236 Int. J. Productivity and Quality Management, Vol. 17, No.

2, 2016

Six Sigma through DMAIC phases: a literature review

K. Srinivasan*
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Adhiyamaan College of Engineering,
Hosur – 635 109, India
Email: ksrinivasan.cad@gmail.com
*Corresponding author

S. Muthu
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Dr. N.G.P Institute of Technology,
Coimbatore – 641 048, India
Email: smuthu231155@gmail.com

S.R. Devadasan
Department of Production Engineering,
PSG College of Technology,
Coimbatore – 641 004, India
Email: devadasan_srd@yahoo.com

C. Sugumaran
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Salem College of Engineering and Technology,
Salem – 636 111, India
Email: mailsugume@yahoo.co.in

Abstract: In this paper, the details of a literature review carried out to examine
the application of DMAIC (stands for define, measure, analyse, improve and
control) in companies to achieve the goals of Six Sigma concept are presented.
While conducting this literature review, the papers containing DMAIC in their
titles were gathered and studied. The outcomes of the researches reported in
these papers have confirmed that, DMAIC is the model compatible for
nourishing the benefits of Six Sigma concept in manufacturing, service and
unconventional sectors. An important inference drawn at the end of conducting
this literature review is that, the investigations on applying DMAIC in an
unconventional sector are yet to begin widely and intensively. In this
background, this paper is concluded by suggesting the future researchers to
examine the application of DMAIC in several unconventional sectors.

Keywords: Six Sigma; define, measure, analyse, improve and control;

DMAIC; belt-based training; literature review; project charter; cause and effect
diagram.

Copyright © 2016 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

 Six Sigma through DMAIC phases 237

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Srinivasan, K., Muthu, S.,
Devadasan, S.R. and Sugumaran, C. (2016) ‘Six Sigma through DMAIC
phases: a literature review’, Int. J. Productivity and Quality Management,
Vol. 17, No. 2, pp.236–257.

Biographical notes: K. Srinivasan is currently an Associate Professor in the

Mechanical Engineering Department of Adhiyamaan College of Engineering,
Hosur, India. He holds a Bachelor in Mechanical Engineering and a Master in
Computer Aided Design, which he obtained from University of Madras, India.
He has 19 years of teaching experience. His research interests include total
productive maintenance, quality function deployment and Six Sigma concepts.

S. Muthu is currently Professor and Dean in the Mechanical Engineering

Department of Dr. N.G.P Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, India. He
obtained his Bachelor in Production Engineering and his Master in Industrial
Engineering from University of Madras, India. He has 33 years of teaching and
research experience. He received his PhD degree from Bharathiyar University
in the year 2003. He has published over 15 papers in international journals. His
areas of research interest include total productive maintenance, work systems
engineering, total quality management, benchmarking and risk management.

S.R. Devadasan is currently a Professor in the Production Engineering

Department of PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, India. He holds a
Bachelor in Mechanical Engineering, a Master in Industrial Engineering, a PhD
in Mechanical Engineering and a DSc in Mechanical Engineering. He has
24 years of teaching and research experience. He has published over 120 papers
in international journals. He is an editorial advisory board member in the
European Journal of Innovation Management, UK. His areas of research
interest include strategic quality management, total productive maintenance,
productivity engineering and management, agile manufacturing, business
process reengineering, innovation management and risk management.

C. Sugumaran is currently Professor and Dean in the Mechanical Engineering

Department of Salem College of Engineering and Technology, Salem, India.
He obtained his Bachelor in Mechanical Engineering from Bharathiyar
University, India. He obtained his Master in Production Engineering from
Annamalai University, India. He has 19 years of teaching experience. His
research interests include total productive maintenance, benchmarking and
quality function deployment.

1 Introduction

Modern organisations are trying hard to improve their overall performance to face the
ever increasing intensity of competition (Prashar, 2014; Natarajan et al., 2011a, 2011b).
While carrying out this task, modern organisations are striving to apply appropriate
strategies in all of their endeavours (Sugumaran et al., 2013; Cesarotti and Spada, 2009;
Vassilakis and Besseris, 2009; Ahuja and Khamba, 2008b; Pramod et al., 2008). One of
the strategies that has been finding wide and deep applications in modern organisations is
‘continuous quality improvement’ (Pramod and Devadasan, 2011; Pramod et al., 2010).
In order to deploy this strategy, organisations have been applying ‘total quality
238 K. Srinivasan et al.

management (TQM)’ (Vassilakis and Besseris, 2009; Arca and Prado, 2008). While
applying TQM, organisations have adopted and applied numerous utilities under the
names ‘techniques’, ‘tools’, ‘methods’ and ‘systems’ (Sugumaran et al., 2013; Agus and
Hajinoor, 2012; Marksberry, 2012; Sankaran et al., 2008a, 2008b). Most of these utilities
have facilitated the modern organisations to achieve ‘continuous quality improvement’
(Sugumaran et al., 2013; Breja et al., 2011; Pramod and Devadasan, 2011; Ahmed and
Amagoh, 2010; Pramod et al., 2010, 2008; Cesarotti and Spada, 2009; Vassilakis and
Besseris, 2009; Ahuja and Khamba, 2008a). However, seldom these utilities have
enabled the organisations to achieve profitability. In order to bring out profitability
through the implementation of TQM, in Motorola, Six Sigma model was developed
(Jirasukprasert et al., 2014; Kumaravadivel and Natarajan, 2013; Chakraborty and Chuan,
2013).
Six Sigma concept facilitates to achieve nearly ‘zero defect manufacturing’ and
garner high profit (Kumaravadivel and Natarajan, 2013; Antony et al., 2012). Six Sigma
concept permits the organisations to make mistakes less than 3.4 defects per million
opportunities (DPMO). In order to achieve this goal, two approaches are followed. One is
that, the projects leading to the defect prevention are to be carried out in the organisation
by applying define, measure, analyse, improve and control (DMAIC) phases
(Jirasukprasert et al., 2014; Prashar, 2014; Kumaravadivel and Natarajan, 2013; Sarkar
et al., 2013; Antony et al., 2012; Cheng and Kuan, 2012; Mast and Lokkerbol, 2012;
Franchetti and Yanik, 2011; Roth and Franchetti, 2010). The other approach is the
imparting of formal training by assigning designations as champion, master black belt,
black belt, green belt and white belt (Chakraborty and Chuan, 2013; Marques et al., 2013;
Tjahjono et al., 2010; Kumar et al., 2008a) to the personnel. This method of imparting
formal training is also known as belt-based training infrastructure.
The capability of Six Sigma concept in facilitating organisations to garner high profit
attracted many quality managers. As a result, Six Sigma was first implemented in many
leading companies like general electric and allied signals (Jirasukprasert et al., 2014;
Chakraborty and Chuan, 2013; Pepper and Spedding, 2010). Today, Six Sigma is widely
applied in many parts of the world (Jirasukprasert et al., 2014; Kumaravadivel and
Natarajan, 2013; Chakraborty and Chuan, 2013). However, the conduct of belt-based
training is so expensive that it prevents the implementation of Six Sigma in the
companies with meagre revenue. In order to overcome this situation, during the recent
years, researchers and practitioners have been examining the way of implementing
DMAIC only to implement Six Sigma program in companies (Jirasukprasert et al., 2014).
Few researches dealing with the application of DMAIC in achieving the goals of Six
Sigma have been reported in literature arena. It is very prudent to study the nature and
outcome of these researches, as this study will be useful to evolve economical and
powerful DMAIC-based Six Sigma models. In order to fulfil this requirement, the
literature review reported in this paper was carried out.

2 Methodology

The literature review being reported here was carried out in three steps. In the first step,
the papers whose titles contain the phrase DMAIC were downloaded from the websites of
leading databases namely Emerald Insight (http://www.emeraldinsight.com), Science
 Six Sigma through DMAIC phases 239

Direct (http://www.sciencedirect.com), Springerlink (http://www.springerlink.com) and

Taylor and Francis (http://www.tandf.co.uk). On overviewing these papers, it was
realised that DMAIC has been applied in three domains. In the first domain, the DMAIC
has been applied in manufacturing sectors (Jirasukprasert et al., 2014; Ghosh and Maiti,
2014; Kumaravadivel and Natarajan, 2013; Kumar et al., 2013; Kaushik et al., 2012;
Li et al., 2011; Kumar and Sosnoski, 2009; Chen et al., 2009; Lo et al., 2009; Tong et al.,
2004). In the second domain, the DMAIC has been applied in service sectors (Mayer,
2014; Yu and Ueng, 2012; Antony et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2012; Kumar, 2012; Southard
et al., 2012; Kumar et al., 2009, 2008a, 2008b). In the third domain, the DMAIC has been
applied in unconventional sectors (He et al., 2014; Franchetti and Yanik, 2011; Kaushik
and Khanduja, 2009; Yeh et al., 2007). In the second step of the literature review being
reported here, the above papers were segregated into three categories addressing the
researches on applying DMAIC under the above mentioned three domains. After that,
these papers were studied and extracts were drawn about applying DMAIC in the above
three domains. In the third step of the literature review being reported here, the
information and knowledge derived by studying these papers were used to identify future
direction of research. The details of these activities are presented in the following
sections of this paper.

3 Statistics

As mentioned earlier, before beginning the literature review being reported here, the
papers whose titles contained the phrase ‘DMAIC’ were gathered. Twenty-three such
papers containing DMAIC in the titles could be identified. This number is very small
compared to the large number of papers reporting the researches on Six Sigma that have
been reported in the literature arena (Antony and Desai, 2009). As mentioned in the
previous section, these papers were classified under the three domains in which the
implementation of DMAIC is addressed. The statistics of these three categories of papers
is shown in Figure 1. As shown, nearly equal number of papers reporting the applications
of DMAIC in manufacturing and service sectors have appeared in the literature arena.
Little less than half the number of papers reporting the application of DMAIC in
unconventional sectors have appeared. The information and knowledge gathered by
reviewing these papers have been described in the following three sections.

4 DMAIC in manufacturing sectors

As shown in Figure 1, ten papers reporting the application of DMAIC in manufacturing

sector were reviewed during the literature review being reported here. The extracts
derived by conducting this literature review are presented in this section.
Jirasukprasert et al. (2014) reported the implementation of DMAIC methodology for
reducing defects in rubber gloves manufacturing process. In define phase, the problem
was identified. This problem was that, a large amount of rubber gloves had been rejected
by the customers due to defective gloves. In measure phase, the defects were measured,
and the gloves that more leaking and dirty were identified. Furthermore, the Pareto
240 K. Srinivasan et al.

analysis was carried out to identify the complaints that were most frequently reported by
the customers. The present level of sigma was found to be 2.4 with 1,95,095 DPMO. In
analyse phase, ‘oven’s temperature’ and ‘conveyor speed’ were identified as the critical
to quality (CTQ) parameters of manufacturing gloves. In improve phase, the design of
experiment (DOE) was conducted to identify the best oven’s temperature and the best
conveyor speed. The analysis of the results of these experiments indicated that, the best
oven’s temperature would be 230°C and best conveyor speed would be 650 rpm. In the
control phase, the trial run was conducted with best values of the CTQ parameters. As a
result of applying the best values of CTQ parameters in the manufacturing of gloves, the
quantity of gloves leaking was reduced by 50%. The reduction of DPMO was achieved
from 1,95,095 to 83,750, and sigma level improvement from 2.4 to 2.9 was observed.

Figure 1 Statistics of papers reporting researches on DMAIC

Ghosh and Maiti (2014) proposed a data mining driven DMAIC framework for
improving quality of the casting of six-cylinder engine head. During the define phase, it
was found that, the rejection and rework of the casting of six-cylinder engine head were
more than 20%. The company set the objective to reduce the total defect rate by these
castings to less than 5% within six months. A process map was drawn to identify the
influential factors. During the measure phase, the cost of poor quality (COPQ) was
calculated to estimate the impact of casting defects on business profit. This estimation
revealed that, the annual extrapolated total COPQ was more than Indian National Rupees
(INR) 31 million (US $0.54 million). Pareto chart was drawn to identify the major
defects. The study of this chart revealed that, results of 80% of rejections were caused
due to gas porosity. Further, the conducting of brainstorming sessions indicated that, gas
defects originated from four functions namely
1 core making
2 wash application
3 melting and pouring
4 gating and venting.
 Six Sigma through DMAIC phases 241

In analysis phase, two data mining-based tools called ‘classification and regression tree’
(CART) and ‘chi-squared automatic interaction and detection’ (CHAID) were applied to
identify the most significant factors causing gas defects in casting. Four parameters
namely
1 horizontal drill vents
2 pouring temperature
3 zircon wash source
4 core sand type
were found to be influencing the most on the gas defect generation. In improve phase,
remedial actions were determined. The recommendations were made to
1 use zircon wash source B
2 use coarser core sand
3 apply pouring temperature between 1,445°C and 1,450°C
4 run the process without horizontal drill vents.
In control phase, the continuous monitoring of processing stage was carried out for
15 days to identify the process behaviour after the actions were taken. It was observed
that, the gas defect has been reduced significantly. The annual savings were calculated to
be INR 16 million (US $0.28 million).
Kumaravadivel and Natarajan (2013) carried out a research to reduce the defects
while manufacturing the casting of flywheel by using DMAIC methodology. The tools
used during the pursuance of this research were process map, cause and effect diagram
and failure mode effect analysis (FMEA). The influential factors which cause the defects
in the casting process were found to be the moisture content, green strength, permeability
and loss of ignition. These factors were analysed by using the response surface
methodology (RSM) technique. The primary objective of pursuing this research was to
reduce the unhidden waste and improve the quality by examining the human as well as
the technical factors. During the define phase, it was found that, 6.94% of the casting of
the flywheels manufactured were rejected. The reasons for rejecting these castings were
attributed to sand inclusions, blow holes and slag. In measure phase, the supplier, input,
process, output and customer (SIPOC) diagram was drawn to map the flywheel
casting process. Subsequently, voice of customer (VOC) was applied to identify CTQ
parameters. The intensiveness of these CTQ parameters was checked by considering
these variables under the names ‘key process input variables’ (KPIV) and ‘key process
output variables’ (KPOV). At the end of this phase, Pareto diagram was drawn. This
diagram indicated that, blow holes, slag and sand inclusion caused 24, 36 and 40% of
defects respectively in the total defects in the casting of the flywheel. These three defects
were considered for overcoming the same and improving the quality of flywheel casting
process. During this phase, the sigma value was found to be 3.49. During analyse phase,
cause and effect matrix, FMEA and cause and effect diagram were used to identify KPIV
and KPOV against the selected CTQ parameters. During the execution of improve phase,
RSM and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were applied to determine the solutions for
achieving quality improvement of flywheel casting process. At the end of executing this
phase, 15 remedial actions were suggested to improve the quality of flywheel casting
242 K. Srinivasan et al.

process. In improve phase, the significant factors were controlled by using the RSM to
make the process as robust as possible. In the control phase, the solutions evolved in the
previous phase were applied in practice. This application resulted in the decreasing of the
rejection level from 6.94% to 4.69% and increase in the sigma level from 3.49 to 3.65.
Kumar et al. (2013) investigated the DMAIC approach in reducing the variation and
increasing the sigma level of the casting process in the foundry. In define phase, the
defects currently occurring in the foundry were determined through VOC. The CTQ was
evaluated by using VOC, process flow diagram and brainstorming technique. In measure
phase, the current sigma level of the casting process in the foundry was found to be 3.18.
The objective was to increase the sigma level of the process by reducing the occurrence
of the defects by carrying out this research. In the analysis phase, the data collected from
the different treatment conditions as fixed by making use of the orthogonal array (OA)
have been analysed by using the Taguchi’s parameter design approach. In improve phase,
the factors that influence the occurrence of the casting defects were identified. Then, the
corresponding signal to noise ratio for all the trial runs were calculated. In the control
phase, the optimal factors and levels were maintained consistently by generating the
control plan for the optimal factors and levels to control the variation within the
confidence interval. Overall, by pursuing this research, the efficiency and performance of
the casting process in the foundry were increased by using the DMAIC approach.
Kaushik et al. (2012) reported that, the implementation of Six Sigma methodology in
small and medium-sized enterprise (SME) by using DMAIC as a tool to control the
variation in the processing stages of the product. The DMAIC methodology was applied
to solve the high rejection of bushes in bi-cycle chain assembly. In define phase, process
map and a SIPOC diagram were developed to document the manufacturing sequence of
bush and to identify the process or product for achieving improvement. In measure phase,
gauge ‘repeatability and reproducibility’ (R and R) was conducted to ensure that, the
measurement system is statistically sound. The result of this study indicated that, the
micrometer used was facilitating accurate measurement values. In the analysis phase, the
data gathered during the measure phase were analysed to identify the basic cause of the
major rejection of bushes. The process capability chart was drawn by grouping up the
samples into five. The sigma level was found to be 1.4. In order to increase the sigma
level, the cause and effect diagram was used to identify the causes and CTQ which
caused the rejection of the bushes. In improve phase, the two CTQs were considered to
design 2 × 2 DOE, which was conducted for two replications. In control phase, the X/R
chart was plotted by making the trial runs with a sample size 100. The results shown in
this chart indicated that, the process was within the control limit. After the
implementation of DMAIC phases in this bicycle manufacturing unit, the sigma level
increased from 1.40 to 5.46. In the end, the application of DMAIC in this company gave
rise to the annual monetary savings of INR 0.288 million.
Li et al. (2011) reported the application of DMAIC methodology for improving the
efficiency of information technology (IT) help desk service quality through eHelp-desk
system of the Compal Company in Taiwan. In define phase, it was found that, the IT help
desk system needed improvement since the average processing time was as high as
168 minutes, and also the processors were unable to handle the multiple requests at a
time. In measure phase, it was measured that, 74% of the processing time accounted for
the data transfer through personal computer (PC), electronic network and e-mail. The
SIPOC diagram was drawn to determine the time between the submission of the request
 Six Sigma through DMAIC phases 243

by the users and processing of the requests by the helpdesk. From the process capability
chart, it was found that, the current sigma level of the company was 0.84. In analyse
phase, it was confirmed that the waiting time accounted for 79% of the total processing
time. In improve phase, the solution conception (eHelp-desk system) was developed by
using the cause and effect diagram. The eHelp-desk system was generated and
implemented. In control phase, the performance of the IT help-desk system was assessed
by drawing data by supplying a questionnaire among the users. The eHelp-desk system
showed a drastic improvement in sigma level from 0.84 to 2.07. The waiting time was
reduced from 131 to 71 minutes and also the monetary savings of New Taiwan Dollars
(NTD) 26,856 per month was achieved.
Chen et al. (2009) have reported a research in which, DMAIC phases were applied to
determine the optimum process parameters while using the plasma-cutting machine. This
research was conducted in an electrical switchboard manufacturing company. In define
phase, brainstorming sessions were conducted to investigate the deviations encountered
in the process of making hole by using the plasma-cutting machine. It was found out that,
deviations in the bevelling and roundness in the hole were the bottlenecks that prevented
the hardware to fit the switchboard. All possible causes of making defective holes while
using plasma cutting machine were depicted in cause and effect diagram. In measure and
analysis phases, the Taguchi experiments were carried out to evolve solutions for
preventing the occurrence of bevel and smallest diameter deviations. The optimum values
of the parameters were found out. Subsequently, response graphs were drawn. Then t-test
was conducted. Using this test, the significance of the factors was examined. In improve
phase, a confirmation test was conducted by applying the solutions evolved in the
previous phase. The examination of the holes cut by applying these solutions indicated
that, the bevelness and roundness deviation fell within the admissible levels. In control
phase, the details of parameters and their optimum values were informed to the
production department of the company. The Six Sigma team of this department was
required to apply these values in real time practice. If necessary, the real-time Taguchi
experiments would have to be conducted further to reduce bevelness and roundness
deviations.
Kumar and Sosnoski (2009) have concentrated on reducing the amount of the warp
incurred in the Amada-A station punches during the heat treatment process by applying
DMAIC phases. In define phase, Pareto analysis was conducted to identify the defects
occurred in punches. This analysis indicated that, the occurrence of warped parts was a
major problem to be overcome. After identification of the problem, the project charter
containing problem statement and project objective statement was developed. In measure
phase, the process capability analysis, descriptive statistics and histogram were used to
determine the present quality levels. Particularly, during this phase, the defects per
million were determined as 1,350. In the analysis phase, cause and effect diagram was
drawn to depict CTQs and the causes of the warp forming in the punches. In improve
phase, the common and special causes were differentiated. Further, their interactions
between the factors were determined. This differentiation facilitated the redesigning of
fixture to eliminate the warp formation in the punches. In the control phase, the hanging
parts were produced using the newly designed punches. In some cases, warpage was still
prevalent on using the newly designed punches. However, the quantum of warpage
encountered was less compared to those that are currently occurring. The cost saving due
to the reduction of the occurrence of the warp formation on using the new fixture was
estimated to be two million dollars.
244 K. Srinivasan et al.

Lo et al. (2009) reported the implementation of DMAIC approach for improving the
quality of injection-moulded optical lenses. In define phase, the surface performance
quality of lenses were identified. The optical performances of the systems are based on
the image forming capability of an optical system. The actual image of an object is
compared with the ideal image (referred to as image forming capability). In measure
phase, the process capability index was calculated by referring to the surface contour
measurement data to identify the most significant characteristics of moulded lenses. The
surface precision using ‘waviness or peak-to-valley’ (PV) value was measured in the
moulded lenses. In the analysis phase, the data were analysed. Because of poor PV
values, the lens was thicker at its centre. The cause and effect diagram was drawn to
depict the significant processing parameters namely melt temperature, screw speed,
injection speed, injection pressure, packing time, mould temperature and cooling time.
The Taguchi method of DOE was conducted for identifying the most significant
parameters with the corresponding optimal combinations. The objective was to minimise
the waviness of lenses based upon the optimal conditions. In improve phase, the optimal
parameters were implemented and as a result, the capability index enhanced from 0.57 to
1.75, and the Six Sigma target was achieved. In the control phase, the continuous pursuit
for determining the optimal combinations was illustrated with the help of control plan
and consistently monitoring the process capability to retain the fruitful improvement in
the mould shop.
Tong et al. (2004) presented a case study in which the quality of printed circuit board
(PCB) was improved by applying the DMAIC approach. In define phase, the solder paste
volume (height) on the solder pads of the screening process was identified as CTQ
characteristic. In measure phase, the Cyberoptics Cybersentry system was used to
measure the solder paste height on five PCBs for every four hours. Subsequently, the
solder paste height data were recorded in the statistical process control (SPC) data record
sheet by the operators. Further, X-R control chart was plotted. In analyse phase, the
process capability for solder paste height in all six semi-automatic screening machines
was analysed against the current printing performance. In improve phase, DOE was
conducted to determine the optimal settings of all CTQ factors in the screening process.
The parameters considered while conducting DOE were solder paste viscosity, speed of
squeegee, pressure of the squeegee, age of stencil, solder paste volume, blade type and
side of the stencil. In the control phase, the control strategies were recommended to
sustain the improvement of the sigma level in the screening process. The sigma level of
the screening process could be improved from 1.162 to 5.924. Thus, the Six Sigma level
was nearly achieved.
On the whole, the authors of the above papers have claimed that the application of
DMAIC resulted in an increase of sigma values in the performance of the manufacturing
companies in which case studies have been conducted. Some authors have also pointed
out that, DMAIC application facilitates to achieve substantial financial savings.

5 DMAIC in service sectors

As shown in Figure 1, nine papers reporting the application of DMAIC in service sectors
could be overcome during the literature review being reported here. The extracts derived
by reviewing these papers are presented in this section.
 Six Sigma through DMAIC phases 245

Mayer (2014) reported a case study to report the achievement of the increase in
efficiency and reduction in the instructor time spent while conducting patient education
classes through the implementation of DMAIC approach in healthcare. In define phase,
the project team was set up to identify the goal and business needs. The objective was to
increase the number of patients attending each class session and reduce the number of
class sessions taught. The topics covered in the classes were temporomandibular disorder
(TMD), blood pressure and chronic kidney disease stage 4 (CKD4). The stakeholders
were the resource centre’s administrators, management personnel, instructor team,
resource centre staff, patients and healthcare providers. The project team interviewed
several patients and gathered data to assess the patients’ satisfactory level. During the
measure phase, it was found out that, the class attendance formed a baseline record for
gathering data regarding the number of patients attended along with class sessions held
for the past three quarters prior to interviewing the patients. In analyse phase, the project
team was asked to assess the processing stages to identify the factors that cause decreased
satisfaction or quality of service offered. The project team analysed the viability
of performing small group teaching on each class topic by considering patient
confidentiality, diagnosis and difficulties on combining the patients. The project team
also investigated the hurdles of combining patients of different categories and that the
sessions which are not fruitful due to the delivery of inappropriate lectures. The project
team called the experts to train the instructors for handling small group teaching to
overcome these deficiencies. The team investigated the woes faced by conducting small
group teaching due to provider referral. The team continuously monitored the classes and
realised that, a small group teaching was ineffective in moving forward the individual
sessions. In improve phase, the action was taken to change the scheduling rules for TMD,
CKD4 and blood pressure class sessions to allow more than one patient for registration.
The project team also monitored the class sessions and data about the participants over
second and third quarters of 2012. In control phase, the project team found out that, the
group teaching on CKD4 class sessions was ineffective. Hence, CKD4 class session had
to be changed to adopt individual teaching procedure. Thus, the project team could not
find the right path to perform small group teaching.
Yu and Ueng (2012) proposed a case study on embarking the teaching effectiveness
in higher educational institutions (HEIs) by applying DMAIC phases. In define phase, the
stakeholders and experts created a list of valid attributes to form a questionnaire that
would facilitate to find out the attributes which are said to be vital for evaluating the
instructors’ teaching performance. In measure phase, teaching performance indicator
(TPI) was proposed to measure the performance of each attribute by evaluating the
questionnaire using the five-point Likert’s scale. The imperative and influential attributes
were niched through importance rating to identify the satisfaction level among students
and instructors. In analyse phase, a modified approach of importance performance
analysis (IPA) called teaching effectiveness analysis matrix (TEAM) was used to
evaluate the teaching performance level that met the HEIs’ expectation level (HEIs’
expectation level is 0.80). The possible factors causing the teaching problems were
identified through cause and effect diagram that had high importance rating on teaching
effectiveness in HEI. In improve phase, a number of improvement methods were
suggested against the identified factors to achieve higher teaching effectiveness in the
selected school. In control phase, the effectiveness of these improvements was verified
over a period after execution of improvement actions. The verification revealed the
246 K. Srinivasan et al.

achievement of the improvements by making use of the documented standard operating

procedures to sustain the teaching effectiveness in HEI.
Antony et al. (2012) investigated and streamlined the communication and information
management (CIM) system by using the DMAIC phases of Six Sigma methodology in an
infrastructure support company to increase the quality of service. In define phase, the
major processes and the customer requirement were identified by using the Six Sigma
tools namely the SIPOC, VOC and affinity diagram. The SIPOC was used to identify the
basic relationship between the processing stages namely the supplier, input, process,
output and customer. The VOC data were collected from the employees, and the same
were analysed to check whether the requirements of the customer were satisfied, and the
flaws in the process were reduced. The affinity diagram was used to convert the
unstructured data into the structured ones to identify the solution for the problem. In
measure phase, the major KPOV were identified based on which the gauge R and R study
was conducted. The initial step started with the identification of defects in the process by
constructing the CTQ tree and conducting the VOC analysis. The major metrics
identified while constructing the CTQ tree were completeness, correctness and
timeliness. Based on the collected data, the Pareto chart was drawn to identify the major
factors which impacted the CTQ factors. The correctness and completeness of the CIM
system were the major CTQ factors. In the analysis phase, the data that were collected
from the previous phase were identified, and the same were analysed to identify the
causes. The cause and effect diagram was plotted to depict the causes under the title, data,
communication methods, measurements and people. These causes were identified by
conducting brainstorming sessions and applying the multi-voting methodology. Survey
was conducted among the 30 internal employees in the concern, and the corresponding
ratings were given by making use of the Likert’s scale. In improve phase, the solution for
the problem was identified by deriving the information from the previous measure and
analysis phases. This exercise was started with the mapping of the process flow by which
the non-value adding activities were removed to make the process effective. Further, it
was suggested to effect centralised information flow and automation in CIM system. In
the control phase, the vital steps were considered to standardise, monitor and integrate the
changes. In order to carry out this task, standard operating procedures (SOP) were
developed. Further, the control charts were drawn to control the deviation in the future.
Chen et al. (2012) conducted a study on the usage of credit card in Taiwan. The
objective was to reduce the financial risk involved during the registration of the credit
card review process along with the identification of the normal and the default customers
by using DMAIC methodology. In define phase, the major concern faced by the banking
industry during the credit card review process was identified using the decision tree. The
details of the customer were collected from customer relationship management (CRM)
desk and analysed to identify the current trend in the banking industry along with the
differentiation of normal and the faulty customers. In measure phase, the data were
collected from different banks about the credit card review process. The rules were
created for collecting data, which were to be precised, completed and correlated. These
data were used for identifying the normal and the faulty customers. In the analysis phase,
the credit card basic data variable chart was developed, and the questionnaires were
included in the chart. The feedback from the chart was evaluated by using the three
models namely ‘non-group’, ‘the training and testing group’ and ‘the crossover group’.
Initially, the evaluation was carried out by using the non-group model to plot the decision
tree which indicated optimal data at each and every point of the credit card review
 Six Sigma through DMAIC phases 247

process whose accuracy level was above 75%. In improve phase, the cross-over
evaluation was carried out on the feedback by referring to the variable chart for finding
the degree of correlation between the nodes of the tree. The results of the decision tree
were framed as the rules that were followed to identify the normal and the faulty
customers. In this case, the following findings were made:
• high yearly income persons had the consistent and robust repaying capabilities than
the low-income people
• females had lower bad debt ratio than males
• the old persons had less desirability over the credit card compared to young people
and students
• married persons had less desirability over bachelors
• the persons with high educational background had higher repaying capability.
In the control phase, the decision tree rules were followed to find the differentiation
between the normal and the faulty customers.
Kumar (2012) reported the application of DMAIC in preventing disruptions occurring
due to the avian flu on global operations. Wal-Mart (retail sector) and Dell computers
(manufacturing sector) supply chain systems were selected for this study. In define phase,
the products were delivered to Wal-Mart from Asia and China. The avian flu began
spreading from China to Hong Kong, Canada, Africa, Asia and Europe. In measure
phase, disruptions that occurred due to the avian flu in the supply chain process were
measured. A situation analysis was conducted by using Decision Focus software on
disruptions that occurred due to the avian flu in Wal-Mart and Dell computers supply
chain. This process is a tool to solve issues that are broad and complex and has multiple
causes and effects that cannot be resolved by carrying out one action. In the analysis
phase, FMEA was used to manage supply chain risk. The result of conducting FMEA
indicated that, failures were wider if risks were not managed effectively. Dell computer’s
and Wal-Mart’s supply chains were examined by conducting FMEA. In improve phase,
the measures were proposed for supply chain improvements. These measures are listed as
follows:
• continuous operation plan reviewing and carrying out vendor capability assessments
• defining preventive measures in an operational action plan
• ensuring business continuity in case of epidemic problem
• drawing better practices from experts and other business firms
• encouraging the trust and openness culture
• educating to understand the symptoms and risks
• educating to acquire preparedness talent for facing emergency
• encouraging the trust and implementing better public health policies in workplaces
In control phase, the control measures were recommended as follows:
• continuous monitoring and identification of infected members
248 K. Srinivasan et al.

• sending of infected members to their homes

• encouraging teleconferences and avoiding direct meetings
• encouraging employees’ hygienic state
• introducing electronic transfers and avoiding document transfers
• vaccination of employees, suppliers and distributors.
Southard et al. (2012) reported a case study involving the application of radio frequency
identification (RFID) in healthcare through DMAIC phases. In define phase, the CTQ
parameters were identified. These CTQ parameters were ‘identification of the patients’
and ‘availability of the facilities’. In measure phase, cycle time of individual tasks,
overall throughput time of the process, cost of providing the procedures, utilisation of the
resources and reduction in errors in the existing system were measured. The current state
of value stream map (VSM) was also analysed. The problems were identified as improper
procedures and sterilisation which occurred prior to, during, and between surgeries. It
was aimed to overcome these problems by achieving process improvement using RFID
technology. In the analysis phase, the way of incorporating RFID in order to improve the
system was examined. Simulation model was developed to analyse the incorporation of
RFID. The focus in this study was to estimate the difference in overall time and costs
associated with and without RFID in the healthcare system. In improve phase, the
theoretical implementation of RFID to the process under study was investigated by
simulating those processes as if that technology were in place. The model with RFID
showed the potential to improve the performance of the outpatient surgical system. The
improved VSM was developed to eliminate non-value added activities. In the control
phase, policies and procedures to be put in place to achieve improvements were created.
It was emphasised that, the process must be continuously monitored and maintained to
retain the improved state. In the end, it was estimated that, annual cost savings would be
$1.93 million if the model with RFID was implemented.
Kumar et al. (2009) conducted a study on summer lodging operation and analysed the
service system in hotel industry. The objective was consistent to deliver high quality
service with improvised customer satisfaction by using the Six Sigma tools like service
blueprint, service quality (SERVQUAL), cause and effect diagram and Poka-yokes. In
define phase, the service blueprint was prepared for the whole process covering the entry
and exit of the customer during the business and non-business hours. The major problems
were that, the unavailability of lodging staff to greet and accommodate the customer and
also the unavailability of receptionist during the time of customer calling for a
reservation. In measure phase, these problems were evaluated by using the SERVQUAL
by obtaining the feedback from the customers. The questionnaires were prepared to
gather the expectation and perception of the information under the five main attributes
namely tangibles, responsiveness, reliability, assurance, and empathy. These attributes
were weighed according to the feedback received from an external customer. The sorting
was performed based on the feedback by using the gap score methodology. In analysis
phase, the major factors which impacted the reservation system and the customer
perception during the check-in and checkout in the lodging were identified. Initially, the
cause and effect diagram was drawn pertaining to the inferior customer service which
indicated the major causes as delinking of reservation system with online booking engine
and detracting of the customer preferences in the reservation section. In improve phase,
 Six Sigma through DMAIC phases 249

the online booking engine was introduced. The customer got their room reserved any
time during the day along with the recruitment of well trained persons to serve the
customers throughout their stay of time in the lodge. The working hours of the employees
with high perks and incentives were slightly increased for offering better service to the
customer. Further, the renovated blueprint was introduced in the reservation system along
with the customer services and preferences with the effective Poka-yokes in lodging for
achieving the customer satisfaction. In the control phase, the control plan, and SOPs were
generated to highly satisfy the customers while performing the reservation. Greetings of
the customer during their stay in lodging will gradually increase the sigma level in the
retail and leisure business.
Kumar et al. (2008a) proposed the improved service system design for the Best Buy
(a major consumer electronics and appliance retailer) using DMAIC approach in the
USA. The competitors to Best Buy are Wal-Mart, Costco and Circuit City. The products
sold by the Best Buy are electronic gadgets, movies, music, computers and electronic
appliances. Best Buy tries to differentiate from its competitor through offering higher
quality service to its customer. In order to improve its service, Best Buy conducted the
SERVQUAL survey to identify the areas lacking quality. In define phase, the ‘customers
and their priorities’, ‘customers’ need and feedback’ and CTQ characteristics that the
customer considered having the highest impact on quality were identified. In measure
phase, the processes and their performances were measured. The internal processes that
influence CTQs were identified, and the defects related to the processes were measured.
In analyse phase, the causes of the defects were determined and the variables that create
the process variation were identified. In improve phase, the methods to remove the cause
of defects, that cause the significant variation and their effects on the CTQs were
identified. The maximum acceptance ranges of the significant variables, a system for
measuring deviations of variables and modifying the process to stay within the acceptable
ranges were identified. In the control phase, the improvements to ensure the key variables
remain within the maximum acceptance ranges under the modified process were
sustained. The improved process will allow Best Buy to provide their customer with
reliable service and also retain the customers’ trust. It will attract the subsidiary of Best
Buy namely Geek Squad to gain more market shares in the electronics repair and
installation service industry.
Kumar et al. (2008b) analysed the credit card initiation in the financial industry by
applying DMAIC phases. The objective of this research was to increase the effectiveness
of the credit card initiation process by reducing the lead time of the approval from
20 days to the period of 15 days. In define phase, the major problems faced while
underwriting of the midmarket customers by the credit card initiation team in the
payment system unit division were defined. In measure phase, the one-shot diagram of
the credit card initiation process was plotted by using the previous five months data
drawn from the company database. The number of days required for a credit card
initiation process against all the mid-market requests in the financial services operation
was identified. In the analysis phase, the data collected from the previous phase were
analysed and picturised with the help of a bar chart. Out of 442 requests, nearly 190
requests took the lead time more than 20 days that should be reduced to 15 days. The
cause and effect diagram was drawn to depict the major causes. The sales team and
‘underwriting and approval team’ were found to play key roles in ensuring credit card
responses. In improve phase, the cause and effect diagram was drawn to depict the
failures that may occur in sales and approval stages. Subsequently, the Poka-yokes were
250 K. Srinivasan et al.

recommended and implemented to overcome all the failures in the financial operations.
In the control phase, the changes were made in the processing stages of the sales
department. Furthermore, the direct review meetings were held with the sales manager
and credit manager to reduce the lead time in the credit initiation process in the financial
concern.
On the whole, the researches reported in the above papers have confirmed that,
DMAIC is a promising model for implementing Six Sigma in companies offering service
to the customers. Most of the authors of the above papers have presented models for
applying DMAIC in the service sector to appropriately utilise the tools of Six Sigma.

6 DMAIC in unconventional sectors

As shown in Figure 1, during the literature review being reported here, four papers
reporting the application of DMAIC in unconventional sectors could be encountered. The
extracts drawn by reviewing these papers are presented in this section.
He et al. (2014) reported a case study on reducing the voluntary turnover rate of
dispatched employees by using DMAIC methodology in a company situated in China. In
define phase, the project team consisting of employees from human resource (HR),
production planning and manufacturing department was formed. This team conducted a
survey and found that many dispatched employees were not satisfied with the salary,
frequent change of work schedules and obscure futures. This team set its goal as to
reduce the turnover rate from 2.5% to 1.5%. In measure phase, the team gathered the data
required for establishing the baseline of the project. The questionnaire was developed by
modifying Price’s causal model and weighing through a five-point Likert’s scale.
Measurement system analysis (MSA) was carried out to evaluate the quality and
reliability of data collected for finding the key factors of voluntary turnover. In analyse
phase, these factors were analysed and ranked through partial correlation analysis. The
results of this analysis revealed that, the salary and benefits were the most important
factors that affect the dispatched employees’ retention will. Converting opportunity and
job hunting were also the key factors influencing turnover. In improve phase, salary and
benefits, converting opportunities, rotation system, career development, training and
human care were found to be the significant factors for achieving improvement.
Brainstorming and mind mapping were conducted to choose the best solution for
reducing the turnover. The team suggested and implemented the increase of salary by
12.5%, increase of the converting number by 30%, military and regular training, regular
sports activity, offering of birthday and festival gifts. A pilot run was conducted, and its
results showed a drastic decrease in turnover rate from 2.5% to 1.4% and also the gaining
of considerable savings in recruiting and training costs. In control phase, the project team
provided the necessary suggestions to sustain the achieved improvement by continuous
monitoring of the same.
Franchetti and Yanik (2011) reported the implementation of lean DMAIC Six Sigma
approach in a company to reduce costs and achieve continuous improvement. In define
phase, the objective was set to increase the capacity by 10% and reduce the cost by 15%
by employing brainstorming technique, conducting the CTQ analysis and defining the
scope. In measure phase, the SIPOC diagram was drawn to measure the manufacturing
capacity and operating costs to establish the Six Sigma metrics namely the process cycle
time, weekly operating costs, value addition and material handling flows/costs. In
 Six Sigma through DMAIC phases 251

analysis phase, the data collected from the previous phase was evaluated by using the Six
Sigma tools namely VSM, Pareto analysis, root cause analysis and FMEA to identify the
significant factors which influenced the CTQ. Pareto analysis was conducted to
determine the largest contributors to cost overruns. This analysis indicated that, over 60%
of the problems occurred due to the lack of standard procedures and monitoring
mechanisms. 30% of the problems occurred due to the inefficiency of the existing layout.
The FMEA was conducted to identify the major failure modes, potential effects, severity,
occurrences and detection. The CTQs were analysed and listed by referring to the risk
priority number (RPN) rating. In improve phase, the improvement proposals were
suggested. These proposals included the implementation of supermarket and Kanban,
rationalisation of the layout, monitoring the labour utilisation, standardisation and
documentation of all processes through the conduct of brainstorming sessions.
Furthermore, the computerised relative allocation facility technique (CRAFT) was
employed to design new layouts to reduce the cost. In control phase, the system was
developed to monitor and sustain the improvement proposals. The improvements were
achieved through the development of SOP, training and daily progress tracking of all the
employees in the facility. The log books were maintained in the work centre to record the
key metrics. After the implementation of the improvement proposals, the sigma level
increased and the operating cost of the process reduced steeply.
Kaushik and Khanduja (2009) reported the application of DMAIC approach in a
thermal power plant. In define phase, the objective was to eliminate the unwanted usage
of demineralised (DM) water in the thermal power plant that will increase the expenses.
The reduction of consumption of DM water in thermal power plant was selected as CTQ.
Furthermore, a process map was drawn for DM water consumption to define the
customer requirements and identify the project goals. In measure phase, the DM water
flow was measured using a flow meter. A gauge R and R study was carried out by using
another flow meter. In the analysis phase, based on the data collected using the flow
meter, the process capability analysis was drawn for the DM water consumption. The
cause and effect diagram was drawn to show the possible causes of the problem. The
actual DM water wastage from different points was measured. In improve phase,
brainstorming sessions were conducted to address the problems and identify the vital
factors through screening and understanding the correlation of the vital factors. In the
control phase, the optimum usage of the DM water level was identified and controlled
with the help of the control plan along with the work instruction sheet. In the end, the
sigma level increased from –0.75 to 1.63 and the annual cost saving of INR 296.09 lakhs
was achieved.
Yeh et al. (2007) have presented the method of evaluating the performance of
supply chain management (SCM) based on DMAIC process through fuzzy linguistic
computing (FLC) model. In define phase, the characteristics namely effectiveness,
rapidity, responsiveness, and customer satisfaction to withstand intensified competition
were identified as SCM goals. The objective was to modify the two-tuple FLC model by
utilising geometric operator and modifying symbolic translation functions. In measure
phase, in order to improve the consistency, an algorithm namely two-tuple technique was
introduced. The criteria namely weighting identification and performance appraisal were
ranked. In the analysis phase, the outcome of the process was analysed using two-tuple
FLC model. The aggregated outcomes could be easily compared, and analysed against
each criterion and sub-criterion to examine the capability of FLC model. In improve
phase, the optimal improvement strategy to accelerate the performance of the suppliers in
252 K. Srinivasan et al.

SCM system was evolved. In the control phase, the continuous monitoring processes and
response plan developments were executed through the modified FLC model for
evaluating the performance of SCM.
On the whole, the researches reported in the above papers have confirmed that,
DMAIC is a compatible model for achieving the goals of Six Sigma not only in
manufacturing and service sectors, but also in other sectors.

7 Inferences

The review of papers mentioned in the previous three sections was useful to draw the
following inferences.
• DMAIC is a suitable model for implementing in all types of organisations.
• Even in the absence of belt-based training infrastructure, a Six Sigma program
encompassing DMAIC phases facilitates the achievement of the goals of Six Sigma.
• The researchers who strove to implement DMAIC have reported certain benefits.
The benefits reported by them are enumerated in Tables 1, 2 and 3.

Table 1 Benefits of applying DMAIC in manufacturing sectors

S. no. Paper Benefits

1 Jirasukprasert et
al. (2014)
2 Ghosh and Maiti
(2014)
3 Kumaravadivel
and Natarajan
(2013)
4 Kumar et al.
(2013)
5 Kaushik et al.
(2012)
6 Li et al. (2011)
7 Chen et al. (2009)
8 Kumar and
Sosnoski (2009)
9 Lo et al. (2009)
10 Tong et al. (2004)
a The sigma level increased from 2.4 to 2.9.
b The reduction of DPMO from 1,95,095 to 83,750.
a Significant reduction in gas defects.
b The annual cost savings achieved up to INR 16 million.
a The sigma level increased from 3.49 to 3.65.
b The process capability increased from 1.163 to 1.22.
c The rejection of components reduced from 50 to 32.
d The percentage of rejection reduced from 6.94 to 4.69.
a The sigma level increased from 3.18 to 3.42.
b The cost savings were achieved up to INR 1,124,350 in a year.
a The sigma level increased from 1.40 to 5.46.
b The cost savings were achieved up to INR 0.288 million per
annum.
a The sigma level increased from 0.84 to 2.07.
b The waiting time was reduced from 131 to 71 minutes.
c Monthly monetary savings were achieved up to NTD 26,856.
Significant reduction of time and cost was achieved.
The profit increased by 2% of company’s annual revenue.
The process capability increased from 0.57 to 1.75.
a The sigma level increased from 1.162 to 5.924.
b The process capability increased from 1.021 to 1.975.
 Six Sigma through DMAIC phases 253

Table 2 Benefits of applying DMAIC in service sectors

S. no. Paper Benefits

1 Mayer (2014)
2 Yu and Ueng
(2012)
3 Antony et al.
(2012)
4 Chen et al. (2012)
5 Kumar (2012)
6 Southard et al.
(2012)
7 Kumar et al.
(2009)
8 Kumar et al.
(2008a)
9 Kumar et al.
(2008b)
Significant improvement in patient and instructor satisfaction was
achieved.
Recommended the improvement methods to enhance the teaching
effectiveness.
Cost savings were achieved up to £400,000 per annum.
Significant reduction of bank credit risks and losses was achieved.
a Enhancement in awareness about avian flu’s impact on
businesses and humans could be achieved.
b Contingency planning was carried out to avoid losses.
Cost savings were achieved up to $1.93 million per annum.
Significant enhancement in customer service and satisfaction was
achieved.
Enhancement in service quality and increase in customer
satisfaction were achieved.
The process cycle time decreased from 20 days to 15 days.

Table 3 Benefits of applying DMAIC in unconventional sectors

S. no. Paper Benefits

1 He et al. (2014)
2 Franchetti and
Yanik (2011)
3 Kaushik and
Khanduja (2009)
4 Yeh et al. (2007)
a The dispatched employees’ turnover rate significantly reduced
from 2.5% to 1.4%.
b Substantial savings in recruiting and training costs.
The cost savings achieved up to $659,412 per annum.
a The Six Sigma level increased from –0.75 to 1.63.
b The cost savings achieved up to INR 296.09 lakhs per annum.
Significant increase in the performance of supply chain.

As shown in Table 1, the application of DMAIC facilitates to achieve the goals of Six
Sigma concept in manufacturing sectors. The researchers who strove to implement
DMAIC have reported the gaining of certain benefits in the service sectors. These
benefits are enumerated in Table 2. The researchers who strove to implement DMAIC
have reported the reaping of certain benefits in unconventional sectors. These benefits are
presented in Table 3. On the whole, as shown in Tables 1, 2 and 3, the benefits of
applying DMAIC are clearly established in manufacturing, service and unconventional
sectors. However, the implementation of DMAIC in unconventional sectors is yet to be
widely investigated by the researchers.
254 K. Srinivasan et al.

8 Conclusions

The Six Sigma model emerged at Motorola in the 1980s (Jirasukprasert et al., 2014;
Chakraborty and Chuan, 2013; Marques et al., 2013; Pepper and Spedding, 2010).
Thereafter, many papers reporting the applications of Six Sigma in all sectors emerged.
While this trend continuous even today, a section of researchers found out that, the
belt-based training infrastructure of Six Sigma concept is quite expensive. Hence, a few
researchers began to apply only DMAIC in few sectors to achieve the goals of Six Sigma.
On realising this new trend of research, the literature review presented in this paper was
carried out. During the conduct of this literature review, it was discernable that, the
application of DMAIC is powerful enough to restrict the companies belonging to
manufacturing and service sectors to produce goods and offer services by making
mistakes less than 3.4 DPMO (Jirasukprasert et al., 2014; Kumaravadivel and Natarajan,
2013). However, the outcome of implementing DMAIC in unconventional sectors is not
clearly spelt out. Moreover, the number of researches conducted in unconventional
sectors on applying DMAIC is very less. In this background, it is suggested that, many
researches involving the applications of DMAIC are required to be conducted in
companies belonging to unconventional sectors. Some of the unconventional sectors are
those manufacturing furnace accessories, automobile accessories, food products and
components in unconventional machines like electrical discharge machining (EDM) and
electro-chemical machining (ECM). The researchers may concentrate on applying
DMAIC in these unconventional sectors by applying DMAIC and analysing the results. If
found necessary, systems may be developed for implementing DMAIC in specific
sectors. This kind of contribution of these researchers will aid the unconventional sectors
to acquire competitive strength for facing today’s intensified competition (Jirasukprasert
et al., 2014; Sugumaran et al., 2013; Natarajan et al., 2011a, 2011b).

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