaching materials and supplementary books are often underused, however (Knamiller, 1999;
Rosenberg, 1998). Training in the use of newly introduced materials and continuous support to
teachers should be an integral part of teaching and learning materials development.

Later studies indicate that, once schools have an acceptable level of textbooks, it is teacher
practice that makes the difference. Studies in Kenya, Ghana and Australia (Glewwe, Kremer,
& Moulin, 2000; Horsley, 2004; Laws & Horsley, 2004; Okyere et al., 1997) are instructive in
this respect. They demonstrate that, while textbook availability does affect the quality of
teaching and learning, the ways teachers use textbooks vary considerably. This confirms the
importance of support for teachers on effective use of textbooks through effective professional
development programmes.

Teacher-based factors: What goes on in the classroom, and the impact of the teacher and
teaching, has been identified in numerous studies as the crucial variable for improving
learning outcomes. The way teachers teach is of critical concern in any reform designed to
improve quality.

In an influential study, Coleman et al. (1966) identified the teacher variable as having the most
pronounced effect on school achievement among pupils from modest backgrounds and ethnic
minorities. More recent meta-analysis designed to assess the factors that are most likely to
help children learn has confirmed the significance of the teacher effect. In a rigorous study of
twenty eight such factors, the two most prominent were found to be directly related to the
teacher (Hay, 2000). A synthesis of such literature on this theme indicates that even when
there are significant differences in learners’ backgrounds; teachers can exert a powerful
influence, raising levels of achievement.

Further research, however, indicates a wide variation in effectiveness among teachers. Good
teachers appear to be effective with learners of all achievement levels no matter how
heterogeneous their classrooms. If the teacher is ineffective, his or her students are more likely
to perform at lower levels (NCES, 2000). Other recent studies (Dembele & Mairo-II, 2003)
confirm this study’s finding that teacher quality and effectiveness in the Teso region fall short
of the expectations for quality lesson delivery. The immediate and clear implication is that

56
much can be done to significantly improve education by improving teacher effectiveness. This
in turn requires attention to pedagogy and the way teachers teach.

Pedagogical renewal across sub-Saharan Africa has included many attempts to switch to
learner-centred, activity-oriented pedagogy and away from teacher-dominated instructional
practices (Tabulawa, , Storeng, van Graan et al. all cited in Dembele & Miaro-II, 2003). Such
efforts may be explained in part by the current tendency of some international agencies to
favour such pedagogies. In most of the countries concerned, however, attempts to
institutionalize child-centred pedagogy in schools and teacher-training institutions have
produced inconclusive results. One investigation into why this is so, in Botswana (Tabulawa,
1997), cites deeply engrained epistemological assumptions by teachers and students, as well as
social factors inherent in Tswana society. The assumptions were found to conflict with the
basic tenets of child-centred pedagogy. If confirmed, this finding would indicate that, for
open-ended pedagogies to be successful, significant change in the culture of knowledge
acquisition may be required.

A further body of knowledge says that teaching practices are informed by ideas and beliefs
that teachers begin to develop long before embracing teaching as a career and that traditional
teacher preparation does not successfully challenge these beliefs (Dembélé & Miaro-II, 2003).
Experts broadly agree on what constitutes undesirable practice: a teacher-centred pedagogy,
which places students in a passive role. There is also some consensus on the desirability of a
participatory, interactive, child-centred, active pedagogy that is characterized by cooperative
learning and inquiry and fosters conceptual understanding, critical thinking and problem-
solving skills. These desirable practices fall under the general category of ‘open-ended’
instruction. In the spectrum between ‘traditional’ chalk-and talk teaching and open-ended
instruction, some educators advocate structured teaching, a combination of direct instruction,
guided practice and independent learning.

Discovery-based pedagogies have proved extremely difficult to implement on a national scale.

Moreover, their success relies heavily on appropriate levels of physical resources, strong
support and well-motivated, enthusiastic teachers. This does not mean that the idea of open-
ended pedagogy should be abandoned in resourced-constrained situations, but it does face

57
formidable challenges, even in optimal conditions. Thus, structured instruction may be the
more pragmatic option for providing satisfactory quality in education in situations of severe
resource constraints, high pupil/teacher ratios (which complicate classroom management and
individual learning strategies) and underqualified or unmotivated teachers. With an approach
to structured teaching that leaves space for individual discovery, good teachers can create a
child-centred environment even in adverse circumstances. Child-centred in this context
suggests respect for children and encouraging their involvement in their own learning (Croft,
2002).

Instructional time is an aspect of the curriculum that deserves special attention. The length of
time required to achieve educational goals is a matter of considerable significance and a strong
indicator of students’ access to learning opportunities. School effectiveness research shows
consistent positive correlations between instructional time and students’ achievement at both
primary and secondary levels. Significantly, this relationship appears stronger in developing
countries; Fuller and Clarke (1994) report this finding to hold good in twelve out of fourteen
studies. The World Bank estimates that 850 to 1,000 effective hours (not necessarily official
hours) of schooling per year is optimal in publicly financed primary schools (World Bank,
2004). It is thus imperative to establish, through another study, the question of effective time
at task in Ugandan schools, and its effect on academic performance and other educational
outcomes.

Increased instructional time enhances learners’ exposure to knowledge and results in

correspondingly significant learning gains. Recent analysis suggests, however, that global
annual intended instructional time has not increased since the mid-1980s and is often well
below the recommended levels of 800 – 1000 hours, arising from unplanned, and
educationally unrelated reasons such as participation by schools in political rallies, as reported
by some pupils and teachers contacted in this study.

In many countries instructional time has declined. In some cases (e.g. Japan) this may be an
outcome of curriculum reform in which the number of subjects has been reduced. In others,
particularly developing countries, meeting demand for increased access under resource
constraints may have resulted in reductions in instructional time. In all regions, instructional

58
time increases with grade. Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest values in all grades. Latin
America and the Caribbean, East Asia and the Pacific and North America and Western Europe
score high as well.

Regular, reliable and timely assessment is key to improving learning achievement. It is the
bedrock of an effective teaching and learning environment, whether it takes place at
international or regional level (e.g. TIMMS), national level (e.g. UNEB) or school/classroom
level (e.g. end-of-term tests). Assessment should allow those working in the education system
to diagnose, monitor and assure the quality of the education they provide. National and
international assessments are summative in nature. Classroom-level assessments by teachers
can be summative or formative, but need to be designed to target improvement of quality of
learning and achievement enhancement among pupils at classroom level. Formative
assessment looks at how each learner learns and the problems she or he encounters, so
teachers can adjust their teaching to observed learning progress. Evidence shows, too, that by
giving feedback to learners, formative assessment can help improve their learning and
performance (UNEB, 2003). Where practical, it should also draw on learner self assessment,
which can empower learners to assess their own progress and reflect on how they could
improve their learning.

Policy Implications: This study found that teacher education, credentials, experience, and
teaching subject preference can make a difference, but the effects on student achievement are
not as systematic as might be expected. This finding is important, given the grim new financial
reality facing most schools as a result of Uganda’s large budget deficits. Many policymakers,
especially the District Education Officials, fear that the current budget situation in which
schools are inadequately resourced will cause experienced teachers to leave the profession
through retrenchment, early retirement, voluntary movement into other professions or to
financially more beneficial engagements such as fishing, petty trade, and layoffs. The possible
loss of some of the nation’s most highly experienced teachers as a result is a cause for genuine
concern.

59
The poor performance among many inexperienced teachers may result in part from lack of
state-wide and district programmes to mentor new teachers. The lamentation of teachers,
parents and District Education Officials of inconsiderate transfers of teachers point to the need
for re-examination of teacher mentoring, retention and teacher performance. Policymakers
should also be interested in a consistent finding of the study-that among pupils in the boarding
section of the primary schools, an individual pupils’ rate of learning appears to be strongly and
positively influenced by the initial achievement of pupils in his or her cohort and, with
somewhat lesser consistency, that of students in his or her classroom who are day scholars.
Clearly, ability grouping within a school or across schools could affect a student’s
achievement in major ways if appropriately handled to incorporate multiple abilities among
groups.

Finally, the daunting achievement gaps between students do not appear to be created by the
schools alone as they now exist. These gaps, related to income and socio-economic status
more generally, could equally significantly be linked to nutrition of pupils, their families and
the teachers alike. The influences of the feeding factor emerge by the time young children
reach school age, and are exacerbated in school by the current no-lunch policy for day schools,
particularly in the rural areas where poverty levels are high. One implication is that
policymakers at the state level may want to critically examine the school-based lunch
arrangements and the national no-lunch policy at primary schools in the overall food security
and quality nutrition of families. This will expose real-life situations faced by school-going
pupils, inform ways to reduce the achievement gap of disadvantaged students affected by the
no-lunch policy, and point to domestic level nutritional interventions, towards a
comprehensive, all-embracing pupil’s, communities’ and teachers’ nutrition and quality
education agenda.

60
4.2 Recommendations

Arising from the findings of this study, the following recommendations emerge for due
attention and consideration by stakeholders of primary education in Uganda:

(a) General Recommendations

1. There is need to reorganize the school day so that pupils and teachers spend optimal
time on core learning activities, and create an Education Forum for the for DEO in the
region to share, streamline and promote quality education in Teso.

2. There is need to improve on the assessment practices at the school, district and national
levels. For school-level assessment to be influential, it should be consistent, regular
and reliable, part of an overall school development policy and reconcile both formative
and summative assessments with a strong focus on providing feedback to the learner
and teacher. The actual mix of formative and summative assessment will take into
account the constraints in particular contexts.

3. There is need for stronger support from politicians on education. There is enormous
potential to increase the quality of teaching and learning in every primary school and
classroom. A rich body of knowledge and experience shows what should be done
needs political support to fully drive institutional performance.

4. Reading and writing needs further research particularly in light of the thematic
curriculum and automatic promotion policy in UPE context. The question that begs
attention is: how can reading and writing among pupils be ensured, say, the end of
primary three class level?

(b) Teso Specific Recommendations

1. Schools need help to find their own solutions to improving quality, within well-defined
accountability frameworks. Head teachers are critically important in this endeavour.

61
 Greater autonomy can make a difference provided that schools are well supported and
have established capacity and strong leadership.

2. Investment in services, networks and structures to develop and share educational

knowledge can enable schools to make much better use of their resources, to learn
from each other and to better inform policy.

3. Parents should be sentisised about their role, the need for their support and the value of
the education of their children.

4. Through striving for coherence and consistency among the major components and
actors of the teaching and learning process (Ministry of Education and Sports, DES,
NCDC, DEOs, head teachers, teachers and parents), however, significant improvement
in education quality is nonetheless possible. A beginning point is the DEO Forum,
which has been conceived. What is needed is a fast-tracking of the concept to impact
primary education process and outcomes.

5. Although all the above policy-implied reforms entail costs, a first step is to create a
national consensus concerning quality. From this basis, priorities in a given society can
be addressed. Any reform to improve quality in primary education in the Teso region
and beyond should pay attention to establishing dialogue with teachers, parents,
strengthening accountability and combating corruption. Strategies must fit into a
sound, coherent long-term vision of education and be backed by strong political
commitment.

6. There is need for further research in Teso the results of which should direct and inform
intervention effects programmes for educational reforms in the region.

7. Teacher deployment should be based on competence and productivity criteria.

8. Transfers be carefully streamlined, justified and case based, not random.

62
 9. Gender/Sex parity among staff definitely encouraged, but needs fairness to availability
of qualified staff.

(c) Policy: Government of Uganda specific Recommendations

1. More attention must be paid to maintenance of school facilities; an issue too often
neglected in aid projects and government budgets. Further, as the Teso districts are in
slow transition from the chaos of twenty three years of insecurity (cattle rustling, the
insurgency period, the floods and combined effects of all these tragedies, leniency on
some policies such as strict criteria for evaluation of dormitories could be revisited in
view of the advantages that accrue to pupils and willing parents.

2. Learning materials strongly affect what teachers can do. In this regard, national
policies can encourage local publishing and increase the availability of textbooks.
Equally important is the provision of basic sanitation, a sound infrastructure and other
facilities to make schools safe and welcoming.

3. The quality of teacher training needs a comprehensive review, taking more care in
student-teacher selection practices. Further, the Ministry of Education and Sports needs
to re-shape and invest more heavily in teacher professional development, to reform the
way in which the Ministry of Education and Sports, Directorate of Education
Standards, the District Education Officials and schools prepare, deploy, monitor and
support teachers and their effectiveness.

4. The problem of poor teacher motivation arising from low pay can be lessened by
improving central support to the management and supervision of schools and by
assuring more timely payment of salaries. Ensuring that all schools have requisite
numbers of teachers may also require incentives to work in rural environments. Once
schools have an acceptable level of textbooks and other teaching-learning materials, it
is teacher practice that makes the difference. Teacher motivation is also tied to the
matter of hungry teachers: as in the medical profession where nurses and other medical

63
 workers are paid lunch allowances, the fulltime engagement of teachers in schools
calls for a parallel policy.

5. The Ministry of Education and Sports, National Curriculum Development Centre,

Directorate of Education Standard and District Education Officials should take an
active role in the professional development of teachers by taking initiative and
responsibility for:

a. implementing subject specific staff development programmes

b. involving teachers in designing, implementing and evaluating staff

development programmes

c. providing adequate resources, time, and funding for teachers to participate in

and implement instructional change based on staff development programmes

d. promoting collegiality and professional ethics through involvement of all

teachers in staff development at their schools

e. providing differentiated staff development programmes that recognize the

special needs of teachers at the different stages or their professional growth

f. develop and articulate educational standards (attainment levels) across all

subjects and class levels, and

g. together with UNEB formulate well designed assessment system which

measures the extent to which pupils are meeting the desired education
standards.

6. The Ministry of Education and Sports should develop and implement policies that are
informed through research (Opolot-Okurut, 2008).

7. School grading and staffing should be streamlined with staffing needs, and matched
with availability of funds.

64
 8. Materials, teaching and learning facilities provision need further study at Ministry of
Education and Sports level to address concerns over fair distribution based on need.

9. Ministry of Education and Sports to be strict on safety and quality guidelines on

infrastructure in schools.

10. The Ministry of Education and Sports in collaboration with UNESCO should explore
mechanisms to spearhead re-enacting reading and writing materials particularly in
Teso.

11. Teacher competencies in reading, writing and pedagogical knowledge should take
centre stage in primary education reform.

12. Appointment to a post verses appointment on the basis of qualifications with variant of
using salary scale as motivation of teachers needs urgent intervention by Ministry of
Education and Sports: There are teachers who have advanced in their studies and
acquired higher qualifications, but are constrained to a grade III teacher salary. This is
highly de-motivating towards the acquisition of higher order knowledge and skills that
have potential to improve primary education quality.

4.3 Conclusions

From our findings and discussion the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. Teso region has very poor academic performance at the Primary Leaving Examinations
in all the four examinable subjects of Mathematics, English, Science and Social
Studies. This poor performance is manifested across three class levels of primary 3, 5
and 7 of primary learning cycle, where reading and writing skills fall short of the
attainment levels spelt-out in the respective class-level syllabuses.

2. Test scores provide one important measure of how well the curriculum is being
learned, and help to indicate achievement at the main exit points of the primary school

65
 system. Some teachers and head teachers exhibited poor knowledge of assessment
techniques and grading systems, and do not apply these term-results’ grading. This
leads to poor monitoring of pupils’ and schools monitoring.

3. Differences in pupils’ achievement within the Teso region schools studied are minimal.
But there is a significant variation (by a factor of at least three) - between Teso and the
Busoga regions, with pupils in the latter region performing much better. In both
regional primary school settings, pupils’ academic achievement is heavily influenced
by variations in the quality of teachers and teacher effectiveness, as the work of Hill et
al. (1998) suggests.

4. The school environment, quality of instruction and availability of teaching and learning
materials impact on the student enrolment, retention and ultimate achievement grades.

5. The quality of teacher-pupil interaction is an important dimension of the school

experience that impacts pupils performance in schools (Fuller, et al., 1991)

6. There are indications that teacher quality in the Teso region varies. The in
homogeneity in teacher quality, in terms of their competencies in lesson planning,
delivery, and assessment abilities arises from some teachers in the region trained under
special programme arrangements, such as the Northern Region Teacher Education
Programme, the efficacy of which may be questionable.

7. Other features of classrooms and schools, in particular availability of teaching and

learning materials, teacher and pupil welfare including provision of feeding at school
for teaching staff and pupils, housing, management of school, and time-at task for
teaching and learning, alongside parental support to school activities explain some of
the variation. Schools and school systems in the Teso region may obtain better benefit
in increased achievement by targeting more comprehensive and sustained
interventions, inclusive of teacher continued professional development, infrastructural,
organisational and school programmatic reviews and monitoring.

66
8. The lowest socio-economic status (SES) schools in the rural areas received and or have
fewer resources. The largest inequalities across the Teso region and between Teso and
Busoga primary schools relate to teacher competencies and availability. In the
relatively better performing schools in either setting, the number of pupils per teacher
is lower, and teachers and pupils have more time-at task compared to the situation in
the most disadvantaged group of schools.

9. A new consensus and impetus is building up around the imperative to improve the
quality of education. How well students are taught and how much they learn are likely
to have a crucial impact upon the length and value of their schooling experience.
Quality can influence parents’ choice to invest in their children’s education.

10. The social context of the school deserves attention. Studies in the sociology of
education suggest that students whose family background and peer group have ideals
close to those promoted by their school will tend to achieve higher levels of cognitive
skills than others, who may try to escape the contradiction by rebelling. The need for
education to be built around an explicit social goal presents challenges for the quality
of schooling that cannot be addressed by technical means alone.

11. The quality of teaching remains poor in many resource-constrained schools. The
qualifications required to become a government primary-school teacher are therefore
variable, with the negative effect being widespread poor mastery of the curriculum.
The malady of poor unpacking and delivery of the primary school curriculum is
exacerbated by poverty crisis arising from poor pay for teachers, by creating teacher
absenteeism.

12. The large class sizes observed in primary schools of many low-income countries (e.g.
one teacher for more than eighty) are not conducive to adequate learning. In schools
with the highest pupil-teacher ratios, barely one in three students who start primary
reaches primary 5. The absolute number of teachers also remains problematic in most
primary schools in the Teso region.

67
13. In most primary schools in the Teso region, children are not mastering basic skills,
leading to widespread low academic achievement, particularly among schools that
have high enrolments and have limited teaching and learning resources.

14. Commonly used styles and methods of teaching in the primary schools are not serving
children well. In the spectrum running from traditional ‘chalk-and-talk’ teaching to
‘open-ended instruction’, research advocates structured teaching – a combination of
direct instruction, guided practice and independent learning.

15. Investment in teachers is critical. Balancing time and money spent on initial training
and ongoing professional support is a key policy question. There is room to strengthen
the emphasis on school based training. Incentives to join the profession are closely tied
to pay and conditions of service.

16. Teachers’ earnings are too low to provide a reasonable standard of living. What is
more, teachers’ pay has tended to decline over time relative to that of comparable
groups.

17. A shift towards equity represents, in itself, an improvement in the quality of education.
From a policy perspective, one fundamental reason why simply focusing upon the
quantitative dimension of UPE and the other goals will not deliver quality education
for all is that, in the Teso region, an enormous gap prevails between the numbers
graduating from primary schools and those among them who can master a minimum
set of cognitive skills.

18. Feeding at primary schools is a contentious issue affecting most seviourly, the day
schooling children and teachers alike.

19. The grading of primary schools is incomplete, leading to unstreamlined staff ceilings.
Some of the consequences are overcrowded classrooms, high drop-out rates among
pupils, poor mentoring of pupils and low learning support.

68
20. Primary School syllabi do not spell out recommended texts for teachers or pupils.
Teachers use available market texts for pupils, pitching the teachers at the same level
of conceptual knowledge as the pupils.

21. District Planning Units badly fail the housing and other infrastructural needs of schools
by their selective prioritization, comprehensive planning and proposal submission.
This has significantly failed institutional development and quality operations in the
Teso region.

69
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 APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: LIST OF INSTITUTIONS CONTACTED

Teso Region: Bukedea District

Bukedea Primary School

Apopong Primary School
Chodong Primary School
Okunguro Primary School

Teso Region: Kumi District

Wiggins Primary School

Kumi Girls’ Primary School
Agolitom Primary School
Orisai Primary School

Teso Region: Soroti District

Opuyo Primary School

Swaria Primary School
Pioneer Primary School
Otatai Primary School

Teso Region: Katakwi District

Apuuton Primary School

Alukucok Primary School
Atoroma Primary School
Ariet Primary School

Teso Region: Amuria District

Amuria Primary School

Kuju Primary School
Asamuk Primary School
Wera Primary School

Teso Region: Kaberamaido District

Gwetom Primary School

Alem Primary School
Biira Primary School
Kaburepoli Primary School

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Busoga Region: Iganga District

Iganga Boys Boarding Primary School

Bugabwe Primary School
Nakalama Primary School
Iganga Township Primary School

Busoga Region: Jinja District

Masese Co-educational Primary School

Victoria Nile Primary School
Muguluka Primary School
Mutai Primary School

75