Engineering Fracture Mechanics 133 (2015) 99–111

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Engineering Fracture Mechanics

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfracmech

Effect of surface flaw on fatigue strength of shot-peened

medium-carbon steel
Junji Sakamoto a,b, Yong-Sung Lee a, Seong-Kyun Cheong a,⇑
a
Department of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering, Seoul National University of Science and Technology, 232 Gongreung-ro, Nowon-gu, Seoul
139-743, Republic of Korea
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University, 744 Moto-oka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The effect of surface flaw on fatigue strength of shot-peened medium-carbon steel was
Received 25 March 2014 experimentally studied. The fatigue crack initiation life, fatigue crack growth life, and
Received in revised form 1 October 2014 fatigue limit in the steel can be increased by using shot peening (SP). The fatigue fracture
Accepted 6 November 2014
of SP specimen occurred by the propagations and coalescence of fatigue cracks initiated
Available online 13 November 2014
from the initial cracks due to SP. The fatigue limit of SP specimen was determined by
the propagation limit of fatigue crack. When the size of surface flaw is sufficiently small
Keywords:
compared to the SP affected zone, the flaws have not significantly changed the fatigue
Fatigue strength
Shot peening
strength of the SP specimens.
Surface flaw Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Small fatigue crack behavior
Focused ion beam

1. Introduction

Every structural material has surface flaws introduced during the manufacturing process and the handling process of the
structure. The flaws reduce the fatigue life of materials in general. In regard to the fatigue limit, the flaws are liberally cat-
egorized into the non-damaging flaws and damaging flaws by the size [1–3]. Non-damaging flaws do not reduce the fatigue
limit of the material.
Meanwhile, shot peening (SP) is a powerful method to improve the fatigue strength of structural metallic materials such
as steel [4,5], aluminum alloy [6], magnesium alloy [7], and titanium alloy [8]. The metallic materials change by applying SP
treatment. The main changes of material are as follows: (i) surface profile, (ii) hardness distribution, (iii) residual stress dis-
tribution, and (iv) grain refinement [9]. Fortunately, SP is useful for increasing the maximum size of non-damaging flaw in
addition to improving the fatigue limit of materials with a surface flaw in high-strength steels [10–13]. Surface flaws were
introduced before SP in those studies. However, surface flaws may also be introduced during the use of material. Neverthe-
less, the studies about the effect of the surface flaw introduced after SP treatment on fatigue strength characteristics are still
limited [14].
In previous studies, several types of surface flaws have been employed to assess the fatigue crack behavior, e.g., the flaw
obtained by drilling, indentation, electro-erosion, or focused ion beam (FIB) [1–3,10–15]. First, to evaluate the non-propagat-
ing limit of small fatigue cracks, low stress-concentration flaws such as a drilled-hole might not be able to be used because
no non-propagating crack initiates from the flaw at the fatigue limit [15]. Therefore, high stress-concentration flaws such as a

⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 2 970 6330; fax: +82 2 949 1458.
E-mail address: skjung@seoultech.ac.kr (S.-K. Cheong).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2014.11.005
0013-7944/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
100 J. Sakamoto et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 133 (2015) 99–111

Nomenclature

N non-peened
SP shot-peened or shot peening
ra stress amplitude
rw fatigue limit
ry lower yield stress
l crack length
Ni fatigue crack initiation life
Np fatigue crack propagation life
Nf fatigue life
SIM scanning ion microscope
HV Vickers hardness
FIB focused ion beam
DK stress intensity factor range
dl/dN fatigue crack growth rate

flaw introduced using electro-erosion and FIB are suitable for assessing the non-propagating limit of small fatigue cracks.
Secondly, creating surface flaws can influence on the material properties. In particular, the surface flaw obtained by inden-
tation appears to induce a relatively-large change of the residual stress field [14]. Although the indentation flaws are close to
the practical flaws like a flaw due to foreign object damage, we should consider the change of material properties due to
indentation in addition to the effect of flaw on fatigue strength. On the other hand, the surface flaws obtained by electro-
erosion and FIB appear to induce a relatively-small change of the material properties. Thus, to focus on the effect of flaw
on the fatigue strength in this study, a sharp notch was introduced as an artificial surface flaw using FIB-milling technique.
In this study, the medium-carbon steel was selected as the experimental material because there is enough information on
the fatigue strength characteristics of un-treated specimens to compare with the obtained results. The objective of this study
is to clarify the effect of the surface flaw introduced after SP on the fatigue strength in the steel. The non-peened and shot-
peened specimens with and without an FIB-milled notch were fatigued using a rotating bending fatigue testing machine.
Moreover, the specimen polished after SP was also fatigued. During the fatigue test, the fatigue crack growth behaviors were
observed using a plastic replica method. The fracture surfaces were observed with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to
identify the fatigue crack initiation sites.

2. Material and experimental procedure

2.1. Material

The material used in the present study was an annealed medium carbon steel with following chemical composition (in
wt.%): C – 0.45, Si – 0.77, Mn – 0.54, S – 0.32, Al – 1.32, Cr – 0.15, Ni – 0.33, Cu – 0.23, and Fe-Balance. The steel was annealed
at 845 °C for 0.5 h in the air atmosphere. The average Vickers hardness was 184HV. Fig. 1 shows the optical microscopic
image of the microstructure of the steel. The sample for optical microscopy was polished using fine emery papers with grit

50 µm

Fig. 1. Optical microscopic image of microstructure of annealed medium carbon steel.

 J. Sakamoto et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 133 (2015) 99–111 101

sizes of up to #2000, buff-polished, and subsequently etched with the solution which contains 5% nitric acid and 95% meth-
anol. The sample’s microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite.

2.2. Fatigue testing

Fig. 2 shows the shapes and dimensions of the fatigue specimen and the FIB-milled notch. The FIB-milled notches in this
study were prepared by an FIB system (Quanta 3D 200i; FEI Ltd.). An acceleration voltage, a beam current, and machining
time used in this study of 30 kV, 65 nA, and 30 min, respectively. The condition determines the beam diameter and radius
of curvature of the notch. The average curvature radius of the FIB-milled notch was approximately 3 lm as shown in
Fig. 2(b). The FIB-milled notch is a wedge shape. Fig. 3 shows the flowchart of machining process of five series of fatigue
specimens (N: non-peened, SP: shot-peened, NFIB: non-peened FIB-milled notch, SPFIB: shot-peened FIB-milled notch, SPPFIB:

5
R57.2

Fig. 2. Shapes and dimensions: (a) fatigue specimen; (b) FIB-milled notch.

Non-peened (N)

SP Shot-peened (SP)
Machining
& Non-peened, FIB-milled notch (NFIB)
Polishing FIB
Shot-peened, FIB-milled notch (SPFIB)
notching
SP
Polishing Shot-peened, Polished, FIB-milled notch (SPPFIB)

Fig. 3. Flowchart of machining process of five series of specimens.

102 J. Sakamoto et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 133 (2015) 99–111

Crack
l

FIB-milled notch

Loading direction

Fig. 4. Schematic illustration of measurement of crack length, l.

shot-peened polished FIB-milled notch). All the series were machined and polished using fine emery papers with grit sizes of
up to #2000. The specimens were then treated as shown in Fig. 3.
Fatigue tests were conducted under constant load using an ono-type rotating bending machine in which the stress ratio
was always 1. All specimens were rotated by the machine at room temperature in atmosphere environment. The fatigue
life, Nf, and the fatigue limit, rw, were defined as the number of cycles to failure and the maximum stress amplitude under
which the specimen endured 107 cycles, respectively. To investigate the effect of SP on the fatigue crack growth behavior, the
behaviors of three series of fatigue specimens (NFIB, SPFIB, and SPPFIB specimens) at the same stress amplitude, ra, were
observed by the plastic replica method. The crack length was measured as its projection on the plane perpendicular to
the loading direction (see Fig. 4). Moreover, to clarify the phenomenon of the fracture, the fracture surfaces were observed
by stereoscopic microscope. To investigate the fatigue limits of four series of fatigue specimens (N, SP, NFIB, and SPFIB spec-
imens), two or three specimens on each series were fatigue tested.

Table 1
Shot peening conditions.

Shot ball Shot flow Shot velocity Exposure time

Material Shape Diameter
Steel (371HV) Spherical 0.8 mm 42 kg/min 50 m/s 20 min
Almen intensity: 0.44 mm A Coverage: 500%

0.6

0.5
Almen arrc height, H [mm A]

Almen intensity
0.4
0.44 mm A

0.3

0.2

0.1
Almen A strip
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Exposure time, t [min]

Fig. 5. Relation between arc height, H mm A, and exposure time, t min.

 J. Sakamoto et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 133 (2015) 99–111 103

(a) 450
140% 280% 560%
400
2240%

Stress amplitude, σa [MPa]

350

300

250 Almen intensity: 0.62 mm A

200 Fracture
Non-fracture
150
1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10
Coverage, C [%]

(b) 450
0.24 0.44 0.62 mm A
400
Stress amplitude, σa [MPa]

350

300

250

200 Fracture
Non-fracture Coverage: 500-560%

150
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Almen intensity [mm A]

Fig. 6. Fatigue tests results of shot-peened annealed medium carbon steel: (a) effect of coverage on the fatigue limit [16]; (b) effect of Almen intensity on
the fatigue limit [17].

2.3. Shot peening

Table 1 lists the SP conditions used in this study. The Almen intensity under the condition was 0.44 mm A as shown in
Fig. 5. First, the effect of coverage on fatigue limit of the steel was studied as shown in Fig. 6(a) [16]. The fatigue limit
increases with increasing the coverage within the range of 140–560%. SP with the coverage of over 560% makes no further
improvement of the fatigue limit. Thus, 500% coverage was chosen as the coverage used in the present study. Secondly, the
effect of Almen intensity on fatigue limit of the steel was studied as shown in Fig. 6(b) [17]. In a similar way, 0.44 mm A was
chosen as the Almen intensity used in the present study.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Surface condition

The surface roughness profiles were measured using a surface roughness measuring machine (SJ-400; MITUTOYO Ltd.).
The calculated average roughness, Ra lm, and maximum height, Rz lm, were measured at 10 points of the SP sample within
an evaluation length of 4000 lm. The total average values of Ra and Rz were 4.8 lm and 25.4 lm, respectively. The value of
the depth of FIB-milled notch was almost two times bigger than that of maximum height. Fig. 7 shows the scanning ion
microscope (SIM) images of the surface of the shot-peened specimen. The specimen has several surface cracks introduced
by SP as shown in Fig. 7(b). In annealed medium carbon steel, the surface cracks were observed in the material shot-peened
at Almen intensity of 0.15, 0.36, and 0.70 mm A [18]. Fig. 8(a) shows the hardness distribution of hardness of the shot-pee-
ned specimen in the depth direction. Vickers hardness, HV, was measured at the load of 0.49 N. The hardness of untreated
104 J. Sakamoto et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 133 (2015) 99–111

Observation areas
(b)
(a)

(a)

1 mm

(b) (b1)

(b2)
(b1)
(b2)
(b3)
(b3)
0.5 mm

Fig. 7. SIM images of surface of shot-peened specimen.

steel was 184HV. The hardness gradually decreased in the depth of approximately 700 lm and reached the hardness of non-
peened materials. Kim et al. measured the residual stress distributions in the depth direction of the annealed medium-car-
bon steel shot-peened at Almen intensities of 0.15, 0.36, and 0.70 mm A [18]. The depths of layers with compressive residual
stress in the samples treated using Almen intensities of 0.15, 0.36, and 0.70 mm A are approximately 450, 700, and 800 lm,
respectively. The shot peening machine and shot media used in their study was the exact same as those used in this study.
Thus, the compressive residual stress in the sample treated using Almen intensity of 0.44 mm A is estimated using the inter-
polation of the data obtained by Kim et al. as shown in Fig. 8(b). A gradient stress field is introduced by rotating bending. The
stress at the depth of 800 lm is 80% of the maximum stress at the surface.

3.2. S–N curves

Fig. 9 shows the relations between stress amplitude, ra MPa, and number of cycles to failure, Nf, of five series of speci-
mens. The arrow indicates that the fracture had not occurred when tests were determined at 107. The fatigue life and the
fatigue limit of annealed medium carbon steel specimens were increased by SP. The FIB-milled notches reduced the fatigue
life and fatigue limit of the N specimens. On the other hand, the FIB-milled notches did not reduce the fatigue life and fatigue
limit of the SP specimens although the size of the FIB-milled notch was bigger than that of the maximum height. In other
words, when the dimensions of surface flaw are sufficiently small compared to the SP affected zone, the flaws have not nota-
bly changed the fatigue strength of the SP specimens. The result suggests the efficacy of SP in the fatigue strength of spec-
imen with a flaw introduced after the treatment.
 J. Sakamoto et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 133 (2015) 99–111 105

(a)

(b) 400
Compressive residual stress, σ CRS [MPa]

300

200

100

0
Value interpolated using
the data obtained by Kim et al. [18]
-100
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Distance from surface, [μm]

Fig. 8. Material properties of shot-peened medium-carbon steel: (a) hardness distribution of shot-peened medium-carbon steel in depth direction; (b)
compressive residual stress distribution of shot-peened medium-carbon steel in depth direction obtained by Kim et al. [18].

500
R = -1
450
400
Stress amplitude, σa [MPa]

350
300
250
200 N
150 SP
NFIB
100
SPFIB
50 SPPFIB
0
4 5 6 7 8
10 10 10 10 10
Number of cycles to failure, Nf

Fig. 9. S–N curves of five series of specimens.

106 J. Sakamoto et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 133 (2015) 99–111

3.3. Fatigue crack behavior

Fig. 10 shows the relations between surface crack length and cycles for the NFIB and SPFIB specimens at ra = 400 MPa and
NFIB specimen at ra = 350 MPa. The fatigue crack initiation life, Ni, and propagation life, Np, were defined as the cycle at which
the first crack was detected on replica and the remaining fatigue life, respectively. The values of Ni of the NFIB and SPFIB spec-
imens at ra = 400 MPa and NFIB specimen at ra = 350 MPa were 1.5  103, 3.0  103, and 1.0  104 cycles, respectively. The
values of Ni/Nf of the NFIB and SPFIB specimens at ra = 400 MPa and NFIB specimen at ra = 350 MPa were 0.08, 0.07, and 0.14,
respectively. The values of Np/Nf were approximately 0.9. The fatigue life is mainly controlled by the fatigue propagation life
in the specimens with an FIB-milled notch.
Nisitani et al. investigated the small fatigue crack growth behaviors of 18 types of carbon steels including an annealed
medium carbon steel using specimens with a small hole [19,20]. They got the following crack growth laws and a classifica-
tion method based on the ratio between stress amplitude and yield strength [19,20]. When a crack is propagating under high
nominal stress (ra P 0.6ry, ry: the lower yield stress), the crack growth rate follows Eq. (1).

dl=dN ¼ c1 rna l ð1Þ

When a crack is propagating under low nominal stress (ra 6 0.5ry), the crack growth rate follows Eq. (2), so-called Paris law.

dl=dN ¼ C DK m ð2Þ

Here DK is the stress intensity factor range and the effective parameter for the propagation of large cracks in which the con-
dition of small scale yielding is satisfied. However, dl/dN of a small crack under a high stress is not determined by DK. The

4
10
Crack length, l [μm]

3
10

2
10
400 MPa NFIB
350 MPa NFIB
400 MPa SPPFIB
1
10
0 20000 40000 60000 80000
Cycles

Fig. 10. Relations between surface crack length and cycles for three specimens.

-5
10
Fatigue crack growth rate, dl/dN [m/cycle]

Non-peened

-6
10
1
1
10
-7 l

-8
10 400 MPa NFIB
350 MPa NFIB
Shot-peened 400 MPa SPPFIB
-9
10 21 22 23 24
10 10 10 10
7.5 7.5
σa l [(MPa) μm]

Fig. 11. Relations between fatigue crack growth rate and r7.5
a l for three specimens.
 J. Sakamoto et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 133 (2015) 99–111 107

Fig. 12. Fatigue crack initiation and growth behaviors from an FIB-milled notch for shot-peened specimen (ra = 400 MPa, Nf = 4.09  104 cycles). Arrows
indicate position of crack tips.

stress amplitudes of 400 and 350 MPa are higher than 0.6ry (ry = 360 MPa, 0.6ry = 216 MPa). The value of n in Eq. (1) is 7.5
in case of annealed medium carbon steel [20]. Fig. 11 shows the relation between fatigue crack growth rate and r7.5 a l for the
NFIB specimens at ra = 400 and 350 MPa and the SPPFIB specimen at ra = 400 MPa. The dl/dN of the NFIB specimens is deter-
mined uniquely by r7.5 7.5
a l as shown in Fig. 11. At the same ra l, the dl/dN of the SPPFIB specimen is lower than those of the NFIB
specimens. This must be due to the compressive residual stress and hardness improvement induced by SP. Moreover, the dl/
dN of the SPPFIB specimen becomes closer to that of the NFIB specimens with an increase in r7.5 a l. This may be due to the
108 J. Sakamoto et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 133 (2015) 99–111

Fig. 13. Surface states of shot-peened specimen with an FIB-milled notch at different cycles (ra = 350 MPa, non-fracture).

(a)

(a-1) (a-2)
FIB-milled notch

1 mm 50 µm
(a-2)
Fig. 14. Fatigue crack initiation sites of annealed medium carbon steel at stress amplitude of 400 MPa: (a) NFIB specimen; (b) SPFIB specimen; (c) SPPFIB
specimen; (d) SP specimen.
 J. Sakamoto et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 133 (2015) 99–111 109

(b)

(b-1) 100 µm

FIB-milled notch

1 mm
(b-1)

(b-2)
(b-2)

500 µm 50 µm

Fig. 14 (continued)

compressive residual stress and hardness become smaller with an increase of crack size and also the compressive residual
stress become smaller with an increase in number of cycles, i.e. residual stress relaxation.
Fig. 12 shows the behaviors of fatigue crack initiation and growth from an FIB-milled notch for SPFIB at stress amplitude of
400 MPa. The value of Ni was 7.5  103 cycles and higher than that of non-peened specimen with an FIB-milled notch at
stress amplitude of 400 MPa, 1.5  103 cycles. The result indicates that the fatigue crack initiation life can be extended by
using SP. In the SPFIB specimen, the fatigue crack initiated and propagated from the initial crack due to SP before the fatigue
crack initiated from the FIB-milled notch. The propagated cracks coalesced and formed the big cracks at 2.8  104 and
3.5  104 cycles in Fig. 12. The values of Np of SPFIB specimen and NFIB specimen were 3.34  104 and 1.65  104 cycles,
respectively. The value of Np of SPFIB specimen was higher than that of NFIB specimen, although the several cracks coalesced
and propagated in SPFIB specimen.
Fig. 13 shows the surface states near an FIB-milled notch for shot-peened specimen at stress amplitude of 350 MPa. A
non-propagating crack was observed near the FIB-milled notch in the specimen. The fatigue limit was determined by the
propagation limit of fatigue crack.

3.4. Fractography

Fig. 14 shows the fracture surfaces of four series of specimens at stress amplitude of 400 MPa, (a) NFIB specimen, (b) SPFIB
specimen, (c) SPPFIB specimen, and (d) SP specimen. In Fig. 14(a), the fatigue crack initiated from an FIB-milled notch in the
NFIB specimen. In Fig. 14(b), the several fatigue crack initiation sites are observed. This suggests that the fatigue crack initi-
ated and propagated at the surface from an FIB-milled notch and surface cracks induced by SP and coalesced. In Fig. 14(c), a
110 J. Sakamoto et al. / Engineering Fracture Mechanics 133 (2015) 99–111

(c)
(c-1)

FIB-milled notch

1 mm 50 µm
(c-1)
(d) 50 µm
(d-1)

(d-1) 1 mm

(d-2) 1 mm (d-2) 200 µm

Fig. 14 (continued)

fatigue crack initiation site can be observed. In Fig. 14(d), the several fatigue initiation sites at the surface are observed. The
fatigue fracture occurred from the surface in the N specimens as well as the SP specimens without an FIB-milled notch under
the SP condition used in this study.

4. Conclusions

The effect of surface flaw on the fatigue strength of shot-peened medium-carbon steel was experimentally studied. The
findings and conclusions of the study are as follows:

(1) The fatigue crack initiation life, fatigue crack growth life, and fatigue limit in the steel can be increased by using SP.
(2) The fatigue fracture of SP specimen occurred by the propagations and coalescence of fatigue cracks initiated from the
initial cracks due to SP.
(3) The fatigue limit of SP specimen was determined by the propagation limit of fatigue crack.
(4) The FIB-milled notches reduced the fatigue life and fatigue limit of the N specimens, on the other hand, the FIB-milled
notches did not reduce those of the SP specimens.
(5) The fatigue crack growth rate of the SP specimens was lower than that of the N specimens and became closer to that of
the N specimens with increasing of crack size and cycles.

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