Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
L E E HENDRIX A N D T H E A VIGNATJ—WILBERG
T H E J. PAUL GETTY M U S E U M
MALIBU, I 9 9 2
© 1992 THE J' PAUL GETTY MUSEUM
I7985 PACIFIC COAST HIGHWAY
MALIBU, CALIFORNIA 90265-5799
91-42741
CIP
Project Staff:
ANDREA P.A. BELLOLI, EDITOR
LORRAINE WILD, DESIGNER
CHARLES PASSELA, PHOTOGRAPHER
KAREN SCHMIDT, PRODUCTION COORDINATOR
vii Foreword
John Walsh
viii Preface
Thomas Krcn
1 M i r a calligraphiae monumenta:
A n Overview
Lee Hendrix
7 G e o r g Bocskay, T h e Calligrapher
Thea Vignau-Wilberg
15 Joris Hoefnagel, T h e Illuminator
Thea Vignau-Wilberg
29 The W r i t i n g M o d e l Book
Lee Hendrix
313 T h e Constructed Alphabet
Thea Vignau-Wilberg
411 Codicological Description
of the M a n u s c r i p t
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FOREWORD
John W a l s h
Director
vii
PREFACE
Vlll
manuscript i l l u m i n a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n to its meticulous studies of flora a n d
fauna, however, it points directly to the emergence of D u t c h still life paint-
ing, an essentially n e w artistic genre of the seventeenth century. B o c s k a y s
achievement bears an analogous relationship to the history of W e s t e r n
w r i t i n g . P r o d u c e d at a time w h e n p r i n t e d books h a d almost totally replaced
m a n u s c r i p t s , i t celebrates the f u n c t i o n of the h a n d w r i t t e n b o o k as the
p r i n c i p a l preserver a n d disseminator of knowledge w h i l e also s h o w i n g the
concern w i t h self-expression that w o u l d dominate the uses of script from the
sixteenth century on.
T h e present publication is conceived i n t w o volumes. T h e first
is this facsimile, w h i c h includes an i n t r o d u c t i o n to the m a n u s c r i p t . T h e
second, companion volume w i l l have a more detailed a n d scholarly com-
mentary on the b o o k - i t s illumination, its script, its creators, and its patrons.
T h e M a n u s c r i p t s department w o u l d like to thank t w o noted
specialists o n Joris Hoefnagel - L e e H e n d r i x , Associate C u r a t o r of D r a w -
ings at the M u s e u m , a n d T h e a V i g n a u - W i l b e r g , C u r a t o r of Netherlandish
P r i n t s a n d D r a w i n g s , Staatliche G r a p h i s c h e Sammlung, M u n i c h - f o r pre-
p a r i n g the introductory texts to this volume, w h i c h include b o t h n e w ideas
about the manuscript a n d n e w documentary evidence about the artist and
scribe. D r . H e n d r i x has also conscientiously a n d creatively played a role i n
nearly every aspect of the facsimiles production. W i t h great generosity a n d
g o o d s p i r i t , C a r i a S. O l d e n b u r g e r - E b b e r s a n d D . O . W i j n a n d s , L a n d -
ix
b o u w u n i v e r s i t e i t Wageningen, p r o v i d e d the botanical identifications, a n d
A . J. de W i n t e r a n d K . W . R o b e r t Z w a r t , the insect a n d mollusk i d e n t i f i -
cations. Further assistance w a s p r o v i d e d b y R o b e r t L . B e z y a n d James H .
M c C l e a n , N a t u r a l H i s t o r y M u s e u m of L o s Angeles C o u n t y , a n d b y Robert
C o w a n , w h o translated D r . V i g n a u - W i l b e r g ' s o r i g i n a l G e r m a n text.
Charles Passela, the doyen of photographers of i l l u m i n a t e d manuscripts,
labored w i t h characteristic determination a n d resourcefulness to produce
the most faithful possible renderings o n f i l m of the v a r i e d a n d sometimes
elusive hues c o n t a i n e d i n the b o o k . W e are d e e p l y appreciative of the
marvelous w o r k he has done. N a n c y Turner supervised the book's p h o t o -
graphy o n behalf of the M a n u s c r i p t s department. W e thank the staff of the
Publications department, under the direction of C h r i s t o p h e r H u d s o n , for
their w i l l i n g n e s s to u n d e r t a k e a c o m p l e x t y p e of project w h i c h is more
familiar i n E u r o p e a n than i n A m e r i c a n p u b l i s h i n g : especially A n d r e a P. A .
B e l l o l i , the e d i t o r of this b o o k , K a r e n S c h m i d t , P r o d u c t i o n M a n a g e r ,
a n d others w h o contributed to the project's realization. T h e graceful b o o k
design is b y L o r r a i n e W i l d . T o all of these i n d i v i d u a l s w e offer our most
sincere thanks.
Thomas K r e n
Curator of Manuscripts
X
MIRA CALLIGRAPHIAE MONUMENTAI
AN OVERVIEW
1
margins to interact w i t h figurai imagery. Such play w i t h the relationship
between w o r d a n d image, however, w a s generally subordinated to other tasks
performed b y the i l l u m i n a t e d codex, such as the transmission of information
a nd the propagation of devotional practices.
Mira calligraphiae monumenta is a singular artistic creation i n the
history of i l l u m i n a t e d manuscripts. T h i s very uniqueness, coupled w i t h the
absence of contemporary textual references to the w o r k , force one to rely
p r i n c i p a l l y o n i n t e r n a l evidence w h e n f o r m i n g a t h e o r y as to the w o r k ' s
meaning and significance. It is argued here that Mira calligraphiae monumenta
i n its present state provides an extended meditation on the efficacy of imagery
versus that of the w r i t t e n w o r d . T h e manuscript evolved i n stages over a
long period of time and n o w consists of t w o distinct parts. T h e first of these,
comprising 123 v e l l u m a n d 5 paper folios, w a s originally w r i t t e n as a m o d e l
b o o k of calligraphy i n 1561-62 b y the i m p e r i a l secretary G e o r g Bocskay for
the H o l y R o m a n E m p e r o r F e r d i n a n d I H a p s b u r g (r. 1556-64). Bocskay
created the m o d e l b o o k as p r o o f of his o w n preeminence among scribes a n d
as a testament to the universal p o w e r of the w r i t t e n w o r d b o t h past a n d
present. I n so d o i n g , he assembled a vast selection o f c o n t e m p o r a r y a n d
historical scripts as w e l l as many e x h i b i t i o n hands, scripts intended not for
practical use b u t for v i r t u o s i c display. Bocskay s employment of the finest
w h i t e v e l l u m as a w r i t i n g surface complements h i s flamboyant technical
prowess a n d exceptional sureness of hand. T h e v i s u a l splendor of scripts
w a s p u s h e d to even greater extremes b y the lavish use of g o l d a n d silver.
M o r e than fifteen years after Bocskay s death i n 1575, i l l u m i -
nations were added to the m o d e l b o o k b y the F l e m i s h miniaturist a n d
imperial court artist Joris Hoefnagel at the behest of E m p e r o r R u d o l f II (r.
1576-1612), the g r a n d s o n o f F e r d i n a n d I. E u r o p e ' s last great m a n u s c r i p t
illuminator a n d a man of immense learning, Hoefnagel devised an ingenious
figurai response to Bocskay s scripts. M a r s h a l i n g a l l of the resources of p i c -
torial i l l u s i o n i s m , he sought to demonstrate the superior affective p o w e r of
images over w r i t t e n w o r d s . Hoefnagel's i l l u m i n a t i o n s present a w o r l d o f
flowers, insects, fruit, small animals, a n d other forms of natural minutiae as
2
extensive i n its o w n w a y as Bocskay s collection of scripts. P a i n t e d at close
range i n painstaking detail, the specimens make use of a palette of calculated
intensity a n d h i g h saturation. F u l l - b l o w n forms a n d extensive cast shadows
enhance the illusionistic presence of the objects.
Hoefnagels decorative program transformed Bocskay s m a n u -
script into a v i s u a l paragone, a k i n d of debate arguing the superiority of one
art form over another. S u c h debates w e r e closely associated w i t h the rise of
the v i s u a l arts - p a i n t i n g i n p a r t i c u l a r - f r o m craft to liberal art status d u r i n g
the Renaissance. Leonardo d a V i n c i , for example, discussed the relation of
p a i n t i n g to sculpture a n d poetry, w h i l e M i c h e l a n g e l o w r o t e a famous letter
asserting sculptures supremacy over p a i n t i n g . A m o n g Renaissanceparagoni,
1
3
alphabet to the w o r d of G o d a n d thence to his representative o n earth, the
H o l y R o m a n Emperor.
It w a s almost c e r t a i n l y the d e c i s i o n o f H o e f n a g e l a n d the
emperor to b i n d the t w o manuscripts together as a single work. T h e addition
of the constructed alphabet to the calligraphic m o d e l b o o k is critical to the
effect of the whole, for the p a i r can b e fairly described as encompassing all that
h a d been achieved i n W e s t e r n w r i t i n g u n t i l that time. A s w e w i l l see,
Hoefnagel deliberately avoided s y m b o l i s m i n the illuminations of the first
part, the c a l l i g r a p h i c m o d e l b o o k . T h e numerous s y m b o l i c references to
R u d o l f i n the alphabet section serve to establish his presence a n d authority.
T h u s , the addition of the constructed alphabet resulted i n a manuscript that
reflects the greater w o r l d i n m i c r o c o s m , encompassing h u m a n i t y ' s most
p o w e r f u l forms of representation - w r i t i n g a n d p a i n t i n g - u n d e r the d o m i -
nation of the emperor.
E m p e r o r R u d o l f II w a s especially fascinated b y objects bearing
microcosmic/macrocosmic associations, having founded o n this very p r i n -
ciple his o w n vast a n d r e n o w n e d collections housed at the i m p e r i a l castle i n
Prague. C h i e f among these collections were the picture gallery - w h i c h con-
tained such masterpieces as Correggio's series of paintings representing the
loves of the gods ( n o w i n B e r l i n , Rome, a n d V i e n n a ) a n d A l b r e c h t D u r e r s
Madonna of the Rosary (Prague, Národní Galerie) - a n d the so-called Kunst-
himmer, a n e n c y c l o p e d i c assortment o f natural specimens, fossils, bones,
minerals, scientific instruments, sculpture, goldsmith's w o r k , illustrated
manuscripts, jewels, a n d other objects. T h e Kimstkammer w a s intended to
represent the contents of the entire w o r l d d i v i d e d according to the categories
of artifice and nature. I n all likelihood, Bocskay and HoefnagePs manuscript
4
was housed there. At some point after Rudolf's death in 1612, the manuscript
w a s r e m o v e d f r o m the i m p e r i a l h o l d i n g s . Its subsequent h i s t o r y remains
u n k n o w n u n t i l the nineteenth century, w h e n i t surfaced i n a E u r o p e a n
p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n . A f t e r p a s s i n g t h r o u g h a n u m b e r o f such collections, i t
w a s acquired b y the J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m i n 1986. 5
4
Notes
The author is indebted to Egbert Haverkamp- of H o e f n a g e l , i n that it subordinates
Begemann and Thomas DaCosta Kaufmann p a i n t i n g to w r i t i n g . In a c o n v i n c i n g
for reading the typescript and offering explication of this passage, W . M e l i o n
many constructive comments. This publication points out that v a n M a n d e r p r a i s e d
has also benefited from the advice, criticism, w r i t i n g as h o l d i n g fast the m e m o r y of
and support rendered hy Barbara Anderson, the arts, sciences, a n d h i s t o r y a n d thus
Carol Armstrong, Andrea P.A. Belloli, i m p l i c i t l y equated w r i t i n g w i t h the art
Richard Day, George Goldner, Glenn forms of d r a w i n g a n d reproductive
Harcourt, Peter Kidd, Amy Meyers, Linda engraving ( " H e n d r i c k G o l t z i u s ' s Project
Ogden, Carla Oldenburger-Ebbers, Charlotte of R e p r o d u c t i v e Engraving," A r t History
and John Plummer, Nancy Turner, Ton 13, no. 4 [December 1990], p. 481).
Croiset van Uchelen, Thea Vignau-Wilberg,
3 . T. D a C o s t a K a u f m a n n , " T h e
and l^ancy Yocco. Thomas Kren deserves
E l o q u e n t A r t i s t : T o w a r d s an U n d e r -
special thanks for shepherding every phase of
standing of the Stylistics of P a i n t i n g at
the production of this facsimile.
the C o u r t of R u d o l f II" Leids Kunsthis-
1. D . S u m m e r s , Michelangelo and the torisch Jaarboek ( 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 1 1 9 - 4 8 .
Language of Art (Princeton, 1 9 8 1 ) , p p .
4. For a discussion of the Kunsûammer
2 6 9 - 8 2 ; L . M e n d e l s o h n , Paragoni:
a n d a d d i t i o n a l literature, see T. D a C o s t a
Benedetto Varchi's "Due Lezzioni" and
K a u f m a n n , The School of Prague
Cinauecento Art Theory ( A n n A r b o r ,
(Chicago, 1 9 8 8 ) , p p . 1 6 - 1 7 .
1982), pp. 37-40,156-59.
5. Emperor Ferdinand I Hapsburg,
2 . T h i s subject w a s to g a i n w i d e r
V i e n n a ; b y descent to E m p e r o r R u d o l f
currency i n seventeenth-century D u t c h
II H a p s b u r g , Prague; A l b e r t M i l d e ,
art a n d theory. O f particular note is the
Vienna, by 1887; Goldschmied,
thirteenth chapter of K a r e l v a n M a n d e r s
Frankfurt-am-Main, 1 9 0 7 ; Fritz Gans,
Den Grondt der Edel Vrij Schilder-const
Frankfurt-am-Main, 1916; Louis Koch,
(Foundation of the NpMe and Free Art of
F r a n k f u r t - a m - M a i n , b y 1 9 2 3 ; private
Painting) ( 1 6 0 4 ) . T h i s text discusses
collection, E u r o p e , b y 1 9 4 2 ; M a l i b u ,
w r i t i n g i n the context of a consideration
T h e J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m , 1 9 8 6 .
of the function o f color i n p a i n t i n g a n d
indicates an approach d i v e r g i n g f r o m that
5
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GEORGE BOCSKAY, THE CALLIGRAPHER
7
w h i c h constituted a castle a n d village near K r e u z , northeast of Zagreb.
Bocskay may have been i n i m p e r i a l service w e l l before 1561. I n
the 1960s, T i b o r S z á n t o discovered an elaborately i n s c r i b e d document i n
6
it, thus providing evidence that Bocskay s service to the emperor began prior to
1561. O n M a r c h 10 of that year, the H u n g a r i a n Chamber, a governmental
body, authorized a raise i n salary for Bocskay of fifty forints, retroactive to
the b e g i n n i n g o f the year. A s C h a m b e r secretary - he w a s c a l l e d "scriba
noster"-Bocskay was paid a fixed salary of 250 forints from then on.8 In 1562
he referred to himself as "the ancient servant a n d court servant o f H i s
Majesty" (Maiestatis suae veteranus servitor et Aulae familiaris).9 Documents
p r e s e r v e d i n V i e n n a a n d B u d a p e s t state that B o c s k a y w a s e m p l o y e d as
scribe (scriba) a n d secretary (secretarius) of the r o y a l H u n g a r i a n Chamber. I n
addition, a record of 1563 describes him as court historian (annaligrayhus).10
Finally, Bocskay refers to himself i n the V i e n n a w r i t i n g m o d e l b o o k (inv.
975, fol. 48) as a royal adviser (Maximiliani secundi... consiliarius).
Bocskay served E m p e r o r F e r d i n a n d I a n d his successor M a x i -
milian II (r. 1564-76). He did not, as has been claimed,11 serve Emperor
R u d o l f II, since he d i e d one year before R u d o l f ' s coronation. T h e seat of the
i m p e r i a l court d u r i n g Bocskay's lifetime w a s V i e n n a , o n l y shifting to Prague
w i t h R u d o l f ' s ascension to the throne. Bocskay thus certainly resided i n the
former city, where, as he himself recorded, he w r o t e b o t h the G e t t y a n d
Vienna model books. 12
8
likely that the writing model book was commissioned by him. In 1562,
B o c s k a y c o m p l e t e d a t h i r d m o d e l b o o k o f calligraphy, also preserved i n
Vienna. 13
Its large, oblong format, less expressive calligraphy, and less costly
material - paper instead of v e l l u m - suggest that i t w a s not conceived as a
d i s p l a y piece b u t w a s i n t e n d e d to serve a pedagogical as w e l l as a n aes-
thetic function. D e d i c a t e d to F e r d i n a n d I, i t w a s probably commissioned
b y h i m as w e l l . H
v i l l a called G e t t h i a / 8
self and his f a m i l y , and the marriage of a niece (in 1571). These pleas i n -
22 23
cluded the remarkable request for aid i n purchasing fifty serfs, also i n 1571. 24
9
ing scenes from M a x i m i l i a n s life. For the tablets bearing inscriptions, several
wagon-loads of black marble slabs were ordered from Italy, to be prepared b y
the mason G e o r g v o n der W e r d t . Ready b y A p r i l 1564, the tablets were given
to Bocskay i n V i e n n a so that the inscriptions c o u l d b e carved a n d g i l d e d . 25
I n a d d i t i o n to h i s other r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , B o c s k a y i n s c r i b e d
one of the V i e n n a w r i t i n g m o d e l books (inv. 975) between 1571 a n d 1573. 27
10
attempted to pay h i m the total due f r o m his court salary. 28
Bocskay d i e d i n
V i e n n a before A p r i l 8. H i s w i d o w received his salary for A p r i l i n order to
pay for his f u n e r a l . 29
She requested that the H u n g a r i a n C h a m b e r pay his
outstanding salary as w e l l as an amount corresponding to the value of the
fifty serfs the emperor h a d a w a r d e d h i m i n 1571 30
Notes
1. Hereafter Vienna inv. 975. Vellum, 127 4 . V i e n n a Ser. n. 2 6 6 4 : " e x . . . vetus-
folios, with 3 paper flyleaves at front and tissimo n o b i l i s s i m o atque clar[issimo]
back; 119 folios inscribed and illuminated. H u n g a r i c a e et Sclavonicae gentis
W r i t t e n a n d i l l u m i n a t e d o n recto only. stemate oriundus."
Later foliation. 18 x 13.2 cm (8 x 5V4 in.).
5 . See F. Ritter, " E i n W i e n e r S c h r i f t -
W r i t t e n b y G e o r g Bocskay, 1 5 7 1 - 7 3 ;
musterbuch aus d e m 1 6 . Jahrhundert
i l l u m i n a t e d b y Joris H o e f n a g e l , 1 5 9 1 - 9 4 .
m i t M i n i a t u r m a l e r e i e n , " Mittheilungen des
See Prag urn 1600 (Freren, 1988), vol. 2,
K . k . Oesterreick: Museums jur Kunst
no. 5 9 9 ( w i t h bibliog.).
und Industrie, n.s. 2 ( 1 8 8 7 ) , p . 3 4 0 .
2. A l s o s p e l l e d B o c h k h a y , B o k h e y ,
6 . T. S z á n t o , " E i n groBer S c h r e i b k ü n s t -
Bosskhay, or B o t s c h k a i .
ler des X V I . Jahrhunderts," Gutenberg
3. M a l i b u , T h e j . P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m , Jahrbuch (1963), p. 4 0 .
Ms. 2 0 (hereafter G e t t y M s . 2 0 ) ,
7. S z á n t o (ibid.) interpreted the
fols. 118: "a R a z y n i a " ; 119: "de R a z i n i a
m o n o g r a m as " H o e f n a g e l G e o r g Bocskay."
Hungarus." See also V i e n n a , Oster-
H o w e v e r , a collaboration b e t w e e n
reichische N a t i o n a l b i b l i o t h e k , H a n d -
B o c s k a y a n d H o e f n a g e l c o u l d not have
schriften- u n d I n k u n a b e l s a m m l u n g ,
occurred in 1560.
Ser. n. 2 6 6 4 (hereafter V i e n n a Ser. n.
2664), fol. 1: "a Razinija Pannonius."
11
8 . J. K a p o s s y , " A d a t t á r - m ü v é s z e t t ó r t é n e t i 17. JKSAK 11 (1890), Reg. 7885:
r e g e s z t á k a k i r á l y i h a t á r o z a t o k b ó l és Prague, O c t o b e r 2 0 , 1 5 6 4 .
r e n d e l e t e k b ô l . I. X V I . S z á z a d , " ed. G .
18. Kapossy (note 8), p. 52, no. 129.
Bánrévi, Müvcszcttdrténeti ErUsitó (1956),
p. 51, no. 8 8 : V i e n n a , M a r c h 1 0 , 1 5 6 1 . 19. JKSAK 7 (1888), Reg. 5000:
I w i s h to thank G é z a G a l a v i c s , H u n - Vienna, November 5 , 1 5 6 5 ; Reg. 5 0 8 7 :
g a r i a n A c a d e m y of Science, Budapest, September 3 0 , 1 5 6 7 ; R e g . 5 1 3 9 : O c t o b e r
for this reference, a n d A r a n k a Posa, 1 8 , 1 5 6 8 ; Reg. 5181: M a y 5 , 1 5 7 0 .
Z e n t r a l i n s t i t u t fiir Kunstgeschichte,
2 0 . K a p o s s y (note 8 ) , p . 51, no. 8 8 :
M u n i c h , for help w i t h the translation
V i e n n a , M a r c h 1 0 , 1 5 6 1 ; p . 191, no. 1 7 0 :
of H u n g a r i a n texts.
V i e n n a , F e b r u a r y 1 6 , 1 5 6 8 . F o r further
9 . V i e n n a Ser. n. 2 6 6 4 . entries regarding B o c s k a y s salary, see
i b i d . , p. 5 3 , no. 1 3 9 : V i e n n a , September
1 0 . K a p o s s y (note 8 ) , p . 5 2 , no. 1 0 7 :
2 9 , 1 5 6 5 - November 13,1574.
V i e n n a , M a y 5 , 1 5 6 3 , a document i n
w h i c h Archduke M a x i m i l i a n com- 21. K a p o s s y (note 8 ) , p . 5 3 , no. 1 3 9 .
mits the H u n g a r i a n C h a m b e r to p a y
2 2 . A f t e r years of d e v o t e d service,
Bocskay's travel expenses i n the
B o c s k a y received a s u b s i d y of t w o
amount of fifty forints.
h u n d r e d forints to purchase a house.
11. B y E . C h m e l a r z , i n " G e o r g u n d See i b i d . , p . 5 3 , no. 151: V i e n n a ,
Jakob Hoefnagel," Jahrbuch àer Kunstkis- December 2 7 , 1 5 6 6 .
torischcn Sammlungm àes Ah. Kaiscrkauscs
2 3 . K a p o s s y (note 8 ) , p . 1 9 5 , no. 2 7 5 :
(hereafter JKSAK) 17 (1896), p. 284;
Vienna, October 13,1571.
S z á n t o (note 6 ) , p p . 3 7 , 4 0 .
2 4 . I b i d . , p. 1 9 5 , no. 2 6 6 : V i e n n a ,
12. Vienna inv. 975, fol. 34; Getty
August 17,1571.
M s . 2 0 , fols. 8 9 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 9 .
2 5 . O n B o c s k a y s w o r k o n the tablets,
13. V i e n n a Ser. n. 2 6 6 4 : paper, 3 3
see D . R i t t e r v o n S c h ô n h e r r , " G e s c h i c h t e
folios. 2 4 . 6 x 6 7 . 5 c m ( 9 V 8 x 2 6 Vi in.).
des G r a b m a l s Kaisers M a x i m i l i a n I. u n d
14. I b i d . , f o l . 1: " F e r d i n a n d o . . . i m p e r a - die H o f k i r c h e z u Innsbruck," J K S A K 11
t o r e . . . foeliciter r é g n a n t e G e o r g i u s ( 1 8 9 0 ) , p p . 2 1 4 , 217, 2 1 8 ; also (in
B o c h k a y . . . i n p e r p e t u u m artificii sui the same volume) R e g . 7 8 6 0 : A u g u s t 2 1 ,
t e s t i m o n i u m diversas characterum 1564; Reg. 7 8 7 9 : October 9 , 1 5 6 4 .
formas i n h o c libro contentas rara See also J K S A K 1 4 ( 1 8 9 3 ) , R e g . 9 7 4 7 :
ac singulari q u a d a m i n g e n i i dexteritate A p r i l 1 2 , 1 5 6 5 ; Reg. 9 7 6 2 : M a y 9 , 1 5 6 5 ;
ex gratiosa eiusdem M a i e s t a t i s Reg. 1 0 0 2 6 : M a r c h 3 , 1 5 6 7 ; Reg. 1 0 0 3 2 :
v o l ú n t a t e . . . effigiavit." A p r i l 3 , 1 5 6 7 ; Reg. 1 0 0 3 5 : A p r i l 13,1567;
Reg. 1 0 0 3 9 : M a y 2 3 , 1 5 6 7 ; Reg. 1 0 1 2 0 :
15. K a p o s s y (note 8 ) , p . 5 2 , no. 1 2 9 :
M a y 1 1 , 1 5 6 8 ; Reg. 10121: M a y 2 2 , 1 5 6 8 ;
Vienna, October 2 5 , 1 5 6 4 .
R e g . 1 0 1 2 2 : June 2 , 1 5 6 8 ; R e g . 1 0 1 2 3 :
16. JKSAK 13 (1893), Reg. 8657: June 8 , 1 5 6 8 ; a n d i n 19 ( 1 8 9 8 ) ,
12
26. JKSAK 7 (1888), Reg. 5209:
October 2 4 , 1 5 7 0 .
2 8 . K a p o s s y (note 8 ) , p . 3 1 9 , no. 3 5 3 :
Vienna, M a r c h 7,1575.
3 0 . K a p o s s y (note 8 ) , p . 3 2 0 , no. 3 5 9 :
Vienna, A p r i l 3 0 , 1 5 7 5 .
*3
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JORIS HOEFNAGEL, THE ILLUMINATOR
came from the same professional a n d social class. H e r father, Joris Veselaer,
and his wife, Margaretha Boghe, were an equally influential and prosperous
couple. Joris Hoefnagel received his given name from his maternal grand-
2
*5
wealthy and prominent families w i t h humanistic leanings. Susanne Hoefnagel,
for example, married the D u t c h j u r i s t a n d diplomat C h r i s t i a a n H u y g h e n s . 4
16
motifs for later miniatures.
A f t e r 1567, Hoefnagel returned to A n t w e r p . H e probably h a d
v i s i t e d the city intermittently d u r i n g his years i n S p a i n , since he traveled
continually on business. In 1568 and 1569, he was in London for a few
months. F r o m this p e r i o d , t w o signed w o r k s survive, b o t h of w h i c h fore-
shadow, albeit dimly, the detailed miniatures of his later career. O n e of
these, a p a i n t i n g of a festive p r o c e s s i o n i n Bermondsey, near L o n d o n ,
includes an unmistakable portrait of Joris Hoefnagel himself. 10
In its inter-
w e a v i n g of genre a n d landscape painting, the w o r k follows the tradition of
Pieter Bruegel the Elder. It also exemplifies the intense interest i n rendering
contemporary costumes that informs the topographical drawings Hoefnagel
made i n France a n d S p a i n . 11
I n L o n d o n , H o e f n a g e l e s t a b l i s h e d f r i e n d s h i p s w i t h other
Netherlandish businessmen, some of w h o s e portraits probably are i n c l u d e d
i n the B e r m o n d s e y p r o c e s s i o n p a i n t i n g . A m o n g these a c q u a i n t a n c e s ,
Johannes R a d e r m a k e r (Radermacher), w h o h a d emigrated to L o n d o n for
religious reasons i n 1566, remained his friend a n d correspondent for several
decades.12 To him Hoefnagel dedicated a remarkable set of emblematic
d r a w i n g s e n t i t l e d Patientia, w h i c h i n f o c u s i n g o n patience a n d s u f f e r i n g
reflects the religious persecution i n their native A n t w e r p . T h e genrelike 1 3
*7
C a s t l e a n d N o n s u c h Palace, images that attest to his acceptance b y the
C r o w n a n d the n o b i l i t y . A m o n g his h i g h b o r n associates w a s the G e r m a n -
15
18
exchange of information o n the latest p o l i t i c a l a n d intellectual developments
accompanied the exchange of goods. Hoefnagel reestablished contact w i t h
his E n g l i s h associates Thomas C a m d e n a n d D a n i e l Rogers. 22
*9
had d i e d i n January 1578. Hoefnagel declined due to his commitment to the
M u n i c h court. T h e h i g h regard i n w h i c h C l o v i o w a s h e l d is testimony to the
great r e p u t a t i o n enjoyed b y H o e f n a g e l . H o e f n a g e l p r o b a b l y r e t u r n e d to
31
M u n i c h via Venice. 32
20
commitment to interdenominationalism a n d w h o s e correspondence reflects
his p r o f o u n d sympathy for his Protestant countrymen, probably refused to
c o m p l y A l l e g e d l y to save money, his service to the court w a s terminated i n
1591, at w h i c h time he lost the official protection that h a d enabled h i m to
reside i n M u n i c h .
P r i o r to this, however, Hoefnagel h a d entered the service of
the H o l y R o m a n E m p e r o r R u d o l f II, not as court painter but as a painter
under court protection.38 This protection enabled him to acquire temporary
residence i n the i m p e r i a l city of F r a n k f u r t - a m - M a i n . A s he himself stated,
he w i s h e d to reside there i n order to p a i n t a n d complete v a r i o u s w o r k s
commissioned by the emperor.39 Most importantly, he was referring to the
w r i t i n g m o d e l b o o k b y G e o r g Bocskay n o w i n V i e n n a (inv. 975). ° H o e f -
4
nagel's residence in Frankfurt lasted from September 1591 until the summer
of 1594, between which years he illuminated the Vienna codex.
I n 1585, A n t w e r p w a s taken for the S p a n i s h k i n g b y the duke
of Parma a n d its status as a flourishing port ended due to the forced closing
of the Schelde R i v e r . A t this point, refugees from the Netherlands, A n t w e r p
i n particular, emigrated to F r a n k f u r t . M a n y h a d f r i e n d l y relations w i t h
Hoefnagel. T h e great botanist C a r o l u s C l u s i u s w a s there d u r i n g most of the
artist's residency. T h e l i k e l i h o o d that they w e r e p e r s o n a l l y acquainted is
supported b y Hoefnagel's documented relationships w i t h many members of
C l u s i u s ' s circle. S u c h a f r i e n d s h i p w o u l d have p l a y e d a c r i t i c a l role i n
the artist's decoration of the G e t t y codex, w h i c h is distinctive among his
manuscripts for its extensive illustrations of the plant w o r l d .
A l t h o u g h Lutheranism w a s the official denomination of the city
of F r a n k f u r t , the D u t c h a n d F r e n c h ( W a l l o o n ) R e f o r m e d churches w e r e
tolerated there. In 1594, however, the recently appointed minister of the
D u t c h Reformed congregation, Franciscus Gomarus, was ordered to leave b y
the city council. The D u t c h Reformed church was closed, forcing its members
to emigrate. T h e reasons for this sudden persecution of Netherlandish refu-
gees were probably economic rather than religious, since by 1594 this group
h a d progressed from merely invigorating the economy to dominating it, p r o -
21
v i d i n g w h a t w a s regarded b y local merchants as unfair competition. 41
cabinet miniatures made for the most part for illustrious clients.
Hoefnagel also attempted to procure a secure p o s i t i o n for his
son Jacob, w h o h a d completed an apprenticeship - a c c o r d i n g to the older craft
and g u i l d tradition - as w e l l as been trained b y his father as an artist and
humanist. W h i l e still i n Frankfurt, the elder Hoefnagel h a d begun to promote
Jacob's career b y a l l o w i n g h i m to engrave Archetypa studiaque patris Georgii
Hoefnagelii... after his o w n m o d e l books; it w a s p u b l i s h e d i n F r a n k f u r t i n
1592. D u r i n g the final years of the sixteenth century, father and son p r o -
45
22
able status a n d w a s h i r e d as court painter to E m p e r o r R u d o l f II after the
death of his father.
G i v e n v a n M a n d e r 's t e n d e n c y to r o u n d o f f the dates o f
Hoefnagers life (for example, he placed Hoefnagel's b i r t h i n 1545, w h e n i n
fact the artist h a d been b o r n i n 1542), it is possible that Hoefnagel d i d not
die in 1600 as van Mander contended. It is noteworthy that even after 1600,
Joris is mentioned in documents concerning his and Daniel's firm.47 On
July 24,1601, his death was first noted archivally.48 He was most likely
b u r i e d i n V i e n n a i n the family crypt, the "Hoefnagel'schen Begrabnus," i n
the n e w cemetery i n f r o n t of the S c o t t i s h G a t e , also the b u r i a l place o f
Daniel's large f a m i l y . 49
Hoefnagel's name, however, is not mentioned i n the
burial records of the congregation which have been preserved.50
Notes
1. K. van Mander, Het Schilderboeck 4 . T h e most thorough genealogy of the
( H a a r l e m , 1 6 0 4 ) , fol. 2 6 2 V . V a n M a n d e r 's H o e f n a g e l f a m i l y remains T. Jorissen,
almost contemporary biography of " G é n é a l o g i e v a n Hoefnagel," De J^avor-
H o e f n a g e l is the p r i n c i p a l source for scher, n.s. 5 , 2 2 ( 1 8 7 2 ) , p p . 2 6 o f f .
k n o w l e d g e of his career. See also A .
5 . T h e brothers G i l l e s a n d Jacob H o e f -
Pinchart, Archives des arts, sciences et lettres:
nagel w e r e active as merchants (garteners)
Documents inédits, 1st ser., 2 (Ghent,
i n L o n d o n d u r i n g the 1 5 6 0 s . In 1 5 6 1 , a
1 8 6 3 ) , p. 91.
W i l l e m H o e f n a g e l w a s also registered i n
2 . Portraits of the couple b y Joos v a n the city. In 1571, it w a s d o c u m e n t e d that
C l e v e are i n W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . ( N a t i o n a l Jacob h a d l i v e d i n L o n d o n for thirteen
G a l l e r y of A r t inv. 1 9 6 2 . 9 . 1 - 2 ) . F o r f u r - years (since 1 5 5 8 ) a n d G i l l e s for fourteen
ther information o n Joris Veselaer, see J. years. See R . E . G . K i r k a n d E . F. K i r k ,
O. Hand and M. Wolff, The Collections of Returns of Aliens in the City and Suburbs of
the Rational Gallery of Art: Systematic London, vol. 1:1523-71 (London, 1 9 0 0 ) ,
Catalogue: Early Netherlandish Painting pp. 2 8 4 , 3 3 2 , 3 6 6 ; vol. 2 : 1 5 7 1 - 9 7
(Washington, D.C, 1986), pp. 57^ (London, 1 9 0 2 ) , pp. 2 8 , 8 4 . Daniel
H o e f n a g e l resided p e r m a n e n t l y i n
3. R. Bauer, Tapisserien der Renaissance
V i e n n a f r o m at least 1 5 8 5 / 8 7 . F r o m
nach Entwürfen von Pieter Coecke van
1 5 9 0 , M e l c h i o r H o e f n a g e l attempted
Aelst, exh. cat. (Schloss H a l b t u r n ,
to establish residence i n F r a n k f u r t .
1981), p. 8 4 .
23
6 . A p a i n t i n g b y F r a n s P o u r b u s the 10. Hatfield House. O i l on panel.
E l d e r i n Brussels ( M u s é e s R o y a u x des 7 3 . 8 x 9 9 . 2 c m ( 2 9 x 3 9 in.). S i g n e d i n
B e a u x - A r t s inv. 4 4 3 5 ) portrays the lower left corner. See P. N o r m a n , " O n
H o e f n a g e l f a m i l y d a n c i n g to h a r p s i - an A l l e g o r i c a l P a i n t i n g i n M i n i a t u r e
c h o r d music. See C . v a n de V e l d e , b y Joris (George) H o e f n a g e l a n d o n
" N i e u w e G e g e v e n s en Inzichten over Some O t h e r W o r k s b y T h i s Artist,"
het W e r k v a n F r a n s P o u r b u s de Oudere," Archaeologia 57, no. 2 ( 1 9 0 1 ) , p p . 3 2 i f f . ;
Gentsc Bijdragen Tot de Kunstgeschiedenis F. M . K e l l y , " A H o r s e l y d o w n W e d d i n g , "
2 5 ( 1 9 7 9 - 8 0 ) , p p . r j ó f f . T h e musical Burlington Magazine 31 (1917), p . 91;
instruments i n Hoefnagel's border E . Auerbach and C . Kingsley Adams,
illuminations i n the second part of the Paintings ana Sculpture at Hatfield House
G e t t y codex, the V i e n n a w r i t i n g m o d e l ( L o n d o n , 1971), no. 4 9 , p p . 53ff-, p l . 3,
b o o k (inv. 9 7 5 ) , a n d the m i s s a l i n fig. 2 7 ( w i t h bibliog.).
V i e n n a (see note 3 5 ) are rendered
11. T h e complex iconography of this
w i t h great accuracy.
p a i n t i n g cannot b e discussed i n detail
7. M a n y of these d r a w i n g s w e r e later here.
engraved i n G e o r g B r a u n a n d F r a n s
12. See K i r k a n d K i r k (note 5 ) , v o l . 2 ,
H o g e n b e r g , Civitates orhis Urrarum,
p. 2 4 , " R e p o r t of Strangers of N o v e m -
6 vols. ( C o l o g n e , 1 5 7 2 - 1 6 1 7 ) ; see esp.
ber 1 0 , 1 5 7 1 " Space limitations make
O r l é a n s a n d Bourges, v o l . 2 , no. n a - b ;
further d i s c u s s i o n of R a d e r m a k e r and
Blanmont, v o l . 2 , no. 17; Poitiers, v o l . 5 ,
his role i n the D u t c h colony i n L o n d o n
no. 18 a - c , dated 1 5 6 1 ; T o u r s a n d
i m p o s s i b l e here. A s late as 1 5 9 0 , H o e f -
A n g e r s , v o l . 5 , no. 2 0 , dated 1 5 6 1 .
nagel dedicated a n allegorical p a i n t i n g
8 . F o r this p e r i o d , see the seminal essay to R a d e r m a k e r as a token of their last-
b y A . M o n b a l l i e u , 'Joris H o e f n a g e l bij ing friendship: oil on panel. 2 2 . 5 x
O b e r t u s G y f a n i u s te O r l é a n s en te 3 4 . 5 c m (8 /8 x 13 Vi in.). R o t t e r d a m ,
7
24
13. Patientia: Traité de la patience par 17. V a n M a n d e r (note 1), fol. 2 6 2 V :
emblèmes inventés et dessinés par George " D o e hij w e d e r i n N e d e r l a n d t w a s
Hoefnaghel à Londres, l'an 1569. P e n a n d g h e k e e r t . . . hadde eenigh o n d e r w i j s v a n
b r o w n i n k o n paper, 5 8 folios. 4 2 x H a n s B o l vercreghen" ( W h e n he h a d
2 8 . 5 c m ( 1 6 à x 11V4 in.). H a l f w r i t t e n
l
returned to the N e t h e r l a n d s . . . h e took
b y H o e f n a g e l a n d h a l f b y a nineteenth- some instruction from H a n s B o l ) .
century h a n d . R o u e n , B i b l i o t h è q u e A c c o r d i n g to v a n M a n d e r , this instruction
M u n i c i p a l e , C o l l . Leber, M s . 2 9 1 6 . took place after Hoefnagel's S p a n i s h
See R . v a n R o o s b r o e c k , Patientia: 24 sojourn i n 1 5 6 7 a n d before N o v e m b e r
Politieke Emblemata door Joris Hoefnagel 1 5 7 6 . A f t e r 1 5 7 2 , B o l m o v e d f r o m his
1569 (Antwerp, 1935; 2 d . ed., Leiden, native M e c h e l e n to A n t w e r p , w h e r e he
1 9 7 5 ) ; M . E . H . N . M o u t , Bohemen en entered the g u i l d i n 1 5 7 4 a n d became
de Ntderlanden in de Zestiende Eeuw a citizen i n 1575.
(Leiden, 1975), p p . i o 6 f f .
1 8 . F o r E n g l i s h miniature p a i n t i n g
14. B e r n a r d G e r b r a n d Furmer, D e rerum a r o u n d 1 6 0 0 , see R . Strong, Artists of
usu et abusu ( A n t w e r p : C h r i s t o p h e the Tudor Court: TKe Portrait Miniature
Plantin), w i t h engravings b y H i e r o n y m u s Rediscovered, 1520-1620, exh. cat.
W i e r i x ; D i r c k Volckertszoon Coornhert, (Victoria and A l b e r t M u s e u m , London,
Recht Ghebruyck ende Misbruyck van Tydlyke 1 9 8 3 ) ; J. M u r d o c h et a l . , The English
Have ( L e i d e n : C h r i s t o p h e P l a n t i n ) , Miniature (New Haven and London,
w i t h the same engravings. 1981).
25
22. See the entry b y W i l l i a m C a m d e n 27. Entries i n Album amicorum (note 22),
i n the Album amicorum o f A b r a h a m b y A u g u s t i n o M u s t o (fol. 121) a n d P i r r o
O r t e l i u s ( A m s t e r d a m , 1 9 6 9 ) , f o l . 113V, L i g o r i o (fol. i 2 i v ) , b o t h dated Ferrara,
dated September 21,1577- F u r t h e r entries O c t o b e r 30,1577-
w r i t t e n i n F r a n k f u r t i n c l u d e those o f
28. L . N u t i , " T h e M a p p e d V i e w s b y
D a n i e l E n g e l h a r d of Breslau (fol. 7v,
G e o r g Hoefnagel: T h e Merchant's E y e ,
September 12,1577) a n d T h e o d o o r
the H u m a n i s t ' s Eye," Word and Image 4
P o e l m a n a n d H u b e r t L a n g u e t (fol. 120V,
(1988), pp. 563ff.
September 20,1577)- F o r Rogers's
presence i n F r a n k f u r t at this time, see hi s 2 9 . Terracina w a s engraved after
p o e m i n H M 31188 (note 16), f o l . 218, Hoefnagel i n Braun and Hogenberg
inscribed Frankfurt, Idibus Octolris 1511. (note 7), v o l . 3, no. 5 4 ; M o l a a n d
G a e t a i n v o l . 3, no. 55; Baiae i n v o l .
23. Entries i n Album amicorum (note 22)
3, no. 5 6 ; C u m a e i n v o l . 3, no. 57.
b y A d o l f O c c o (fols. 3 7 V - 3 8 V ) a n d
Jeronimus W o l f (fol. 57 V), b o t h dated 3 0 . T h e F o r u m V u l c a n i , for w h i c h p r e -
O c t o b e r 7. paratory d r a w i n g s survive, w a s engraved
i n B r a u n a n d H o g e n b e r g (note 7), v o l .
24. F o r Hoefnagel's relations w i t h the
3, no. 58, as w a s P o s i l l i p o i n v o l . 5,
W i t t e l s b a c h court at M u n i c h , see T .
no. 65, dated 1578.
V i g n a u - W i l b e r g , "Joris Hoefnagels
T á t i g k e i t i n M i i n c h e n , " Jahrbuch der 31. G . V a s a r i , Le vite de più eccellenti pit-
Kunstkistorischen Sammlungcn in W i e n tori scultori e architettori, e d . R . B e t t a r i n i
81 (1985), p p . i 0 3 f f . a n d P. B a r o c c h i (Florence, 1987), v o l .
6, p p . 2 1 3 ^
25. See the engraved portrait of H o e f -
nagel b y H e n d r i c k H o n d i u s (F. W . H . 32. Hoefnagel's d r a w i n g of the b u r n i n g o f
H o l l s t e i n , D u t c h and Flemish Etchings, the doge's palace i n V e n i c e w a s engraved
Engravings ana Woodcuts Ca. 1450-1100, for B r a u n a n d H o g e n b e r g (note 7), v o l .
v o l . 7 [ A m s t e r d a m , n . d . ] , p . 32, no. 47), 5, no. 6 0 b , w i t h the i n s c r i p t i o n Autopies
i n w h i c h he wears a portrait miniature ( A s witnessed), next to w h i c h appears
of his w i f e a r o u n d his neck, f o l l o w i n g the date 1578. T h e fire o c c u r r e d o n
the E l i z a b e t h a n custom of p l a c i n g p o r - December 20,1577, w h e n Hoefnagel w a s
trait miniatures i n costly g o l d frames to i n R o m e . A s the basis for his d r a w i n g ,
b e w o r n as j e w e l r y . A n example is he u s e d a c o m p o s i t i o n b y his c o u n t r y m a n
Isaac O l i v e r , Portrait of an Unknown L o d e w i j k T o e p u t (Pozzoserrato). O n e
Man. V e l l u m . 6.6 x 5.1 c m (2V2 x 2 in.). assumes that H o e f n a g e l v i s i t e d the scene
London, Victoria and Albert M u s e u m of the disaster some months after i t
inv. P.5-1917. F o r a n illustration, see occurred, o n his return trip. See also
Strong (note 18), p . 1 0 9 , n o . 163. L . Nuti, "Alie origini del G r a n d Tour:
26
I m m a g i n i e cultura d é l i a c i t t à italiana 39. F r a n k f u r t , Stadtarchiv, Bürgermeis-
negli A t l a n t i e nelle cosmografie terbuch 1591, fols. 79V, 8 0 , cited i n H .
del s e c ó l o X V I , " Storia urbana 27 (1984), M e i n e r t , D i e Eingliederung der niederlàn-
p. 28, n. 4 9 . dischen Glaubensflüchtlinge in die Frank-
furter Bürgerschaft 1554-1596: Auszüge
33. See above (note 24).
aus den Frankfurter Ratsprotokollen
34. T h e city c o u n c i l minutes of F r a n k - (Frankfurt, 1981), p . 4 5 2 .
furt for 1 5 9 1 - 9 2 (fol. 36V, September 3,
4 0 . See p. 11, n. 1.
1591) contain Hoefnagel's request for
residency. In a d d i t i o n to w o r k for 41. T h e p r i n c i p a l d i s c u s s i o n o f these
E m p e r o r R u d o l f II, he refers to w o r k s events is M e i n e r t (note 39).
ordered b y F e r d i n a n d , D u k e o f B a v a r i a .
42. Jacob H o e f n a g e l made a d r a w i n g
35. V e l l u m , 6 5 8 folios, w i t h a p a p e r w i t h a v i e w o f Regensburg, noting that
flyleaf at the front a n d at the back. it w a s done d u r i n g the Imperial D i e t
W r i t t e n o n b o t h sides. 39.2 x 28.6 c m of 1594. T h e d r a w i n g served as a m o d e l
(15 V2 x 11 V/a in.). Vienna, Osterreichische for B r a u n a n d H o g e n b e r g (note 7), v o l .
Nationalbibliothek, H a n d s c h r i f t e n - u n d 5, no. 51.
I n k u n a b e l s a m m l u n g , C o d . 1784 (here-
43. V i e n n a , H o f k a m m e r a r c h i v , H o f f i -
after V i e n n a C o d . 1784). Hoefnagel's
nanz, nos. 5 2 0 - E (Prague), 1599, fol. 118;
illuminations are dated b e t w e e n 1581 a n d
5 2 5 - R (Prague), 1599, fol. 3 4 V ; 1 9 1 - E
1590. See V i g n a u - S c h u u r m a n (note 12).
( L o w e r A u s t r i a ) , 1 6 0 0 , fols. 232, 3 2 9 .
36. T. V i g n a u - W i l b e r g , " Q u a l c h e
4 4 . 4 vols, totaling 277 v e l l u m folios,
deseigni d ' i m p o r t a n c i a : Joris H o e f n a g e l
w i t h a n i m a l representations i n w a t e r -
als Zeichnungssammler," Münchner
color a n d gouache, i n s c r i b e d w i t h L a t i n
Jahrbuch der lildenden Kunst 38 (1987),
texts a n d m a x i m s : Ignis: Animalia ratio-
p p . i 8 5 f f . ; i d e m (note 24), p p . i 2 i f f .
nalia et insecta; Terra: Animalia quadrupedia
37. In the i n s c r i p t i o n o n the engraving et reptilia; Aqua: Animalia aquatilia et
of L a n d s h u t i n B r a u n a n d H o g e n b e r g conchiliata; Aier: Animalia volatilia et
(note 7), v o l . 3, no. 4 5 . amphibia. W a s h i n g t o n , D . C , N a t i o n a l
G a l l e r y o f A r t inv. 1 9 8 7 . 2 0 . 5 - 8 . See M .
38. See the informative essay o n court,
L . H e n d r i x , Joris Hoefnagel and the "Four
C h a m b e r , a n d court-protected craftsmen
Elements": A Study in Sixteenth-Century
b y H . H a u p t i n Jahrbuch der Kunstkis-
Nature Painting, u n p u b . P h . D . diss.,
torischen Sammlungen in Wien (forthcoming ).
P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y , 1984.
27
4 5 - T h e f u l l title of this w o r k is Arche-
typa stuàiaque patris Georgii Hoefnagelii
lacobus fil: Genio àuce ab ipso scalpta,
omnibus philomusis amice D: ac perbenigne
communicat. Ann: sal: XCII AeXaX: X V I I .
4 7 . V i e n n a , Hofkammerarchiv,
H o f f i n a n z , nos. 1 9 4 - E ( L o w e r A u s t r i a ) ,
February 9 , 1 6 0 1 , fol. 137V; 5 3 7 - E
(Prague), 1 6 0 1 , f o l . 2 8 0 ; 5 3 9 - E (Prague),
1 6 0 1 , f o l . 2 0 2 v ; 5 4 3 - R (Prague), 1 6 0 1 ,
fols. 141V, 4 0 6 V .
4 8 . A n t w e r p , Stadsarchief, C e r t i f i c a t i e -
b o e k 1 6 0 1 , f o l . 71V.
4 9 . T h i s is m e n t i o n e d i n the w i l l of
the court painter R e i n h a r t Junger, d a t e d
V i e n n a , September 2 2 , 1 6 1 9 . Junger
requested b u r i a l i n the n e w "Gottesacker"
i n front of the Scottish G a t e next to his
deceased w i f e , "zunegst der H u f n a g l i s c h e n
B e g r à b n u s s " (the H o e f n a g e l f a m i l y
grave). Q u o t e d i n A . H a j d e c k i , " D i e
N i e d e r l á n d e r i n W i e n , " Ouà Holland
3 i1^)' P- 5-
5 0 . T h e name o f Joris Hoefnagel appears
neither i n the death registry of the p a r i s h
of S a i n t S t e p h e n nor i n that of the
Scottish C h u r c h .
28
THE WRITING MODEL BOOK
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THE WRITING MODEL BOOK
THE WRITING
31
A l s o c r u c i a l to this development w a s the spread of w r i t i n g ,
w h i c h ceased to be regarded p r i m a r i l y as the p r o v i n c e of t r a i n e d scribes
and professionals a n d came to be v a l u e d as an essential humanistic accom-
plishment, expressive of one's intellectual background a n d social p o s i t i o n .
Just as an educated person was expected to be conversant i n many languages,
so he or she w a s required to have mastery over a corresponding number of
script forms. D o m i n a n t among these w a s italic, or chancery, script. R i s i n g to
prominence d u r i n g the late fifteenth century i n Italy, where it became the
favored script of the p a p a l chancery i n Rome, italic w a s based o n the clear,
u p r i g h t , r o u n d s c r i p t k n o w n as h u m a n i s t antiqua, w h i c h , w h e n w r i t t e n
q u i c k l y , became slanted, attenuated, a n d cursive. Italic effected the s t i l l
1
uncontested w e d d i n g of W e s t e r n h a n d w r i t i n g to l i n e . T h e k i n d of l i n e
r e q u i r e d b y i t a l i c e m p h a s i z e d d y n a m i s m , the i m p r e s s i o n of w h i c h w a s
created b y such qualities as thinness, consistency of w i d t h a n d tone, c u r v a -
ture, a n d m i n i m a l breaks. W r i t i n g thus came to constitute the trace of the
h a n d i n motion a n d i n so doing, imparted a n e w sense of life to the w r i t t e n
page. T h e tangibleness, splendor, a n d permanence of older letter forms h a d
helped to convey the authority of the w r i t t e n w o r d b y stressing its physical
transcendence over its mortal readers a n d its l i n k to sources of p o w e r b o t h
d i v i n e a n d terrestrial. P r o m o t i n g the concept of unique selfhood w h i c h lay
at the core of the humanistic movement, italic derived authority b y evoking
the l i v i n g presence of the writer, accomplishing this b y stressing the act of
writing. To this end, it was of paramount importance that italic script appear
spontaneous a n d fresh.
It can h a r d l y b e a c c i d e n t a l that the r i s e o f i t a l i c o c c u r r e d
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h the g r o w i n g regard for the art of d r a w i n g i n Italy.
Regarded as the foundation of the other v i s u a l arts, d r a w i n g w a s thought
to record most directly the imaginative w o r l d of the artist. A r t i s t i c creation
itself w a s increasingly defined i n terms of process; this resulted i n d r a w i n g
becoming a far freer a n d more experimental m e d i u m than it h a d been i n the
past. A m o n g the most explicit signs of this w a s the emergence of the sketch,
w h i c h assumed a p r i m a r y role i n the creation of w o r k s of art. A radically
32
dynamic notion of d r a w i n g , the sketch avoided the mere description of out-
w a r d appearance, seeking instead to capture the movement a n d v i t a l i t y of
nature as filtered through the imagination of the artist. D r a w i n g so defined
2
had much i n common w i t h italic script. Both used line to transcribe touch i n
an attempt to become a pure physical extension of the maker. B o t h stressed
ongoing process rather than f i n i s h , w i t h italic accomplishing this through
features such as slant and the cursive linking of letters. I n short, the emphasis
i n both w a s the creation not of an independent object but of an object whose
p r i m a r y function w a s the affirmation of its creators l i v i n g presence. P r o -
claiming that art h a d been perfected b y Leonardo da V i n c i , Raphael, a n d
Michelangelo, the sixteenth-century historiographer G i o r g i o V a s a r i cited as
a critical constituent of this process the depiction of motion, b y w h i c h he
meant the illusive motion of the soul. I n similar senses, drawing and w r i t i n g
3
turned this mimetic imperative i n o n itself, script even more radically than
d r a w i n g . F o r w h i l e the draftsman sought to capture his o w n imaginative
processes through the portrayal of the animate physical w o r l d , the scribe
s e l f - r e f l e x i v e l y recorded h i s o w n v i t a l m o t i o n , free f r o m the demands o f
figurai representation.
I n a curious t u r n of events, p r i n t i n g further contributed to the
emergence of w r i t i n g as an art form, since i t w a s p r i n c i p a l l y through the
publication of m o d e l books that scribes became w i d e l y recognized as d i s -
tinctive personalities. A m o n g the earliest and most influential of such h a n d -
writing manuals were Lo presente libro by Giovannantonio Tagliente (Venice,
1524) a n d La operina b y L u d o v i c o degli A r r i g h i (Rome, 1522). B o t h were
printed from woodblocks (engraved manuals becoming common only later i n
the century). M o r e o v e r , b o t h were devoted p r i n c i p a l l y to instruction i n italic,
which is indicative of the great cultural weight attached to classically inspired
letter forms d u r i n g the Renaissance. Yet, despite the pedagogical intent of
their manuals a n d the classical clarity of italic as i t w a s ideally conceived,
neither Tagliente n o r A r r i g h i c o u l d resist d e m o n s t r a t i n g their a b i l i t y to
exploit the aesthetic potential of italic script, the result of its singularly free
and linear character. T h e publications of b o t h scribes contain variations of
33
classic chancery c u r s i v e i n w h i c h lines are repeatedly d r a w n o u t to f o r m
w e b s o f fluent ascenders, descenders, a n d serifs w h i c h hamper l e g i b i l i t y .
W i t h the publication of G i o v a n n i Battista Palatinos Libro nuovo
d'imparare a scrivere (Rome, 1540), the practical function of the writing manual
gave w a y more dramatically than before to b o t h the aesthetic potential of
script a n d the force a n d personality of the scribe. T h e focus of Palatinos
4
34
e x h i b i t i o n scripts to w h i c h italic gave rise, such as the examples of interlac-
i n g cursive, w h i c h are among the manuscripts most b e g u i l i n g calligraphic
demonstrations (fols. 34, 84, 98). A k i n to this t y p e are italic letters w i t h
exaggerated, i n t e r w o v e n ascenders a n d descenders (fols. 82, 87). S a t i r i z i n g
the stress o n linear continuity are t w o forms that also appear i n Palatinos
manual, "cut letters" (letter e tagliate), i n w h i c h the u p p e r a n d lower halves of
a line of script seem to b e cut loose from one another (fols. 41, 43, 96), a n d
"scabby letters" (lettere rognole), i n w h i c h p r o t r u s i o n s break u p the lines
f o r m i n g the letters (fols. 55, 93,119). B a c k w a r d s slant, a transgression i n
italic as it is normally w r i t t e n , becomes a source of amusement i n numerous
script samples (fols. 49, 65).
Second i n number to italic i n Bocskay s m o d e l b o o k are the
various forms of rotunda (Italian Gothic) and antiqua (a classicizing humanist
script based o n C a r o l i n g i a n minuscule) w h i c h - because of their classical
origins - w e r e also employed as humanist hands (fols. 5, 6, 45,128). These
tend to b e among the most sumptuous calligraphic specimens; the interstices
b e t w e e n the lines o f s c r i p t are often f i l l e d w i t h dense r u n n i n g v i n e s i n
black, gold, and silver. A l s o common is an outlined rotunda k n o w n as "traced
letters" (fol. 1), w h i c h are sometimes p a i n t e d w i t h dots o f g o l d a n d b l u e
(fol. 81). T h e classically based scripts include R o m a n inscriptional capitals
as w e l l (fols. 4 0 , 53).
T h e flowering o f w r i t i n g d u r i n g the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s
fueled not o n l y b y the cultural idealism of the Renaissance humanists b u t
also b y the g r o w i n g bureaucratic substructure i n E u r o p e , w h i c h required
the services of ever larger numbers of secretaries. W h i l e italic became the
6
35
the century. 7
36
picture w h o s e shape or layout is determined b y its subject (fol. 15); d i m i n -
ishing w r i t i n g (fol. 106); a n d micrography w r i t i n g too small to be read w i t h
the naked eye (fol. 118). D i s p l a y i n g script at its greatest remove from con-
ventional w r i t i n g , e x h i b i t i o n hands epitomize the d r i v e for v i r t u o s i t y that
dominated calligraphy b y the end of the sixteenth century. T h i s focus o n
v i r t u o s i t y is i n t u r n the most obvious manifestation of the effort to elevate
w r i t i n g to the status of a fine art that scribes appear to have undertaken i n
imitation of Renaissance v i s u a l artists. T h i s w a s accomplished b y flaunting
calligraphy s distance from u t i l i t y a n d also b y demonstrating that w r i t i n g
w a s constantly i m p r o v i n g its technical a n d conceptual means i n conformity
w i t h the Renaissance d i c t u m that art h a d to involve progressive historical
development. 8
A b o v e a l l , however, v i r t u o s i t y w a s the scribes p r i n c i p a l
expressive device, a vehicle for asserting his possession of the w i t , s k i l l , a n d
v i s i o n to p u s h w r i t i n g past its o w n limitations. U n l i k e A r r i g h i , Tagliente,
or Neudôrffer, Bocskay w a s not a great formal innovator. Rather, his contri-
b u t i o n to the art of w r i t i n g lies i n his transformation of it into a p o w e r f u l
m e d i u m for self-expression.
T H E ILLUMINATIONS
37
folios preponderantly or entirely given over to calligraphy (fols. 5, 14, 84,
89) casts further doubt o n the l i k e l i h o o d that Bocskay's model b o o k w a s
originally p l a n n e d to contain extensive figurai embellishment.
I n any event, i t is certain that Bocskay c o u l d not have antici-
pated the decorative program Hoefnagel devised. T h e illuminator's program
hinged o n the préexistence of the script a n d his o w n capacity to formulate a
w i t t y a n d often satirical figurai response to it. H i s illuminations consist of a
diverse assemblage of natural specimens u n i t e d b y their small size. M o s t
prominent among these multifarious objects are flowers, especially the many
colorful b u l b - g r o w n ornamentals such as the t u l i p (fols. 23, 25, 51, 53, 60),
anemone (fols. 13,30,39), various lilies (fols. 43, 92), fritillary (fol. 40), a n d
narcissus (fols. 12,48). A number of these as w e l l as other botanical specimens
i n c l u d i n g the sweet flag (fol. 59) and tomato (fols. 42,102) were considered
rarities, having only recently been imported to Northern and Central E u r o p e
from the Levant, the N e w W o r l d , A n d a l u s i a , a n d elsewhere. A l s o repre-
sented i n the manuscript is a vast range of native species such as the p e r i -
w i n k l e (fol. 1), stock (fol. 5), foxglove (fol. 93), rose (fols. 10,11,15,17, 22),
columbine (fols. 12, 28), violet (fol. 20), a n d pansy (fols. 18, 64). Hoefnagel
demonstrated great sophistication as a botanist b o t h i n the sheer number of
genera represented and i n the presentation of ranges of species of given plants,
as can b e seen i n his Njgcllas (fols. 3 [ H àamasccna plena], 9 [ H damasana],
110 [N. sativa]) or dianthus (fols. 68 [D. caryophyllus], 79 [D. larbatus]). H i s
focus o n flowers reflects the w a n i n g of the tradition of medieval herbáis, i n
w h i c h plants were v a l u e d p r i n c i p a l l y for medicinal or other utilitarian p u r -
poses, i n favor of an aesthetic a n d natural historical appreciation of plants,
w h i c h placed emphasis o n the beautiful a n d the rare. T h i s formalistic a n d
v i s u a l l y oriented interest i n natural variety for its o w n sake w a s a m a n i -
festation of the larger effort to collect a n d classify a l l of nature's p r o d u c t i o n
that dominated sixteenth-century natural history.
A l t h o u g h flowers appear i n Hoefnagel's earlier w o r k s , they
became a major feature of his oeuvre during the 1590 s, as is most eloquently
expressed i n the G e t t y m a n u s c r i p t . H i s i n c r e a s i n g l y artistic treatment o f
38
flowers coincided with his move in 1591 to Frankfurt, where he joined a circle
o f N e t h e r l a n d i s h e x p a t r i a t e artists a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l s w h i c h i n c l u d e d
the greatest of a l l Renaissance botanists, C a r o l u s C l u s i u s . T h e courts o f
R u d o l f II and his father, M a x i m i l i a n II, were also among the principal centers
of sixteenth-century b o t a n y A number of prominent botanists, i n c l u d i n g
Clusius between 1573 and 1587 and his fellow Netherlander Rembert Dodoens
between 1574 and 1579, had been employed there. Due to their presence and
also to Vienna's geographical situation at the crossroad between E u r o p e a n d
the Near East, the H a p s b u r g court became a center for the propagation a n d
E u r o p e a n dissemination of L e v a n t i n e ornamentals such as the t u l i p . M a x i -
milian II and R u d o l f II built a number of gardens i n w h i c h to cultivate these
a n d other botanical rarities, such as those at the Neugebàude i n V i e n n a , on
the grounds of the i m p e r i a l castle i n Prague, a n d at other i m p e r i a l residences
i n Bohemia a n d A u s t r i a . 9
39
natural a n d h u m a n artifice presented i n contemporary florilegia. T h e y call
to m i n d Sweerts's assertion that i n his o w n b o o k he took pains to s h o w the
"flower a n d b u l b w i t h its color, as they o r d i n a r i l y g r o w before the eyes." 11
40
rudolfine Kunstkammer, w i t h its display of bones, shells, nuts, fossils, a n d
other natural specimens. 12
H i s manuscript w o u l d have supplemented this
extensive, i f h a p h a z a r d , c o l l e c t i o n j u s t as the other c o m p e n d i a of h a n d -
p a i n t e d natural history illustrations kept i n the Kunstkammer w o u l d have. 13
41
a n d the unseen crystallized Hoefnagel's conception of natural knowledge as
arising from b o t h rational investigation a n d revelation, a d u a l i s m that w o u l d
bifurcate d u r i n g later centuries i n t o the increasingly separate realms o f
science a n d religion.
Hoefnagel's dualistic conception of nature is intimately tied to
his preoccupation w i t h the paradoxical mimetic striving to "paint what could
not be painted," i n the w o r d s a p p l i e d b y P l i n y the E l d e r to the w o r k o f
A p e l l e s , the greatest of classical painters/ F o r Hoefnagel, w h o s e imagery
6
centered on the w o r l d of nature rather than on the human figure, this approach
w a s tantamount to capturing nature's animate quality. T h i s is apparent i n
the prominent role played i n the G e t t y m o d e l b o o k b y insects a n d small
animals, w h o s e v i v a c i t y often contrasts w i t h the weightiness a n d fullness of
the fruits. W i n g e d insects dart ethereally among the letters, fruit, and flowers,
w h i l e snails a n d caterpillars are no less animated. Objects are d i s t r i b u t e d o n
the page according to their elemental realms: butterflies and dragonflies often
appear t o w a r d the top, w i t h the bottom occupied b y fruit, flowers, creeping
insects, a n d small animals. T h e latter are s h o w n dead or d y i n g o n several
occasions (fols. 50, 70, 108). A s much as Hoefnagel's " l i v i n g " specimens,
this trope alludes to the effort to exceed the physical limitations of p a i n t i n
order to capture the v i t a l s p i r i t a n i m a t i n g matter. H i s fascination w i t h
m i n u t i a e as nature's t h r e s h o l d to the unseen reflects h i s p r o f o u n d c o n -
sciousness of the dualistic character of the manuscript folio, comprising not
merely a surface to be d r a w n u p o n b u t a recto inherently p o i n t i n g i n space
a n d time t o w a r d its invisible verso.
M a n y of the specimens depicted i n the G e t t y codex appear i n
other works b y or after Hoefnagel. T h e Hours of P h i l i p p e of Cleves (Brussels,
Bibliothèque R o y a l e A l b e r t 1er, M s . I V 40), a fifteenth-century F l e m i s h
b o o k of hours to w h i c h Hoefnagel added border illuminations i n the late
1570s or early 1580s, contains corresponding elements, such as the split sour
orange (Brussels fol. 70; G e t t y fol. 33) or the bright orange M a l t e s e cross
(Brussels fol. 64; G e t t y fol. 37) (fig. 1). T h e Archctypa studiaque patris Gcorgii
Hocfnagdii... contains an especially large number of matching motifs, such
42
Figure î. Joris Hoefnagel. Border Illuminations with a Maltese Cross and a
Rose. W a t e r c o l o r a n d gouache o n v e l l u m . F r o m H o u r s of P h i l i p p e of
C l e v e s . Brussels, B i b l i o t h è q u e R o y a l e A l b e r t 1er, M s . I V 4 0 , f o l . 6 4 .
44
tending t o w a r d verticality (fol. 6) are lent depth b y cast shadows at the
bottom, yet they become more planar as the forms move u p the page, thereby
a l l o w i n g the space of the objects a n d that of the script to fuse imperceptibly.
H o r i z o n t a l compositions (fol. 46) recede slightly but at the same time seem
scattered o n top of the page surface. T h e shadows often appear more sub-
stantial than the objects, thus enhancing the latter s planar effect. T h e exten-
sion of objects to the edge of the script column w h i l e neither overlapping this
edge nor being cropped b y it is another device linking the space of object and
script. S u c h tricks elide the distinction between surface a n d depth a n d i n
so d o i n g effect a radical reconception of the i l l u m i n a t e d page.
T h e central problem o c c u p y i n g manuscript illuminators from
the early fifteenth century o n w a s the tension between the t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l
page a n d the three-dimensional image, w h i c h intensified as manuscript i l l u -
mination became increasingly spatial i n imitation of large-scale p a i n t i n g . 17
45
F i g u r e 3 . T h e M a s t e r of M a r y of B u r g u n d y . Saint Barbara. P e n a n d i n k ,
golf leaf, a n d tempera colors o n v e l l u m . F r o m H o u r s of E n g e l b e r t of
Nassau. O x f o r d , Bodleia n Library, M s . D o u c e 2 1 9 , fol. 4 1 .
fifteenth century. 18
Pàcht presented w h a t remains the most w i d e l y accepted
description of the significance of s t r e w n pattern borders to the evolution of
the i l l u m i n a t e d folio :
The place of the page... is conceived as a harrier dividing the two hinds
of space, the imaginary space of the picture behind the page and the s
of reality in front of it. The forms and objects appearing in either sphe
have severed contact with the plane of the page and at the same time
have become widely separated from each other. The ornament of the border
has moved closer to the spectator, the scene in the picture has receded
further into the background. Every visible form now lives in space, has
atmosphere around it, and yet we are made consàous of the existence
and presence of the plane of the page as the central organizing factor. 19
47
became a specific, stationary element i n relation to b o t h the v i e w e r a n d the
protean antics of the illuminations. Hoefnagel placed his imagery directly on
the surface bearing the text, thus claiming equality w i t h that text, a n d w e n t
even farther b y abandoning the i m p l i e d margins of this plane a n d i n v a d i n g
the central space of the w r i t i n g . T h e most fundamental reversal of the tra-
ditional relation between text a n d image, however, w a s his refusal to permit
the imagery to imitate textual narrative. A s long as imagery imitated narrative,
the priority of the text was insured, since the implication of this relationship
was that figurai imagery could never fully capture invisible language. Instead,
Hoefnagel imitated w o r d s themselves, t u r n i n g them into objects a n d thereby
reversing the basic terms of the earlier relationship b y p r i v i l e g i n g v i s i o n . In
so doing, he asserted that v i s u a l rather than verbal mimesis w a s the prime
a n d superior form of imitation.
Hoefnagel's illuminations imitate Bocskay's w r i t i n g not only
through their confinement to the script column b u t also through the calli-
graphic f l o w of their forms (fol. 94). O n occasion, the shapes of the specimens
may even echo the accompanying script form, as on folio 16, w h i c h juxtaposes
peas a n d beadlike flourishes i n the w r i t i n g . T h e left-to-right flow of these
compositions causes them to "read" like script. Just as the imagery interlocks
w i t h the script i n a continuation of its planar expanse, so the forms interlock
w i t h one another. Indeed, they seem to have been chosen largely for their
capacity to fit together like pieces of a puzzle. Folio 50, for example, features a
water insect, a pectoral v i e w of a dead frog, a lily, and a shell - natural forms
that have been made to fit into the unnatural confines of a rectangle, bearing no
further symbolic or conceptual relation to one another. Rather than constitut-
ing a "natural whole," they maintain a sense of separateness from one another,
p o i n t i n g u p the additive character of w o r d s and sentences. Hoefnagel strove
continually to make the v i e w e r aware of the stationary a n d hence lifeless
character of w o r d s i n comparison to images.
T h e competitive tone of the m o d e l b o o k as a w h o l e is deter-
mined b y Bocskay's extroverted display of calligraphic virtuosity. Hoefnagel's
answer to this self-assured (in its creator's eyes, no doubt consummate) per-
48
formance w a s to challenge i t from w i t h i n - b y p i t t i n g v i s u a l imagery, w i t h
its attendant m i m e t i c capacities, against the v i s u a l p o w e r o f w o r d s —and
from w i t h o u t — b y aggressively flaunting the capacity of figurai imagery to
imitate nature. T h i s is evident i n the use of bright a n d sometimes j a r r i n g
color. F o l i o 13, for example, j u x t a p o s e s o r a n g e - b r o w n medlars, a f u c h s i a
anemone, a n d a n orange-green pear, w h i l e a h i g h l y saturated r e d p o p p y
anemone dominates folio 3 0 . T h e assault on visual perception is reinforced b y
the spatial assertiveness of the natural elements, such as the lily, pomegranate,
a n d rhinoceros beetle o n folio 4 3 or the pomegranate blossom, earthworm,
a n d peach o n folio 8 3 , a l l of w h i c h have emphatically inflated appearances.
Hoefnagers emphasis o n l o o k i n g implies that sight is a more
direct a n d hence superior m e t h o d of investigating the natural w o r l d than
reading, a n implication strengthened b y the nonreferential character of the
images. W i t h the exception of several of the black folios, they apparently
bear neither a symbolic relation to the script samples nor any further icono-
graphical significance. Sight, then, is treated not j u s t as a m e d i u m to guide
one to verbal t r u t h b u t as an autonomous form of knowledge.
Hoefnagel's challenge to Bocskay's script also makes effective
use of w i t . T h i s is nowhere more evident than o n those folios w i t h plants
illusionistically stuck through the page, y i e l d i n g a surprise encounter w i t h
the stems p a i n t e d o n the versos (fols. 2 0 , 2 0 V ; 2 6 , 2 6 v ; 3 7 , 3 7 V ; 4 1 , 4 1 V ; 6 1 ,
6iv; 6 7 , 6 7 V ; 8 9 , 8 9 V ; 112, i i 2 v ; 1 1 7 , 1 1 7 V ; 1 2 4 , 1 2 4 V ; 1 2 6 , i 2 6 v ) . W h i l e late
fifteenth- and early sixteenth-century books of hours commonly contain this
trompe l'oeil device, they o n l y rarely exploit the o p p o r t u n i t y to portray the
motif piercing the verso as w e l l as the recto - a device used so successfully
b y H o e f n a g e l . H i s h i g h l y self-conscious use of such tricks to upstage the
20
49
displays of v i r t u o s i t y w i t h the most meager bits of v i s u a l form.
In its widest sense a contest of words versus imagery the model
book is concomitantly a match between artistic personalities. W h i l e Hoefnagel
inveterately signed a n d i n s c r i b e d his other manuscripts a n d single leaves,
he d i d not do so here. Indeed, he appears to have maintained a self-imposed
ban on w r i t i n g throughout the work, w h i l e Bocskay's signature or monogram
appears repeatedly. E v e n w h e n wordless, however, Hoefnagel is present: the
black caterpillar creeping over a b o x containing Bocskay's initials (fol. 29)
or the golden beetles beside his florid signature o n the m o d e l book's final
folio (fol. 129) must have been intended as comedie reminders of the artist's
contribution. C a p t u r i n g animation i n paint, they contrast w i t h Bocskay's
epitaphic signatures.
Hoefnagel's focus on the revelatory power of nature is consistent
w i t h the broader cultural context of the rudolfine court. There, the acute
interest i n the natural w o r l d that manifested itself i n so many areas - from
"scientific" endeavors to the collecting of naturalia i n the Kunstkammer to the
production of a r t - f o r m e d an integral component of an occultist project aimed
ultimately at i n t u i t i n g the invisible reality u n d e r l y i n g nature. 21
Indeed, the
centrality of nature to rudolfine occultist t h i n k i n g is nowhere more impres-
sively displayed than i n the illuminations of the G e t t y codex. T h e y help
one to appreciate h o w , according to this approach, the physical w o r l d w a s
not v i e w e d as merely a pale s h a d o w of the immaterial b u t quite literally as
holder of the key to d i v i n e mysteries; indeed, according to this outlook, the
v i s i b l e a n d i n v i s i b l e were enmeshed, a n d the boundaries between the t w o
were imprecise. T h i s is made explicit i n Hoefnagel's depictions of ethereal
insects or sliced-open fruits revealing their seeds, images that attempt to
discover the source of life b y dissecting the w o r l d into ever smaller units.
If matter a n d spirit were mysteriously predicated o n one another, so were
v i s i o n a n d revelation. Notably, Hoefnagel's images do not evince an interest
i n texture, neither i n those of diverse specimens nor i n the w o r k i n g of p a i n t
itself. U n i f o r m l y smooth a n d meticulously executed, inflated rather than
sculpted i n appearance, they suggest that v i s i o n , not touch, plays the critical
5°
role i n g a i n i n g knowledge of nature. T h i s process is not one of passively
r e c o r d i n g natures surfaces, h o w e v e r ; rather, v i s i o n acts aggressively o n
nature, p r y i n g into its recesses. T h i s process implies that revelation can o n l y
be i n d u c e d b y a forceful a n d direct confrontation w i t h the v i s i b l e w o r l d .
T h e p r o f o u n d a n d revelatory experience of nature offered b y
Hoefnagel's imagery i n the G e t t y codex is paralleled i n the w r i t i n g s o f the
s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y G e r m a n p h y s i c i a n Paracelsus, w h o s e thought d e e p l y
i n f l u e n c e d m a n y o f the alchemical w r i t i n g s that i s s u e d f r o m the P r a g u e
court. 22
A v o i d i n g abstract p h i l o s o p h i c a l language, Paracelsus expressed
himself i n p o w e r f u l natural metaphors that often involve the s t r i p p i n g away
of nature's layers i n a search for h i d d e n essences: " A s w e k n o w b y the r i n d
w h a t fruit lies concealed w i t h i n it, a n d as the spirit is k n o w n b y its body,
j u s t so, i n the case of minerals, the spirit of the metal is recognized, though
hidden, beneath its corporeal, or mineral bark." 23
Accordingly, Paracelsus's
m e t h o d hinges o n the rejection o f t e x t u a l authorities such as G a l e n o r
A r i s t o t l e i n favor of acquiring intimate a n d total knowledge of nature b y
actual confrontation a n d u n i o n w i t h it. True knowledge of nature resulted
from this u n i o n , w h i c h Paracelsus described as " E r f a h r u n g " (experience) as
opposed to the illusory insight gained from consulting texts: " H e w h o wishes
to explore nature must tread u p o n her books w i t h his feet. W r i t i n g is learnt
from letters, Nature, however, (by travelling) from l a n d to l a n d : O n e l a n d
one page. T h u s is the codex of Nature, thus must its leaves b e turned." A s 24
51
of seed has lain in that place We men in this world explore all things
which lie hidden in the mountains hy means of traces and external signs.
For we investigate the properties of all herbs and stones by their signed
sign [signatum signum] The foundation is in this, that all things
have seed, and in seed all things are contained, for nature first fab-
ricates the form, and afterwards she produces and manifests the essence
of the thing.* 5
T h e w r i t i n g s of Paracelsus p r o v i d e a p h i l o s o p h i c a l context i n
w h i c h to place Hoefnagel's imagery. L i k e the physician, the artist p o s i t e d
that nature is the gateway to true k n o w l e d g e . Nature's revelatory p o w e r
stands i n o p p o s i t i o n to Bocskay's w o r d s , w h i c h sit inert o n the surface of
the page. T h e images are thus reminiscent of Paracelsus's archetypal natural
text, h o l d i n g the promise of u n i t e d surface a n d depth, j u s t as they intimate
that the outer layers of forms conceal inner mysteries. Aggressively present-
i n g themselves for i n v e s t i g a t i o n , the objects p r o v i d e a direct encounter
w i t h nature, w h i c h - i n circumventing the logic of texts - p r o m i s e s to y i e l d
revealed truths.
W h i l e Hoefnagel's illuminations a i d us i n comprehending the
centrality of the study of nature at the rudolfine court, they are more inter-
esting s t i l l for w h a t they reveal o f the force o f images i n that m i l i e u . H i s
imagery insists that b y v i r t u e of mimesis, pictures claim nature's o w n p o w e r
to confront the i n d i v i d u a l directly a n d so to inspire revelation. E x i s t i n g l i k e
apparitions o n w h i t e vellum, the images simultaneously convey the magical
power involved i n confronting nature and the magic of artistic creation. M o r e
than the trompe l'oeil devices, the m i m i c k i n g of the serifs a n d flourishes of
script, or the clever s t r u c t u r i n g o f the page surfaces, i t is the u n s e t t l i n g
intensity w i t h w h i c h nature confronts the v i e w e r that poses the most p r o -
f o u n d challenge to Bocskay's script i n the G e t t y codex. Hoefnagel asserted
that images, l i k e nature, are the sources o f h u m a n experience at its most
p r o f o u n d l e v e l , f r o m w h i c h the w r i t t e n w o r d remains ever at a remove.
52
Notes
53
14. E . K r i s , " G e o r g Hoefnagel u n d 21. E v a n s (note 9 ) , p p . 2 4 3 - 7 4 .
der wissenschaftliche Naturalismus," i n
2 2 . Ibid., p p . 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 .
A . W e i x l g a r t n e r a n d L . P l a n i s c i g , eds.,
Festschrift für Julius Schlosser ( V i e n n a , 2 3 . A . E . W a i t e , trans, a n d e d . , The
Leipzig, and Zurich, 1927), pp. 2 4 3 - 5 3 . Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of
Paracelsus (Berkeley, 1 9 7 6 ) , v o l . 1, p p .
15. Svetlana A l p e r s ' s d i s c u s s i o n of the
9 3 - 9 4 , f r o m Paracelsus, Opera omnia
relation of m i c r o s c o p y to the seven-
(Frankfurt, 8 v o . , 1 5 8 4 ) .
teenth-century D u t c h tendency to
conceive of the art of p a i n t i n g as the 2 4 . W . P a g e l , Paracelsus: An Introduction
presentation of o p t i c a l l y b a s e d natural to Philosophical Medicine in the Era of the
k n o w l e d g e is e n l i g h t e n i n g for a c o n - Renaissance (Basel, 1 9 5 8 ) , p p . 5 6 - 5 7 ,
sideration of H o e f n a g e l , one of the f r o m Paracelsus, Opera omnia (Defen-
chief precursors to this development. siones und Verantwortungen wegen etlicher
See The Art of Describing (Chicago, Verumglimpfung seiner Missgbnner, Vierdte
1983), pp. 1-25. Defensión), e d . J. H u s e r (Basel, 1 5 8 9 ) ,
v o l . 1, p . 2 5 9 .
1 6 . P l i n y the E l d e r , Natural History
35-74- 2 5 . W a i t e (note 2 3 ) , p p . 1 9 0 - 9 1 ,
f r o m Explicatio totius astronomiae. See K .
17. T h e conception of the i l l u m i n a t e d
Sudhoff, ed.,T]i.eopJirast von Hohenheim
page as t e n s i o n - r i d d e n as a result of
gen. Paracelsus: Sâmtliche Werke, I. Abtei-
the i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l
lung: Medizinische naturwissenschaftliche
space w a s a d v a n c e d b y E r w i n P a n o f s k y
und philosophische Schriften, v o l . 12
i n Early Netherlandish Painting: Its
( M u n i c h and Berlin, 1 9 2 9 ) , pp. 4 7 0 - 7 1
Origins anà Development ( C a m b r i d g e ,
(reprint of P h i l i p p i T h e o p h r a s t i B o m b a s t
M a s s . , 1953), p. 2 8 .
gennant Paracelsi M a g n i , Astronomia
1 8 . O . P à c h t , The Master of Mary of magna: oder die ganz Philosophia Sagax
Burgundy ( L o n d o n , 1 9 4 8 ) . des grossen und Ideinen Welt [Frankfurt-
a m - M a i n , 1571] ).
19. Ibid., p. 2 5 .
2 0 . T. D a C o s t a K a u f m a n n a n d V .
R o e h r i g K a u f m a n n , " T h e Sanctification
o f N a t u r e : O b s e r v a t i o n s o n the O r i g i n s
of Trompe-l'oeil i n N e t h e r l a n d i s h B o o k
P a i n t i n g of the F i f t e e n t h a n d S i x t e e n t h
Century," Journal of the J. Paul Getty
Museum 19 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , p p . 4 3 - 6 4 ; D . T h o s s ,
" G e o r g H o e f n a g e l u n d seine B e z i e h u n g e n
z u r G e n t - B r ü g g e r Buchmalerei," Jahrbuch
der Kunstlustoriscltew Sammlungen in Wien
8 2 - 8 3 (n.s. 4 6 - 4 7 ) ( 1 9 8 6 - 8 7 ) , p . 2 1 0 .
54
EDITORS NOTE
55
Verso of fifth flyleaf
Georgii Bodikaj
Mira calligraphiae monumenta
et pictorial patientiae
diligentissima indida.
Al an. 1562 ad 1596.
Folio i
Vinca minor L . Common periwinkle
Malus domestica Borkh. C o m m o n apple
Lacerta (?) Lizard
Folio 2
Ephemeroptera Mayfly
Silène dioica (L.) Clair R e d campion (spotted petals
unusual for species)
Pyrus communis Common pear, gourd type
58
Folio 3
~Njgdla damasana L . "Plena" Love-in-a-mist
Prunus avium (L.) L . Sweet cherry
Casianca sauva M i l l . Spanish chestnut
60
Folio 4
Díptera Syrphidae Hover fly/flower fly
or Coleóptera Meloidae (?) or blister beetle
Campanula persicifolia L . "Album" W i l l o w bellflower
Cucúrbita pepo L . Gourd
Convolvulus arvmsis L . Field bindweed
62
Folio 5
Matthiola incana (L.) R. Br. Gillyflower
Ephemeroptera Mayfly
Díptera Cyclorrhapha Fly
Heleomyzidae (?)
Pulmonata Helicidae Ceyaca sp. Garden snail
64
Folio 6
Lepidoptera Noctuidae (?) Caterpillar of owlet moth
Erythronium dcns-cani Dog-tooth violet
"Candidum"
Anacyclus pyrcthrum (L.) Link
Pyrus communis Common pear, gourd type
Prunus armcniaca Apricot
66
Folio 7
Díptera Syrphidae (?) Hover fly/flower fly
Lepidoptera Sphingidae Hyles Horntail caterpillar
euphorbiac (L of spurge hawk-moth
Pyrus communis Common pear, gourd type
Lep. Satyridae Mdanargia M a r b l e d white
galathca ssp. galathca (L.)
Chilopoda Centipede
68
Folio 8
[Excised]
Folio 9
Arachnida Araneae Pisauridae Nurseryweb spider
Dolomcdcs fimbriata (Cler
Njgdla damasana L . Love-in-a-mist
Hymenoptera Eumenidae Eumcncs sp. Potter wasp
Riles rulrum L R e d currant
70
Folio 10
O donata Zygoptera Damselfly
Rosa galilea L . French rose, pink, semidouble
Castanca sativa M i l i . Spanish chestnut
Arachnida Araneae Spider
72
Folio i l
Lepidoptera Noctuidae Southern or obscure wainscot
Mythimna straminca (Treitschke)
or M . obsoleta (Hübner)
Rosa gallica L. French rose, bud
Imaginary wasplike insect
Beîîis perennis L . "Hortensis" English daisy
Lep. Lasiocampidae Caterpillar of lasiocampid moth (?)
74
Folio 12
Hymenopteran insect (?)
l^iarcissus yseudonarássus L . Daffodil
Aquilegia vulgaris L . European columbine
Quercus rolur L . English oak, acorns
76
Folio 13
Mesyilus germánica L . Medlar
Anemone coronaria L. Poppy anemone
Pyrus communis L. Common pear, gourd type
78
Folio 1 4
T w o imaginary beetlelike insects
80
Folio 1 5
Muscari botryoiàcs (L.) M i l Common grape hyacinth
(growth habit unusual)
Imaginary wasplike insect
Rosa rubiginosa L . Eglantine
Rosa foctiàa J. Herrm. Austrian brier
Lepidoptera Geometridae M a g p i e moth
Abraxas grossulariata (
82
Folio 1 6
Lepidoptera Satyridae Speckled w o o d
Parargc acgcria (L
Borago officinalis Talewort
Visum sativum Garden pea
Physalis alkckengi Lantern plant
84
Folio 17
R o s a gaïlica L . French rose, three buds
Pistada vera L . Pistachio, fruit
86
Folio 1 8
Malus domestica Bo Common apple
Viola tricolor L . European w i l d pansy
Corylus maxima Mil Giant filbert
88
Folio 1 9
Orthoptera Tettigoniidae Wart-biter (?)
Decticus vtrrudvorus (L.) (?)
Orth. Grasshopper (characteristics of
Acrididae and Tettigoniidae)
Hyadnthus orkntalis L . Hyacinth, single flower
Prunus àulds ( M i l l . ) Almond
D . A . Webb
90
Folio 20
Viola oâorata L . Sweet violet
Spartium junceum L . Spanish broom
Folio 2 0 v
Trompe l'oeil stem of sweet violet
Folio 21
???????? ??? ???????
fringed on all sides, not
just at top, as is usual)
Prunus aulas ( M i l l . ) Almond
D . A . Webb
92
Folio 2 2
Rosa gaïlica L . French rose
Díptera Tipulidae Crane fly
Corylus avellana L . European filbert
Pyrus communis L . Common pear, gourd type
96
Folio 23
Tulipa gesncriana L . Tulip, pink
Hymenoptera Ichneumonidae Ichneumonfly (inaccurate;
Eyhialtes sp. apparently
served as model)
Tuliya gcsncriana L . Tulip, striped yellow/blue/pink
Phascolus vulgaris L . Kidney bean
Phaseolus cocáncus L . Scarlet runner bean
or lunatus L . or Sieva bean
98
Folio 24
Díptera Tipulidae Crane fly
Hymenoptera Formicidae Three ants
100
Folio 25
Imaginary insect
Tulipa gesncriana L . Tulip, striped p i n k / w h i t e / y e l l o w
Unidentifiable caterpillar
Arachnida Araneae Spider
Vyrus communis L . Common pear, round type
102
Folio 26
Aonis annua L . Pheasant's-eye
Orthoptera Tettigoniidae Imaginary bush-cricket/
longhorn grasshopper (?)
?????????? ?????????? ??? W i r e w o r m (?)
Folio 2 6 v
Trompe l'oeil stem of pheasant's eye
Folio 27
Riles uva-crispi L . ???????? ???????
104
Folio 28
Aquilegia vulgaris L . European columbine
Aquilegia vulgaris L . "Multiplex" European columbine
Prunus avium (L.) L . Sweet cherry
108
Folio 29
Lepidoptera Noctuidae Dagger
Acronicta cuphorbiac ( D . & S.),
mcnyanthics (Esper),
or related species
110
Folio 30
Satureja aαnos (L.) Scheele Basil thyme
Anemone coronaria L . "Plena" Poppy anemone
Myrtus communis L . Myrtle
112
Folio 31
Phaseolus vulgaris L . Kidney bean
Anemone coronaria L . Poppy anemone
Vípera lerus (?) Adder
114
Folio 32
Mirabilis jalapa L . Four-o'clock, p i n k / y e l l o w
Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Brown hairstreak
Thccla Ictulac (L.)
Geranium rohtrtianum L . Herb robert
Cantkcrdlus cïbarius Fr. Chanterelle
116
Folio 33
Citrus aurantium L . Sour orange
Pulmonata Arionidae Terrestrial mollusk
Arion cf. rufus (L.)
Consolida rcgalis S. F. Gray Larkspur
118
Folio 3 4
Lepidoptera Lasiocampidae Larva of oak egger moth
?????????? ??????? ????
120
Folio 35
Hebrew Alphabet
122
Folio 36
Matthiola incana (L.) R. Br. Gillyflower
Imaginary insect
Veronica chamaerys L . Germander
Prunus aulas ( M i l l . ) Almond
D . A . Webb
Rana (temporaria [?]) Common frog
124
Folio 37
Lychnis chalcconica L . Maltese cross
Bivalvia Mytilidae European edible mussel
Mytilus culis (L.)
Coleóptera Coccinellidae Fourteen- or ten-spot ladybird
Pwpylaca quatuordcαmyunctata (L.) (inaccurate color pattern;
or Aalia cccmpunctata (L.) var. eight legs shown instead of six)
Folio 37V
Trompe l'oeil stem of Maltese cross
Folio 38
Viola ooraia L . Sweet violet
Cuc٥rbita pepo L . Gourd
Erytkronium ens-canis L . Dog-tooth violet
126
Folio 39
Anemone coronaria L . Poppy anemone, t w o flowers
Lepidoptera Unidentifiable caterpillar
Ficus carica L . Common fig
Cyonia oblonga M i l i . Common quince
130
Folio 4 0
Lepidoptera Pieridae Imaginary butterfly
and Papilionidae, (elements of black-veined
elements of Aporia crataegi (L.) white and clouded
??? ?????????? ????????? ???? apollo)
Fritillaria melzagris L . Snakeshead
Juglans regia L . English walnut
Prunus avium (L.) L. Sweet cherry
132
Folio 41
Phalaris arundinaœa L . "Picta" Reed grass
Rosa gaïlica L . French rose
Bufo (bufo [?]) Common toad
Matthiola incana (L.) R. Br. Gillyflower
Folio 41V
Trompe l'oeil blade of reed grass
and stem of French rose
Folio 42
Hymenoptera Chrysididae Unidentifiable insect
or Diptera Tachinidae (?) (colors suggest gold wasp;
may derive from parasitic
fly/tachina fly)
Vcrlascum Uattaria L . M o t h mullein
Myosotis -palustris (L.) L . Forget-me-not
Lyco-pcrsicon csculentum M i l l . Tomato
134
Folio 43
Lilium chalcconicum L . Scarlet Turk's cap
Coleóptera Scarabaeidae Common rhinoceros beetle
Oryctes nasicornis (L.)
P٥nica granatum L . Pomegranate, fruit
138
Folio 4 4
Chilopoda Centipede
Geranium sylvaticum L . W o o d cranesbill
Unidentifiable mushroom
140
Folio 45
Díptera Tipulidae Male crested crane fly
Ctcnophora atraνa (L.) (inaccurate venation; characteristic
or related species shape and antennae)
Dipt . Tipulidae Imaginary insect
(resembles crane fly;
four wings shown instead of two)
Rosa galilea L . French rose
142
Folio 4 6
Arachnida Araneae Spider
Prunus avium (L.) L . Sweet cherry, flower
Quercus rolur L . w i t h galls English oak, leaf w i t h cherry-galls
of Hymenoptera Cynipidae (three big galls) and spangle-galls
Cynips qucrcusfolii L . and (two small galls)
~N¿uroterus qucrcuslaccarum (L.)
144
Folio 47
Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Queen of Spain fritillary
Issoria latkonia (L.)
Malus domestica Borkh. Common apple
Mouse
Omphalocs vcrna Moench Creeping forget-me-not
146
Folio 4 8
Aonis annua L . Pheasant's eye
l^arssus minor L . Buttercup
148
Folio 4 9
Colutca arhoresœns L . Bladder senna
Salla lifolia L . Alpine squill
150
Folio 50
Heteroptera Hydrometridae Water gnat/water measurer
Hyromctra stagnorum (L.) (eyes too far forward on head)
or gradlcnta Horv.
Lilium martagσn L . "Album" Martagón lily
Bombina varicgata Yellow-bellied toad, ventral view
Prosobranchia Turritellidae European screw shell
Turritdla communis Risso
*5 2
Folio 51
Lepidoptera Unidentifiable caterpillar
Pyrus communis L . Common pear
Tulipa gcsncriana L . Tulip, pink, bordered white
Prosobranchia Muricidae Purple snail
Murex Iranaris (L.)
*54
Folio 52
Castanca sativa M i l l . Spanish chestnut
Iris latifolia M i l l . English iris
Corylus avellana L . European filbert
156
Folio 53
Consolida ambigua (L.) Rocket larkspur
P. W . Bail & Heyw.
Tulipa gcsncriana L . Tulip, yellow
Consolida ambigua (L.) Rocket larkspur
P W . Bail & Heyw.
Arachnida Scorpiones Scorpion
Diplopoda Millepede
Corylus avellana L . European filbert
158
Folio 54
Vitis vinifera L . W i n e grape
Matthiola incana (L.) R. Br. Gillyflower
Pulmonata Helicidae Imaginary land snail
(derived from Ccpaca sp. [?]),
sinistral (left wound)
160
Folio 55
Lepidoptera Sphingidae Resembles (horntail) caterpillar
?? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ????
(convolvulus hawk-moth)
Lep. Sphingidae Horntail caterpillar
of Macroglossum stellatarum (L.)
(hummingbird hawk-moth) (?)
162
Folio 5 6
Kumcx patientia L . Chard
Orthoptera Acrididae Red-winged grasshopper
Oeipoβa germαnica (Latr.)
Rumex patientia L . Chard
164
Folio 57
Omphalodcs vcrna Moench Creeping forget-me-not
Homoptera Berytinidae (?) Imaginary eight-legged insect
(Hymenoptera-like abdomen;
resembles superficially larva of Isaacs
tipularis [L.], species of "stilt bug")
Homoptera Flatidae Flatid planthopper (?)
(species does not occur i n Europe)
166
Folio 58
Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Based on Polyommatus icarus
(Rottemburg) (common blue) (?)
Phlomis russeliana (Sims) Benth Jerusalem sage
Lep. Satyridae Woodland ringlet
Erehia mcusa ( D . & S.)
Mucuna urcns (L.) D C . Two sea beans/horse eye beans
168
Folio 59
Lïlium canàiàum L . Madonna lily
Pulmonata Helicidae Terrestrial mollusk
Arianta arbustorum (L.)
Accrus calamus L . Sweet flag
170
Folio 60
Tulipa gcsncriana L . Tulip, pink
Imaginary insect
Tulipa gesneriana L . Tulip, red/green
Worm
112
Folio 61
Lepidoptera Satyridae Ringlet (dots on underside of wings
Aphanto-pus hypcrantus (L.) do not match this or related species)
Solanum pscudocapsicum L. False Jerusalem cherry
Polygala vulgaris L . Common m i l k w o r t
Folio 6 i v
Trompe l'oeil stem of common m i l k w o r t
Folio 62
Mdampyrum pratense L . Common cow-wheat
*74
Folio 63
????? ???????? ?? Common pear
Rosa gallica L . French rose
Lepidoptera Unidentifiable caterpillar
178
Folio 64
Viola tricolor L . European w i l d pansy
Cynara scolymus L . Artickoke
Ranunculus sp.
180
Folio 65
Odonata Zygoptera Lestidae (?) Lestes-like damselfly
Iris xiyhium L . Spanish iris
Odon. Zygoptera Cocnagrion-like damselfly
Coenagrionidae (?)
Ornithogalum umbcllatum L . S tar - of- B ethlehem
182
Folio 66
Pulmonata Helicidae Terrestrial mollusk
Arianta arbustorum (L.) (?)
Anemone coronaria L . Poppy anemone
Díptera Tipulidae Crane fly(?)
184
Folio 67
Lepidoptera Unidentifiable caterpillar
Trollius turoyatus L . Globeflower
Folio 6 7 V
Trompe l'oeil stem of globeflower
Folio 68
Odonata Zygoptera Unidentifiable damselfly
???????? ????????????? ?? Carnation
Heteroptera Pyrrhocoridae Derived from Pyrrhocris apcrus (L.)
(common firebug) (?)
Lepidoptera Lasiocampidae Caterpillar (resembles superficially
Philudoria Rotatoria [L.]
[drinker]; Lasiocamya qucrcus [L.]
[larva of oak egger moth] [?])
Cornus mas L . Carnelian cherry i n fruit
Chilopoda Centipede
186
Folio 69
Papaver. somniferm L. O p i u m poppy
Silène vulgaris (Moench) Garcke Bladder campion
Vida faba L . Broad bean
190
Folio 70
Lcucojum vcrnum L . Spring snowflake
Hyla arhorca Common tree frog
Chdranthus cheiri L . Wallflower
Prosobranchia Nassidae M a r i n e mollusk
N&ssarius circumcinctus
(A. Adams) (?)
192
Folio 71
T w o imaginary insects
???????? ????????????? ?? ?????????
194
Folio 72
Díptera Muscidae Common house fly
Musca omcstica (L.) (?)
????????? ????????????????? Lavender cotton
Lunaria annua L . M o n e y plant
196
Folio 73
Dianthus caryo-phyllus L . Carnation
Lilium martagσn L . Martagón lily, pink
Pyrus communis L . Common pear
198
Folio 74
O donata Zygoptera Imaginary damselfly
Dianthus caryopkyllus L . Carnation
Imaginary insect
Lepidoptera Unidentifiable caterpillar
Coleóptera Coccinellidae Two-spot ladybird/two-spotted
Adalia liyunctata (L.) lady beetle
Juglans regia L . English walnut
Prosobranchia Naticidae M a r i n e mollusk
N&ticarius milleyunctatus
(Lamarck)
200
Folio 75
Pyrus communis L . Common pear
O donata Zygoptera Lake demoiselle (a damselfly)
Calopterygidae
Caloptcryx virgo (L.)
Rana (arvalis [?]) M o o r frog
Hyadnthus orientalis L . Hyacinth
202
Folio 76
O donata A n i s optera Dragonfly
Aeshnidae Αcshna sp.
????? ???????? ?? Common pear
Dianthus caryo-phyllus Carnation
Hymenoptera Ichneumonidae Imaginary "hymenopterous"
"ichneumonfly-type" insect
204
Folio 77
Hymenoptera Ichneumonidae Imaginary "hymenopterous"
"ichneumonfly-type" insect
Juglans regia L . English walnut
Hypericum maculatum Crantz Imperforate Saint Johns wort
Crustacea Decapoda Crayfish
206
Folio 78
Rubus fruticosus L . Blackberry
Silène nutans L . Nottingham catchfly
208
Folio 79
Imaginary insect
Diantkus larbatus L . Sweet w i l l i a m
Aracnnida Araneae Spider
Prosobranchia Columbellidae M a r i n e mollusk
Columbclla rustica (L.)
Turbinidae, operculum Eye of Santa Lucia
of Astraca rugosa (L.)
210
Folio 8 o
Coleóptera Coccinellidae Fourteen- or ten-spot ladybird
Pwpylaca quatuordccimyunctata (L
or Aβalia decemyunctata (L.) va
Viola tricolor L . European w i l d pansy
212
Folio 81
Imaginary insect
(elements of butterfly, moth)
Crataegus monogyna Jacq. English hawthorn
Lepidoptera Unidentifiable caterpillar
Corylus avellana L . European filbert, fruits grown together
214
Folio 82
??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ????????
216
Folio 83
P٥nica granatum L . Pomegranate
Worm
Prunus pιrsica (L.) Batsch Peach
218
Folio 84
Imaginary insect
Hyssopus officinalis L . Hyssop
220
Folio 85
LEFT ARRANGEMENT:
222
Folio 86
The Burning of Troy
224
Folio 87
????????? ? ????????? ?? ???????
????????? ????? ?? ???????
????? ???????? ?? ?????? ????
226
Folio 88
Phasœlus vulgaris L . Kidney bean
Bcllis yercnnis L . English daisy
"Hortensis"
228
Folio 89
Two imaginary insects
Satureja adnos (L.) Scheele Basil thyme
Two imaginary insects
Pulmonata Helicidae Two imaginary land snails
(derived from Cepaea sp. [?])
Folio 89V
Intertwined trompe l o e i l stems
of basil thyme
Folio 9 0
Superimposed Letters Spelling the llames
of Illustrious Women of Anent Rome
230
Folio 91
Bivalvia Arcidae Arca noac L . Noah's ark shell
Achillea parmica L . Sneezewort
??
Folio 92
Unidentifiable insect
Lilium huïbiferum L . Orange lily
Imaginary mayfly-type insect
Lepidoptera Unidentifiable caterpillar
Malus domestica Borkh. Common apple
Diptera Tabanidae Horse fly
236
Folio 93
Crocus augustifolius Weston Cloth-of-gold crocus
Coleσptera Unidentifiable beetle
Digitalis purpurea L . Common foxglove
238
Folio 94
Hyaαntkus orientalis L . (?) Hyacinth, white bud
Moms nigra L . Black mulberry
Lepidoptera Unidentifiable caterpill.
240
Folio 95
Lepidoptera T w o unidentifiable caterpillars
242
Folio 96
Lepidoptera Three imaginary lepidopterans (two
imaginary butterflies; one imaginary
moth w i t h butterfly antennae)
Arachnida Araneae Spider
Bellis yercnnis L . "Hortensis" English daisy, two flowers
244
Folio 97
Unidentifiable insect (fly or bee [?])
Primula vulgaris Balkan primrose
Huds. var. rubra (Sibth. & Sm.) Hayek
Cyclamen yuryurascens M i l l . A l p i n e violet
246
Folio 98
Lepidoptera Imaginary caterpillar
(inaccurately placed abdominal legs)
Imaginary insect
248
Folio 99
O donata Zygoptera Two damselflies
(inaccurately shown copulation)
Lepidoptera Unidentifiable caterpillar
Lep. Pieridae Caterpillar of Picris hrassicae (L.)
(large white) (?)
Dianthus caryoyhyllus L . Carnation
Jasminum offiαnalc L . Poet's jasmine
250
Folio 100
Hymenoptera Eumenidae Potter wasp (inaccurate rendering
of Eumcncs sp.)
Dνptera Syrphidae Hover fly/flower fly
Lepidoptera Sphingidae Horntail caterpillar
(derived from Hcmaris [-Haemorrkagia]
fudformis [L.] [broad-bordered bee
hawk-moth] [?])
Lep. Sphingidae Resembles (horntail) caterpillar of
Macroglossum stdlatarum (L.)
(hummingbird hawk-moth)
252
Folio 101
Lepidoptera Sphingidae Horntail caterpillar
(resembles superficially Hcmaris
fuciformis [L.] [broad-bordered bee
hawk-moth])
???? ?????????? ?????????? ???????? ???? Eyed hawk-moth
Coleσptera Unidentifiable beetle
C o l . Coccinellidae Two-spot ladybird/two-spotted
Aalia liyunctata (L.) (?) lady beetle
2
54
Folio 102
Lilium martagσn L . Martagσn lily
???????????? ?????????? ????? ??????
256
Folio 103
Vicia faba L . Broad bean
Hepática nolïlis M i l l . Liverleaf
258
Folio 104
Imaginary insect
Dianthus caryo-phyllus L . Carnation
Hyacinthoics non scriyta (L.) Bluebell
Rothm. "Carnea"
Lepidoptera Saturniidae Saturniid caterpillar
(derived from young larva of Saturnia
yavonia L . [emperor moth] [?])
260
Folio 105
????? ????????? ??? ??? ????????????
The Israelites Dancing around
the Golden Calf
262
Folio 106
A SlotJi (?)
264
Folio 107
Rosa galilea L . French rose
Malus domestica Borkh. Common apple, two cores
266
Folio 108
Mecoptera Panorpidae Common scorpionfly (?), male
Panorpa communis (L.)
or other Panorpa sp.
Imaginary insect
Lacerta viviyara (?) Viviparous lizard, ventral view
Hymenoptera Tenthredinidae (?) Unidentifiable insect larva
(sawfly larva [?])
268
Folio 109
Pyrus communis L . Common pear
Omphalodes vcrna M o e n c h Creeping forget-me-not
270
Folio 110
Nigdla sativa L . Black cumin, double flower
Imaginary Hymenoptera-like insect
Njgdla sativa L . Black cumin, single flower
272
Folio 111
Primula veris L . Cowslip
Aquilegia vulgaris L . European columbine
Corylus maxima M i l l , Giant filbert; hazelnut weevil
once infested w i t h Curculio nucum L .
(Coleσptera Curculionidae)
274
Folio 112
Lepidoptera Pieridae Imaginary butterfly
(based on Picris or related
species [white])
Prunus avium (L.) L . Sweet cherry
Pulmonata Helicidae Two imaginary land snails
(derived from Cepaea sp. [?])
Folio 112V
Trompe l'oeil stem
of sweet cherry
Folio 113
Odonata Zygoptera Damselfly
Imaginary insect
(based on hymenopteran;
vespidlike abdominal color;
ichneumonidlike ovipositor;
nonhymenopteran wings)
Prosobranchia Columbellidae M a r i n e mollusk
Columbclla rustica (L.)
Prosobranchia Cassidae M a r i n e mollusk
Galeodea echinoyhora (L.)
276
Folio 114
Rosa gallica L . French rose
Twpacolum minus L . D w a r f nasturtium
280
Folio 115
Lepidoptera Pieridae T w o butterfly pupae
(right one resembles pupa of Pieris
Irassicac [L.] [large white])
282
Folio 116
Lepidoptera Arctiidae Scarlet tiger-moth
Caïlimorpha àominula (L.)
Consolida rcgalis S. F. Gray Larkspur
Imaginary ichneumonflylike insect
Lep. Papilionidae Imaginary caterpillar
or Saturnidae (based on Paplio machaon L .
[swallowtail] or mature larva of
Saturnia yavonia L . [emperor moth] [?];
colors and structure different from both;
inaccurately placed legs)
284
Folio 117
Ephemeroptera (?) M a y f l y (?)
Prunus armcniaca L . (?) Apricot, fruits grown together
Pkalaris arunàinacca L . "Picta" Reed grass
Folio 117V
Trompe l'oeil stem of reed grass
Folio 118
Lepidoptera Imaginary butterfly
(shows characteristics of Lycaenidae
[copper] and Satyridae [brown])
Prosobranchia Cassidae M a r i n e mollusk
Phalium saburon (Bruguière)
Pyrus communis L. Common pear
286
Folio 119
O donata Zygoptera T w o imaginary damselflies
290
Folio 120
??????? ??????????? ?? ?????? ??????
292
Folio 121
?????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????
D. A . Webb
294
Folio 122
Imaginary Hymenoptera-like insect
Lepidoptera Imaginary mothlike insect
Imaginary Hymenoptera-like insect
Diantkus caryo-phyllus L.Carnation
Ceras siliquastrum L. (?) Judas tree
"Alba"
296
Folio 123
Convallaria majalis L. Lily-of-the-valley
Lepidoptera Pieridae Resembles pupa of Picris sp. (white)
Pulmonata Helicidae Imaginary land snail
(derived from Arianta arbustorum
[L.] [?]), sinistral (left wound)
298
Folio 124
???????? ??????????? ?? ??????
Imaginary Hymenoptera-type insect
Scoyiurus sulcatusL.
Lychnis flos-cuculiL. Cuckoo flower
Folio 124.V
Trompe l'oeil stem of hyssop
Folio 125
??????????? ?????????? ?? ????????? ??????
Lepidoptera Two imaginary butterflies
300
Folio 126
???????? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ?????
Imaginary insect
???????? ??????????? ?? ???? ??????
Folio 126 V
Trompe l'oeil stem of basil thyme
Folio 127
Linaria sp. Toadflax
304
Folio 128
Lepidoptera Pyralidae Two species of grass moths
Crambinae
Polygala vulgarisL. Common milkwort
308
Folio 129
Coleσptera Carabidae Ground beetle (?)
(inaccurate dimensions)
Col. Scarabaeidae Scarab
Anσmala ulia (Scop.)
310
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THE CONSTRUCTED ALPHABET
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THE CONSTRUCTED ALPHABET
INTRODUCTION
3*5
literature and contemporary texts written in the classical style were printed
and disseminated in classically based fonts. Roman letter forms had been
2
absence from the diagrams of actual construction lines and compass circles.
W h e n Hoefnagel received the emperors commission to illu
minate the alphabets with appropriate imagery, he approached the task as one
would have expected a painter who was also a humanistic homo litteratus (man
of letters) to do. He considered each alphabet as a whole, as a system of
signs enabling humanity to create and disseminate its intellectual heritage,
a system forming, as it were, an intellectual universe.
This approach is especially clear in the Roman majuscules,
where the significance of each letter is elucidated by a biblical verse that
5
begins (or almost begins) with it. The format is based on medieval alphabets
composed of prayers of supplication or penance or songs of praise to G o d
which also served didactic and cautionary purposes. Since biblical verses
accompany the entire upper-case alphabet, it can be interpreted as an all-
316
embracing statement and a microcosmic reflection of the macrocosm. 6
decorated accordingly. Excepting the ligatures, each page presents two letters
against a total of four grids. Some of the letters appear on more than one page.
A grotesque mask usually occupies the center of the folio, from which point
intricate forms emanate in all directions. This dynamically constructed page
surface contrasts w i t h the classical serenity of the imagery surrounding
the Roman capitals.
The relationships among the individual elements in the illu
minations are loose in terms of both form and content. Fruits, flowers, various
ornaments, and animals, while fancifully and organically intertwined, are
not usually depicted naturalistically. There are a few exceptions, especially
dogs, monkeys, and live and dead birds. The grotesque masks of the
lower-case alphabet are either based on or inspired by a popular series of
masks engraved on copper by Frans Huys after works by Cornells Floris. 9
The influence of the Huys series was widespread, not only in painting but
also in the applied arts. For example, it inspired the decoration of one of the
walls of the so-called "Spanish Stable" in the imperial castle in Prague. 10
3*7
The emperor thus would have taken particular delight i n this aspect of
HoefnageFs decorated alphabet. Indeed, the relaxed, expansive ornamental
program of the minuscule alphabet comes as something of a revivifying jolt
after the extremely refined representations of the first 129 folia of Mira
calligrafhiac monumtnt
318
EDITOR'S N O T E
BiMical quotations in Latin arc from Robcrtus Weler, cL, Biblia sacra
iuxta vulgatam versionem, vol. 1: Genesis-Psalmi (Stuttgart, 1983). English
translations arc from The Holy Bible: Douay Rbeims Version (Baltimore, 1899).
3*9
??? ????? ????????? ????????
Folio 130
A L P H A ET O M E G A , PRINCIPIUM ET FINIS EGO SUM.
A ???? ??? ? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ????????? ?? ????? ???? ? ? ?? ??? ?
and the O , the beginning and the end).
the last one; the illumination of the page thus encompasses the entire alphabet.
G o d is understood as the beginning and end of time and space, as universe
and eternity. The blue medallion containing the tetragram of his name occu
pies the center of the folio. It connects the constructional drawing of the letter
A with its executed version and is surrounded by the omega, which generates
flashes of lightning and thunderheads as symbols of G o d s might. 12
Lord along with the cherubim in the side margins. A t both left and right,
eternal lights burn in praise of God, as do candles entwined by olive branches,
which symbolize his peace. Four demonic winged insects (the two antennae
14
on the abdomens of the two upper ones indicate that they are Ephemerae,
whose life span is a single day) are attracted by the flames, in which they
w i l l perish, just as G o d s enemies are destroyed by divine power. 15
320
Folio 1 3 0 V
B
B E N E D I C A N I M A M E A D O M I N O , ET OMNIA QUAE INTRA
M E SUNT N O M I N I SANCTO EIUS. P S A L . 102
Pss 102.1: Beneic anima mea Domino et omnia viscera mea nomin
sancto eius (102.1: Bless the Lord, O my soul: and let all thatis
within me bless his holy name).
322
Folio 131
C
CANTABO DOMINO I N VITA MEA, PSALLAM D E O M E O
QJJAM D I U S U M . P S A L . IO3
Pss 103.33: Cantabo Domino in vita mea, ysallam Deo meo quamiu
sum (103.33: I will sing to the Lord as long as I live: I will sing
praise to my G o d while I still have my being).
Thus, here the creatures of heaven (angels) and earth (humans, birds) sing
and make music to praise the Lord. W i t h i n this holy concert, only the two
insects in the bottom corners of the scrollwork frame are out of tune.
323
Folio 131V
D
D E U S MEUS ES T U : I N MANIBUS TUIS SORTES MEAE. PSA. 30
Pss 30.15-16: Deus meus es tu. In manu tua tιmpora mea
(30.15-16: Thou art my G o d . M y lots are in Thy hands).
as the devout person praising the Lord is portrayed by the parrot on folio 131,
the pious person is here represented in the middle of the page by the head,
of the dog, who accompanies his master faitxifully through every situation in
life. The dog, already regarded as man's best friend by the sixteenth century,
20
???
Folio 132
The two columns at the left and right not only create a decorative
framework but, together with the maps, bring to mind the so-called Pillars of
Hercules, which Emperor Charles V used as his emblem, accompanied by
the motto "Plus ultra' (Even farther). This motto proclaimed that his empire
23
extended even beyond the Pillars of Hercules, that is to say beyond the
mountains flanking the Strait of Gibraltar. W i t h the Pillars of Hercules,
Hoefnagel alluded in the Vienna writing model book (inv. 975) to the power
of the emperor. Here, they glorify the power of Christ.
24
The toucan in the middle of the page probably does not have
specific symbolic meaning but indicates, through its exotic appearance, the
foreign peoples and lands that had been incorporated into the empire and
converted to Christianity since the beginning of the sixteenth century.
Apparently, Hoefnagel first saw a toucan in 1578, the same year in which
he rendered it in an early design for the engraving of Cadiz, Spain, used in
25
Braun and Hogenbergs Civitates orlis terrarum. That drawing is dated and
26
inscribed Avis sive pea Peruviana allata (Imported bird, so-called Peruvia
magpie). A t this time, Cadiz, together w i t h Seville, possessed the trade
monopoly on raw goods and exotica from Spanish territories overseas.
3 7 2
Folio 132V
while cornucopias on folio 60v of Hoefhagels Roman missal point to the realm
of the heavenly ruler. The incense bowl in the middle of the top margin,
28
which in the Vienna writing model book burns in God's honor (fol. 13),
probably also burns here to honor the heavenly emperor. The two insects,
whose comical forms fit so organically into the fantasy architecture of the
grotesque ornament, are probably to be understood here in a general sense
as beleaguering those who yearn for faith, peace, and abundance.
330
Folio 133
bouquets of roses and irises, exemplifying Gods creation, and sip nectar from
ripe blossoms. This nectar is transformed into the honey in the hive in the
middle of the top margin. Out of the hive, which refers to the house of G o d
and the community of all believers, grow olive branches, symbolizing peace.
30
Devilish adversaries in the form of mothlike insects lie in wait for the bees
(Gods servants) outside the hive. In spite of their small size, the bouquets
are composed of flowers based on studies from nature. The partly opened,
symmetrical iris bloom at the left is based on the same model used for the
iris depicted on folio 65 of the Getty writing model book.
It is difficult to determine whether the symbolism of this illu
mination transcends natural symbolism such that the bees might refer to
believers and the other natural elements to G o d s creation. Irises and roses
are early summer flowers that were closely associated with the Virgin Mary;
it is possible that there is a deeper symbolic significance to the bees' sipping
nectar from the flowers. In the second half of the sixteenth century, the image
of the hive - which is probably used as a symbol here, as is indicated by the
olive branches - often referred to the Roman Catholic church, due to the formal
similarity to the papal tiara. The image was also used to parody the church,
however. 31
331
Folio 133V
he also delighted in the peculiar shape and scaly tails of sea horses, as can
be seen on folio 112 of the Vienna writing model book (inv. 975).
334
Folio 134
Here, too, the battle of the Israelites against their enemies serves
as a typological counterpart of the Holy Roman Emperor's war against the
Turks. This struggle was waged under the protection and shield of God. The
central oblong shield of faith decorated with the sign of the cross was to be
34
worn in battle; hence the belt or straps. Behind the shield are two palm fronds
signifying certain victory. Hoefnagel's pictorial language here reflects the
iconography of the militant Ignatius Loyola and the Jesuit order, which por-
trayed life as military service for the Catholic church.
A n obelisk — symbol of imperturbability — at each side of the
35
composition supports a sword whose hilt is decorated with the colors of the
house of Austria, red and white. Representing justice, these weapons
30
335
Folio 134V
338
Folio 135
the number one in the center refers to the triune union. Also, the eight-pointed
star, the incense burners, and the branches with pinecones signify the ven
eration of the eternal (star ) and immortal (pine bough °) G o d .
39 4
mouths at the double-headed eagle in the middle of the page. One of the
eagles heads looks down, toward one of the snakes, while the second head
looks up, in adoration of G o d . The eagle thus connects the two parts of the
verse referring to G o d on the one hand and humanity's enemies on the other.
Although there is neither monogram nor coat of arms alluding to
Rudolf II, the entire illumination is nevertheless to be associated with him.
One of his emblems was the double-headed eagle, which here turns one head
toward the sun-i.e., G o d - a n d the other toward the snakes that threaten
4 2
it. "Colit et pendit" (He adores and weighs) is the motto accompanying this
imperial emblem on folio 119 of the Vienna writing model book (inv. 975). In
the emblem book of Jacobus Typotius published in Prague in 16 01, this 43
image is accompanied by the motto "Utrunque" (To both sides). The text on
the reverse of Typotius's medallion (the obverse bears the image) refers to
Rudolfs war against the Turks in 1596 - the same year, incidentally, in which
the illumination of the constructed alphabet was completed. 44
339
Folio 135V
Like all flowers that open their blooms toward the light, day-
lilies symbolize creatures that turn toward G o d in adoration and confession.
45
As such, they embody the first part of the biblical verse here. The well-known
verse from Matthew, "Look at the lilies in the field, how they grow; they do
not work, nor do they spin" (Matt. 6:28), was the origin of the lily's iden
tification with the devout person who puts his or her life in God's hands
with the greatest confidence.
The illuminations connected to the second part of the verse re
fer to hope fixed on G o d . The many-pointed star, God's symbol, generates
lightning flashes and thunderheads as signs of his power and crowns an
anchor that forms the basic framework for the illumination of the page as a
whole. The anchor is a traditional symbol of hope. Here, it has been ren
46
342
Folio 136
N
N I S I D O M I N U S CUSTODIERIT CIVITATEM FRUSTRA
VIGILAT QUI CUSTODIT ILLAM. PS.126
Pss 126.1: ~Njsi Dominus custodierit αvitatem frustra vigilat iqui
custodit earn (126.1 : Unless trie Lord keep the city, he watchethin
vain that keepeth it).
343
Folio 136V
Pss 24.15: Oculi mei semper a Dominum quia ipse eucet e retepes
???? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ??? ?? ?????
pluck my feet out of the snare).
The peacock feathers in the side margins, which elsewhere symbolize pride,
are probably to be understood here as references to people of virtue. The
"eyes" on these feathers recall the "oculi" of the biblical verse. Hoefnagel
employed the peacock as a symbol of virtue in other instances. 49
346
Folio 137
this siege. This was one of the few victories the emperor won over the Turks
during this period.
347
Folio 137v
QuiS DEUS MAGNUS SICUT DEUS NOSTER? TU ES DEUS
Q Ps.75
Q U I FACIS M I R A B I L I A .
350
Folio 138
Ps.46
R
R E X OMNIS TERRAE D E U S : PSALLITE.
Pss 46.8 : Quia Rex universae terrae Deus canite erudite (46.8:For
G o d is thι king of all the earth: sing ye wisely).
351
Folio 138V
S
SUB UMBRA ALARUM TUARUM PROTEGE M E : A FACIE
IMPIORUM Q U I M E A F F L I X E R U N T . PS.L6
354
Folio 139
T TIBΝ SACRIFICABO
DOMINI INVOCABO.
HOSTIAM
Ps.115
LAUDIS ET N O M E N
and wheat are depicted in the side margins. The Easter lamb symbolizes the
Eucharist, representing the Host through which the believer participates in
humanity's salvation, realized by Christ's sacrificial death as the Lamb of God.
355
Folio 139 V
The entire text of the psalm honors the voice of the Lord.
Christ's monogram X P in the middle of the top margin forms the focus of
this representation. The X is composed of two crossed horns emitting light-
ning flashes, a reference to the seventh verse of this psalm in which the Lord's
voice spits flames; thunderbolts surround Christ's monogram. As elsewhere,
they signify the power of God. According to the psalmist, the Lord's voice
forces cedar branches to bend and break and their evergreen needles to drop. 53
The feathered turbans crowning the trees mark these cedars as symbols of
the Ottoman empire. Trophies hanging on each of the tree trunks consist
54
358
Folio 140
ET F U G I A N T A FACIE EIUS
INNLMICT EIUS:
Q U I O D E R U N T E U M . PS.67
359
Folio 140V
362
Folio 141
Z
ZELUS DOMUS TUAE COMEDIT ME: ET OPPROBIA
PS.68
O P P R O B A N T I U M TIBI C E C I D E R U N T S U P E R M E .
conforms to this typology. The two oval medallions with the name of Jesus
Christ, IHS XPS, rest atop two obelisks, symbols of imperturbability. Laurel
branches, trumpets, and cherubs beneath canopies proclaim G o d s fame. O n
an altar in the middle of the page, a fire burns, ignited by love for G o d .
The alphabetical cycle of Roman upper-case letters ends with
Z. O n this last page, the alpha and omega from folio 130, the first page of
the constructed alphabet, occur again, at the feet of the obelisks bearing
Christ s name.
363
THE GOTHIC M I N U S C U L E A L P H A B E T
a, b
Folio 142
Like all the folios of the Gothic lower-case alphabet, this page
is not illuminated with balanced classical motifs but with dynamic, playful
imagery. The distorted face in the middle of the page is based on one of the
series of grotesque masks engraved by Huys after drawings by Floris. The 57
bizarre face was realistically rendered with great detail and plasticity. It is
being attacked by two long-legged birds with slightly opened beaks, one of
whom is in midflight. Butterflies cling to the ornamental foliage in the bottom
margin. The top edge of the page bears symmetrical pseudoclassical motifs:
at each side lies a sphinxlike figure, hanging below which is a set of pan
pipes bound to an olive branch.
366
Folio 142V
c, d
A mask based on the Huys/Floris series appears in the middle
of this page. A t the top, long-legged, winged insects land on stylized,
58
368
Folio 143
d, e
Perhaps the form of the Gothic letter J, with its closed curve and
necklike ascender, inspired Hoefnagel to illuminate this folio with two dead
ducks hanging by their bills. This motif, which was common in Flemish genre
painting of the second half of the sixteenth century, became a subject in its
own right in later still life painting. The middle of this page features a dis
torted face based on the Huys/Floris series. It is made out of parts of sea
59
creatures, including a lobster tail and claws. The monster face fends off two
hissing snakes. Below, two butterflies take to the air, lending a sense of
weightlessness to the pages decorative scheme.
369
Folio 1 4 3 V
f, g
Hoefnagel was inspired here almost exclusively by the forms of
the letters. Beaked vases extend to the right and left of the letter/, echoing
its form vertically and horizontally. Owls sitting on the vases gaze into a
double mirror in the middle of the top border. The owl regarding its own
reflection was a common symbol of self-knowledge (in Greek, gnoti scauton). °
6
Here, however, the motif has no direct connection to the rest of the illumi
nation, unless the letter g is implicidy linked with the word gnoti. The wild
man mask, again based on the Huys/Floris series, has hornlike oak branches
61
growing out of its leafy hair and rests on an S-curved horn that follows the
curved descender of theg. The naked bodies of the two caryatids at the left
and right echo this movement.
372
Folio 144
h, i
The brimming fruit basket at the top of the page (a grotesque
motif Hoefnagel often used in an augmented form, treating it as a colorful
and pungent still life) is balanced on a mask from the Huys/Floris series
62 63
373
Folio 144V
k, l
Filling thι middle of the page is the head of a young Medusa
above a type of collar fashionable in Hoefnagel's time; her hair consists of
hissing snakes. This head is comparable to grotesque designs by Cornells
B0S. In the top margin, a bunch of plump, ripe fruit and tubers is displayed.
65
The roguish monkey in the bottom margin has plucked an apple and a pear.
Monkeys eating fruit are common as symbols of the sense of taste but also
66
376
Folio 145
m, n
The upper bodies of two birds with scaly tails are hooked to
either side of a coarse, fleshy caricature that forms the focal point of this
composition. Their bodies echo the curves of the letters m and w. In the
top margin, curving grotesques are intertwined with two arching trellises
overgrown with foliage. The grotesques resemble those in Cornells Floris s
series of engravings, Vœlàerley Veranàcringhe (1556). Between the trellises
67
hangs a massive jewel. Below it sits a monkey wearing a plaid jacket similar
to the one on folio 76 of the Vienna writing model book (inv. 975). Here,
the monkey is about to eat a turnip. Two monstrous moths extend their
68
377
Folio 145V
o, p
In place of a distorted face or mask, a fantastic insect with a
scaly body and outspread, feathered wings occupies the middle of this page.
Its demonic character is accentuated by the double lightning flashes on which
it perches. Its tongue or stinger extends to the top margin, where a bird with
spread legs waits to peck at the end of it. Plant and animal ornaments frame
the letter forms, including two gargoyles with curling tongues. Below, a dog
attempts to ward off swarming insects. It is distinguished from the other
dogs depicted in the manuscript by its valuable collar, indicating that the
animal might actually have belonged to the emperor.
380
Folio 146
q, r
The double-tailed fish hanging on the hook at the bottom of
this folio might be intentionally reminiscent of a stylized roach, whose name
begins in German (as in English) with the letter R -just as the swan, olor
in Latin, was chosen to illuminate the letter O on folio 136V. Significantly,
the hook from which the fish hangs is connected to a Neptune-like mask in
the middle of the page reminiscent of one in the Huys/Floris series. A 69
ball of fire above the mask emits a fan of flames. The mask itself is besieged
by two snakes with dragons' wings. Bizarre scrollwork with gargoyle ter
minals fills the bottom margin.
381
Folio 146 V
r, s
A mask w i t h the trunk and tusks of an elephant and bat's
wings for ears dominates this illustration. The trunk reaches down to a
basket containing a squash lying among grapes in the bottom margin. A
fountain with ten streams of water cascades down on realistically depicted
but imaginary plants decorating the side margins.
384
s, t
Folio 147
work. A t the top reigns the double-headed imperial eagle. W i t h its heads
facing left and right, it guards against the onslaught of potential enemies.
385
Folio 147V
u, v
A woman's face, fier hair twisted into two horns reminiscent of
the fantastic Burgundian hairstyles of the fifteenth century and her eyesockets
exuding fire-breathing, horned snakes, symbolizes vanity. A similar mask in
the Vienna writing book (inv. 975) is inscribed with the motto "flos cinis" (the
flower turns to ashes). The dead bird hanging by its beak in the middle of the
71 72
page as well as the dianthus in the scrollwork vases can also be associated
with mortality (yanitas). The colorful bird with its shimmering blue belly and
blue-bordered wings probably is a stylized bee-eater (Mtwps apasta). A
dead bee-eater is depicted in the same pose in Museum of Rudolf II, two volumes
of painted animal illustrations commissioned by the emperor. Both drawings
73
recall D٧rer's watercolor of the wing of a blue roller (Coradas garrulus), one of the
masterpieces in Rudolfs art collections. During the emperor's lifetime, the
74
388
Folio 148
x, y
The form of the letter x, with its four rounded arms, led the
artist to depict the crab with many legs and appendages that decorates the
middle of this page. A cluster of dead partridges, a motif dating back to
antiquity, hangs from the crabs legs. Insects and rams' heads decorate the
76
scrollwork in the four corners of the page, and a lone snail occupies the
middle of the right margin.
389
Folio 148V
?? ???????? ??
In the middle of the page, a bat with large ears seen from the
rear spreads its wings, their taut skin rendering visible its skeletal structure
and circulatory system. A t the bottom margin, coral grows on a cliff. Coral
was one of the items supplied to the imperial court by agents who shipped
it from overseas and the Mediterranean. Most of the prepared raw material
was imported via Genoa and Livorno. The lions' heads in the side margins
are ornamental motifs from Floris's repertoire; Hoefnagel made them as
77
vivacious as the grotesque long-beaked birds and insects sitting above them.
392
Folio 149
???????? ???? ????
A dead bird hangs frontally by its beak, displaying the blue-
black, brown, and white pattern of its tail feathers and the undersides of its
wings as well as the blood red of its belly It is meant to represent either a
pheasant or a woodpecker. Rudolfs art collections contained a detailed
miniature of a woodpecker by Daniel Frτschl. In the scrollwork at the bottom
78
393
Folio 149V
⊄
To the left and right of an urn, two ostriches stand on a scroll-
work base. Their elliptical bodies echo the ovals of the letters and the
scrollwork that appears above and below them. The motifs in the scrollwork
at the top, the stylized tendrils, the incense burners, a satyrs mask, and the
ornamental bands - all of which belong to the grotesque repertoire-have
been loosely but deftly assembled. A l l are balanced on saddles tied to the
ostriches' backs.
396
Folio 150
do
This page is covered with ornamental plant and animal motifs.
A large moth occupies the middle of the page. Mothlike insects and two
winged cocks' heads emerging from snail shells appear in the side borders.
Realistically drawn dragonflies decorate the bottom edge.
397
Folio 1 5 0 V
s, s
The face of a man, whose headgear recalls a Native Americans
feathered headdress, is represented in the middle of this page. ° A bird embryo
8
still encased in its shell echoes the form of the constructed letter 5. Hoefnagel
portrayed an identical bird embryo on folio 4 8 of the Hours of Philippe of
Cleves. By 1592, he evidently had already included the motif in a model
81
book of his own, since his son Jacob copied it in the Archctypa studiaq
patris Georgii Hocfnagdii... during that year. The arching, fan-shaped lattic
82
peopled by birds that terminates the grotesque in the top margin was inspired
by Cornelis Floriss Vtdtrlcy Nieuwe Invmticn (1557). 83
400
Folio 151
??
A highly stylized guinea hen decorates the middle of this page.
The skull of a stag with multibranched antlers is mounted in the bottom
border of the scrollwork, while in the side margins the candlelike blossoms
and leaves of cuckoo pints (Arum maculatum) are realistically delineated i
beaked vases. Incense is shown burning at the top of the composition.
401
Folio 151V
ffi
As on the second page of the Roman majuscule alphabet, the
patron of the illuminations is honored here, on the codex's final folio. This
is also the only place in the manuscript where Joris Hoefnagel sheds his
anonymity. The top half of the page is dedicated to Emperor Rudolf II. The
double-headed eagle wears a breastplate w i t h his initial. The two heads
jointly hold a laurel wreath, a symbol of glory, in their beaks. Their talons
clasp lightning flashes, signifying power. The eagle's heads are protected by
a double canopy. The imperial crown is shown in the middle of the canopy
above the laurel wreath. Laurel branches and palm fronds, symbols of glory
and triumph, honor the emperor.
The artist used the lower half of the page as if it were a colophon.
A t the bottom, he painted his own emblem: a horseshoe and nail (Hoef-nagel),
the nail entwined with a G (Georgius). In addition, he furnished the picture
with one of his mottoes, "In defectu valor" (Value lies in imperfection). The
year 1596 is given as the year the illumination was completed (Ahsolutum
Anno 1596). A ribbon, threaded through the horseshoe, is connected at the
left to various brushes, drawing pens, and a right angle; at the right are a
drawing pencil and compass. Bowls and shells for mixing pigments as well as
other utensils essential to the miniaturist are also represented. Emblematic of
Hoefnagels dual talents as humanist and artist are the twin depictions of
owls, the bird of Minerva, wearing her helmet and holding the caduceus of
Mercury in their claws. A paintbrush has been substituted for the staff of each
caduceus. " Minerva as the goddess of science and Mercury as the god of the
8 4
fine arts have thus been conflated into an allegory of Hermathena. Olive
branches symbolize the peace and contentment resulting from the pursuit of
the arts and sciences under good government.
405
Notes
1. See V i t r u v i u s , D e architcctura lïbri X; 9. F. W . H . H o l l s t e i n , Dutch and Flemish
L e o n Battista A l b e r t i , D e re aeàificatoria Etchings, Engravings and Woodcuts Ca.
libri X (1485). 1450-1700, vol. 6 (Amsterdam, n . d ) ,
nos. 68f£; R . H e d i c k e , Cornells Floris und
2. A s i n the letter from Johannes Lascaris
die Elorisdekoration: Studien zur nieder-
to P i e r o de' M e d i c i , preserved i n several
làndischen und deutschen Kunst im X V I .
copies. T h e c o p y i n M u n i c h (Bayerische
fahrhundert (Berlin, 1913), pis. 10,11.
Staatsbibliothek, C o d . lat. 451) is quoted
i n G . D e h i o , " Z u r G e s c h i c h t e der 10. See Prague urn 1 6 0 0 (Freren, 1988),
Buchstabenreform i n der Renaissance" vol. 1, pp. 95Í., no. 7.
(1880), in Kunsthistorische Aufsΰtze
11. T h e o r i g i n a l language o f the N e w
( M u n i c h , 1914), p p. 2ooff. See also E . Testament is G r e e k .
C r o u s , D u r e r und die Schrift (Berlin,
1933)' P- H - 12. C f . the l i g h t n i n g flashes a n d t h u n -
derheads as symbols of Jupiter's m i g h t
3. A . D u r e r , Unterweisung der Messung
i n V i n c e n z o C a r t a r i , Imagini delli dei
(Nuremberg, 1525).
degl' antichi, ed. W . K o s c h a t z k y ( G r a z ,
4. F u r t h e r information w i l l appear i n 1963), p p . 83, 88 (reprint o f V e n i c e ,
the commentary v o l u m e p l a n n e d to 1647, ed.).
accompany this facsimile. T h e G o t h i c
13. G i o v a n n i P i e r i o V a l e r i a n o , Hiero-
m i n u s c u l e alphabet follows a p p r o x i -
glyyhica sivt de sacris Aegyηtiorum alia-
mately that o f S i g i s m o n d o de F a n t i ,
rumque gentium Uteris (Basel, 1556),
w h i c h appears i n U g o d a C a r p i ' s
bk. 50, fol. 372V.
Thesauro de scrittori (1535; 1st ed. 1525).
14. Ibid., bk. 53, fol. 385.
5. A s i n almost a l l o f the L a t i n a l p h a -
bets o f this time, the letters J , II, a n d 15. L . C h a r b o n n e a u - L a s s a y , Le bestiaire
W are missing. du Christ, 2d ed. ( M i l a n , 1970), p p . 869^
6. Lexikon fur Théologie und Kircke, 16. V a l e r i a n o (note 13), bk. 50, fol. 369.
vol. 1 (Freiburg, 1957), cols. 12, under
17. D e r Physiologus, ed. O t t o Seel
Alecedarium; 365, u n d e r Alphabet.
( Z u r i c h a n d Stuttgart, i960), p p . 5of.,
7. See above, p . 2 0 . no. 55.
8. A . Nesbitt, The History and Technique 18. C f . Joannes Sambucus, Emblemata,
of Lettering ( N e w Y o r k , 1957), p . 35. cum aliquot nummis antiqui oytris ( A n t w e r p ,
5 4)^ P- 74-
1 6
406
ξ g . C f . D . Forstner, D i e Welt der Symbole 27. V i g n a u - S c h u u r m a n (note 22), fig. 22.
(Innsbruck, V i e n n a , a n d M u n i c h , 1961),
28. Ibid., fig. 5.
pp. 3-75ff. A detailed account can be
f o u n d i n C . M e i e r , Gemma spiritalis: 29. Forstner (note 19), p p . 357ff-ξ C h a r -
Mιthode und Gebrauch der Edelsteinallego- b o n n e a u - L a s s a y (note 15), p p . 865^
resι vom fr٧hen Christentum lis ins 18.
30. Reallexikon zur deutschen Kunst-
Jahrhundert, pt. 1 ( M u n i c h , 1977).
geschichte, ed. O . Schmitt, v o l . 2 (Stutt
20. C f . Hoefnagel's illuminations i n gart, 1948), col. 546.
V i e n n a C o d . 1784, fol. 125V, a n d i n
31. Ibid. T h e F l e m i s h nobleman P h i l i p s
V i e n n a inv. 975, fol. 43.
M a r n i x v a n Sint A l d e g o n d e , w h o was
21. A s i n V i e n n a inv. 975, fol. 106. F o r approximately Hoefnagel's age a n d w a s
the d o g as a s y m b o l of faithfulness, see mayor of A n t w e r p at its fall i n 1585,
also C e s a r e R i p a , Iconologνa (Padua, p u b l i s h e d an antipapal satirical p o e m ,
1611), p p . 1Σ4Ν. " D e B i e n k o r f der H . R o o m s c h e Kercke,"
i n 1569. It w a s p o p u l a r i z e d through
22. T A . G . W i l b e r g V i g n a u - S c h u u r m a n ,
an E n g l i s h translation b y G e o r g e G i l p i n
Die emblematischen Elemente im WerJce
a n d a G e r m a n one b y J o h a n n F i s chart,
Joris Hoefnagels, vol. 2 ( L e i d e n , 1969),
b o t h p u b l i s h e d i n 1579.
fig. 63.
32. V a r i o u s examples of falcons s y m
23. A s i n P a o l o G i o v i o , Dialogo dell'
b o l i z i n g h o p e are given i n V i g n a u -
imprese militari e amorose, ed. M . L .
S c h u u r m a n (note 22), v o l . 1, p. 120, sect.
D o g l i o (Rome, 1978), p. 46.
209. C f . V i e n n a inv. 975, fol. 33.
24. O n folios 15, 53, 91.
33. A s i n V i e n n a inv. 975, fols. 76, 99.
25. V i e n n a , G r a p h i s c h e S a m m l u n g See also H . W . Janson, Apes and Ape
A l b e r t i n a . See O . Benesch, D i e Hand- Lore in the Middle Ages and the Renais
??????????? ??? ???????????????? ?????? sance (London, 1952), p p . 287ff.
des XV. und XVI. Jahrhunderts: Be-
34. O n the shield of faith, see E p . 6.16.
schreibender Katalog der Handzeich-
A l s o cf. J. B . K n i p p i n g , Iconography of
nungen, v o l . 2 ( V i e n n a , 1928), no. 338.
the Counter Reformation in the Nether
26. G e o r g B r a u n a n d F r a n s H o g e n b e r g , lands, v o l . 1 ( N i e u w k o o p a n d L e i d e n ,
Civitates orlis terrarum, v o l . 5 ( C o l o g n e , ?????? ??? ?????
ca. 1598), no. 5. T h e depiction of the
place itself is dated 1564; that of a Canis
leporarius ex Indus occidentalibus allatus
at the bottom left is dated 1565.
407
35- V a l e r i a n o (note 13), bk. 49, fols. 48. Der Physiologus (note 17), p p . 28f.,
366ft no. 32.
36. Ibid., bk. 42, fols. 314vff. 49. A s i n V i e n n a C o d . 1784, fol. 33;
V i e n n a inv. 975, fol. 109 (see V i g n a u -
37. See V i g n a u - S c h u u r m a n (note 22),
S c h u u r m a n [note 22], v o l . 1, fig. 68).
pp. 90ft, sect. 139ft
C f . J o a c h i m C a m e r a r i u s , Symbolorum
38. Reallexikon zur deutschen Kunst- et emblematum ex volatilibus et insectis
geschichte, v o l . 4, ed. O . Schmitt, E . desumtorum centuria tertia ( N u r e m b e r g ,
G a l l , a n d L . H . H e y d e n r e i c h (Stuttgart, 1597), emblem 20.
1958), cols. 4o6f.
50. See also V i e n n a C o d . 1784, fol.
39. V a l e r i a n o (note 13), bk. 44, fol. 330: 22iv; V i g n a u - S c h u u r m a n (note 22),
univcrsi Deus. vol. 1, p . 86, sect. 131; C h a r b o n n e a u -
Lassay (note 15), p p . 55ft.
40. Forstner (note 19), p . 209.
51. See N . Jorga, Geschichte des osma-
41. V a l e r i a n o (note 13), bk. 17, fol. 127V.
nischen Reiches, v o l . 3 ( G o t h a , 1910), p .
42. Ibid., bk. 44, fols. 326ft.: Deus opt. max. 321. A report b y N i c o l a u s G a b e l m a n n
describing the siege o f H a t v a n can
43. Jacobus T y p o t i u s , Symbola àivina et
b e f o u n d i n V i e n n a , Staatsarchiv,
humana yontificum, imyeratorum, regum,
H u n g a r i c a 1596.
vol. 1 (Prague, 1601), p i . 25, no. 37.
52. C f . Sambucus (note 18), p . 74.
44. T h e text reads: D . O . M . Ruà. II.
Caes. Aug. et exercitihus in Turcam 53. W h e r e a s the p s a l m speaks o f
militantibus hoc animi et virtutis cedars, the i l l u m i n a t i o n s h o w s pines.
monumentum ficrif. 15.96.
34. T o celebrate their triumphs, the
45. F o r example, i n C l a u d e P a r a d i n , G r e e k s u s e d to decorate trees w i t h
Les devises héroïques ( A n t w e r p , 1563), fol. w e a p o n s left b e h i n d b y their enemies.
23V. See also J o a c h i m C a m e r a r i u s , Sym~
55. See H e d i c k e (note 9), p i . 7, 2ft
bolorum et emblematum ex re herbaria
desumtorum centuria una (Nuremberg, 56. C f . J o h n 2:17 a n d R o m . 15:3.
1593), emblems 49, 87.
57. F r o m the Pourtraicture ingénieuse
46. Forstner (note 19), p p . 597^; Real- de plusieurs façons de masques... See
lexikon zur deutschen Kunstgeschichte, H o l l s t e i n (note 9), v o l . 6, nos. 68-85.
vol. l , ed. O . S c h m i t t (Stuttgart, 1937), See also H e d i c k e (note 9), text v o l . ,
cols. 705ft. pp. 2off.; pl. vol., pl. 10, no. 16; C . - P .
Warncke, Die ornamιntale Grotesk
47. C h a r b o n n e a u - L a s s a y (note 15),
in Deutschland 1 5 0 0 - 1 6 0 0 , v o l . 1
pp. 628ft, esp. 636ft
(Berlin, 1979), nos. 425ft.
408
58. H e d i c k e (note 9), p l . 11, no. 12; 71. F o l . 54. See V i g n a u - S c h u u r m a n
W a r n c k e (note 57), no. 430. (note 22), fig. 40.
409
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CODICOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION OF T H E M A N U S C R I P T
M s . 20 ( 8 6 . M V . 5 2 7 )
R U L I N G : Fols. 1-129, textpricked and blind ruled. O n most of these folios, the
image area is ruled in metalpoint along the fore, inner, and lower edges.
411
?????? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ? ??????? ?? ???? ?????????
brown, carbon black, and blue, with gold and silver leaf and painted gold;
illuminated by Joris Hoefnagel in watercolor and gouache, painted gold and
silver; some folios with metalpoint underdrawing. Fols. 130-51 by an un
known scribe. Letter grids in brown ink; Roman majuscules and Gothic
minuscules in carbon black ink. Illuminations by Joris Hoefnagel in water-
color and gouache, carbon black ink, painted gold and silver, painted gold
lettering.
412