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Problems
in
Quantum Computing
by
Willi-Hans Steeb
International School for Scientific Computing
at
University of Johannesburg, South Africa
Yorick Hardy
Department of Mathematical Sciences
at
University of South Africa
updated: August 4, 2017

Preface
The purpose of this book is to supply a collection of problems in quantum

computing.
Prescribed books for problems.
1) Problems and Solutions in Quantum Computing and Quantum Informa-

tion (third edition)
by Willi-Hans Steeb and Yorick Hardy

World Scientific, Singapore, 2011
ISBN-13 978-981-4366-32-8
http://www.worldscibooks.com/physics/8249.html
2) Classical and Quantum Computing with C++ and Java Simulations
by Yorick Hardy and Willi-Hans Steeb

Birkhauser Verlag, Boston, 2002
ISBN 376-436-610-0
3) Matrix Calculus and Kronecker Product
by Willi-Hans Steeb
World Scientific Publishing, Singapore 2010
ISBN 978-981-4335-31-7
http://www.worldscibooks.com/mathematics/8030.html
4) Problems and Solutions in Introductory and Advanced Matrix Calculus
by Willi-Hans Steeb
ISBN 981 256 916 2
http://www.worldscibooks.com/mathematics/6202.html
5) Continous Symmetries, Lie Algebras, Differential Equations and Com-

puter Algebra, second edition
by Willi-Hans Steeb
ISBN 981-256-916-2
http://www.worldscibooks.com/physics/6515.html
v
The International School for Scientific Computing (ISSC) provides certifi-
cate courses for this subject. Please contact the authors if you want to do
this course or other courses of the ISSC.
e-mail addresses of the author:
steebwilli@gmail.com
steeb_wh@yahoo.com
Home page of the author:
http://issc.uj.ac.za
vi
vii
Contents
Preface v
Notation x
1 Qubits 1
2 Kronecker and Tensor Product 12
3 Matrix Properties 25
4 Density Operators 67
5 Partial Trace 87
6 Reversible Logic Gates 89
7 Unitary Transformations and Quantum Gates 95
8 Entropy 106
9 Measurement 110
10 Entanglement 113
11 Bell Inequality 130
12 Quantum Channels 132
13 Miscellaneous 138
Bibliography 150
Index 155
viii
x
Notation
:= is defined as
∈ belongs to (a set)
∈
/ does not belong to (a set)
∩ intersection of sets
∪ union of sets
∅ empty set
N set of natural numbers
Z set of integers
Q set of rational numbers
R set of real numbers
R+ set of nonnegative real numbers
C set of complex numbers
Rn n-dimensional Euclidean space
space of column vectors with n real components
Cn n-dimensional complex linear space
space of column vectors with n complex components
H Hilbert
√ space
i −1
<z real part of the complex number z
=z imaginary part of the complex number z
|z| modulus of complex number z
|x + iy| = (x2 + y 2 )1/2 , x, y ∈ R
T ⊂S subset T of set S
S∩T the intersection of the sets S and T
S∪T the union of the sets S and T
f (S) image of set S under mapping f
f ◦g composition of two mappings (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
x column vector in Cn
xT transpose of x (row vector)
0 zero (column) vector
k.k norm
x · y ≡ x∗ y scalar product (inner product) in Cn
x×y vector product in R3
A, B, C m × n matrices
det(A) determinant of a square matrix A
tr(A) trace of a square matrix A
rank(A) rank of matrix A
AT transpose of matrix A
xi
A conjugate of matrix A
A∗ conjugate transpose of matrix A
A† conjugate transpose of matrix A
(notation used in physics)
A−1 inverse of square matrix A (if it exists)
In n × n unit matrix
I unit operator
0n n × n zero matrix
AB matrix product of m × n matrix A
and n × p matrix B
A•B Hadamard product (entry-wise product)
of m × n matrices A and B
[A, B] := AB − BA commutator for square matrices A and B
[A, B]+ := AB + BA anticommutator for square matrices A and B
A⊗B Kronecker product of matrices A and B
A⊕B Direct sum of matrices A and B
δjk Kronecker delta with δjk = 1 for j = k
and δjk = 0 for j 6= k
λ eigenvalue
real parameter
t time variable
Ĥ Hamilton operator
The Pauli spin matrices are used extensively in the book. They are given
by
0 1 0 −i 1 0
σx := , σy := , σz := .
1 0 i 0 0 −1
In some cases we will also use σ1 , σ2 and σ3 to denote σx , σy and σz .
Chapter 1
Qubits
Problem 1. Let |0i, |1i be the standard basis in the Hilbert space C2 ,
i.e.
1 0
|0i = , |1i = .
0 1
π
Let (0 ≤ θ < 4)
|Ψ+ (θ)i := cos(θ)|0i + sin(θ)|1i, |Ψ− (θ)i := cos(θ)|0i − sin(θ)|1i.

(i) Find the scalar product hΨ− (θ)|Ψ+ (θ)i. Discuss.
(ii) Consider the states
1 1
|+i := √ (|0i + |1i), |−i := √ (|0i − |1i)
2 2
and the projection operators (projection matrices)
Π+ := |+ih+|, Π− := |−ih−|.
Find
hΨ+ (θ)|Π+ |Ψ+ (θ)i, hΨ+ (θ)|Π− |Ψ+ (θ)i, hΨ− (θ)|Π+ |Ψ− (θ)i, hΨ− (θ)|Π− |Ψ− (θ)i
and the 2 × 2 matrices Π+ + Π− and Π+ Π− . Discuss.
Problem 2. (i) Consider the normalized vector in the Hilbert space C3

 
sin(θ) cos(φ)
n =  sin(θ) sin(φ)  .
cos(θ)
1
2 Problems and Solutions
Show that the vector is normalized.

(ii) Calculate the 2 × 2 matrix
U (θ, φ) = n · σ ≡ n1 σ1 + n2 σ2 + n3 σ3
where σ1 , σ2 , σ3 are the Pauli spin matrices.

(iii) Is the matrix U (θ, φ) unitary? Find the trace and the determinant. Is
the matrix U (θ, φ) hermitian?
(iv) Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of U (θ, φ).
Problem 3. Consider the states

cos(φ/2) − sin(φ/2)
ψ1 (φ) = , ψ2 (φ) = .
sin(φ/2) cos(φ/2)
in the Hilbert space C2 .

(i) Show that these states can be generated from the standard basis using
the exponential function and the Pauli matrix σ2 , i.e. calculate

φ 1 φ 0
exp −i σ2 , exp −i σ2 .
2 0 2 1
(ii) Find the states after the transformation φ → φ + 2π.
Problem 4. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices and I2 the 2 × 2

identity matrix. Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of the
Hamilton operator
Ĥ = ε0 I2 + ~ωσ3 + ∆1 σ1 + ∆2 σ2
where ε0 > 0. Are the normalized eigenvectors orthonormal to each other?
Problem 5. Let Ĥ be a 2 × 2 hermitian matrix. Consider the normalized

state iφ
e cos(θ)
|ψi =
sin(θ)
in the Hilbert space C2 . Assume that
hψ|Ĥ|ψi = ~ω cos(φ) sin(2θ), hψ|Ĥ 2 |ψi = ~2 ω 2 .
Reconstruct the hermitian matrix Ĥ from these three assumptions. Note

that
1
cos(θ) sin(θ) ≡ sin(2θ), eiφ = cos(φ)+i sin(φ), e−iφ = cos(φ)−i sin(φ).
2
Qubits 3
Problem 6. (i) Consider the symmetric matrix over R

h11 h12
H=
h12 h22
and the state

cos(θ)
|ψi = .
sin(θ)
Calculate the variance
VH (|ψi) = hψ|H 2 |ψi − (hψ|H|ψi)2 .
(ii) Consider the Hadamard matrix

1 1 1
H=√
2 1 −1
and the state

cos(θ)
|ψi = .
sin(θ)
Calculate the variance
VH (ψ) := hψ|H 2 |ψi − (hψ|H|ψi)2
and discuss the dependence on θ.
Problem 7. Let Â and B̂ be n × n hermitian matrices. Let |ψi be a

normalized state in the Hilbert space Cn . Then we have the inequality
1
(∆Â)(∆B̂) ≥ |h[Â, B̂]i|
2
where q q
∆Â := hÂ2 i − hÂi2 , ∆B̂ := hB̂ 2 i − hB̂i2
and
hÂi := hψ|Â|ψi, hB̂i := hψ|B̂|ψi.
Consider the hermitian spin- 21 matrices

1 0 1 1 0 −i 1 1 0
s1 = , s2 = , s3 = .
2 1 0 2 i 0 2 0 −1
Let Â = s1 and B̂ = s2 . Find states |ψi such that

1
(∆Â)(∆B̂) = |h[Â, B̂]i|
2
i.e. the inequality given above should be an equality.
Problem 8. Given the two normalized states

1 1 1 1
|ψi = √ , |φi = √ .
2 1 2 −1
Find a unitary matrix U such that |ψi = U |φi. Give the eigenvalues of U .
Problem 9. Let
3
X 3
X
A= ak σk , B= b` σ`
k=0 `=0
where σ0 = I2 and ak , b` ∈ R with a3 6= 0 and b1 = a1 b3 /a3 , b2 = a2 b3 /a3 .

Calculate the commutator [A, B].
Problem 10. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Show that

cos(ωt)σ1 − sin(ωt)σ2 = eiωt σ+ + e−iωt σ− , e±ωt σ± eiωtσ3 /2 = eiωtσ3 /2 σ±
where σ± := (σ1 ± iσ2 )/2.
Problem 11. Consider the Pauli spin matrices σ1 , σ2 , σ3 . Can one find
a 2 × 2 invertible matrix K with K = K −1 and
Kσ1 K = σ1 , Kσ2 K = −σ2 , Kσ3 K = σ3 ?
Problem 12. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices and α ∈ R.

(i) Calculate the 2 × 2 matrices
exp(−iασ1 /2), exp(−iασ2 /2), exp(−iασ3 /2).
Are the matrices unitary?
(ii) Let
1
|ψi = .
0
Find the state exp(−iασ1 /2)|ψi and calculate
hψ| exp(−iασ1 /2)|ψi and |hψ| exp(−iασ1 /2)|ψi|2 .
Problem 13. Let |0i, |1i be an orthonormal basis in a two-dimensional

Hilbert space. Consider the Hamilton operator
1
Ĥ = − ~ω(e−iφ |1ih0| + eiφ |0ih1|).
2
Qubits 5
Find exp(−iĤt/~).
Problem 14. Consider the Hamilton operator

~ω λa12
Ĥ(λ) =
λa12 −~ω
where a12 ∈ R. Let I2 be the 2 × 2 identity matrix and E a real parameter.

Solve the system of equations
det(Ĥ(λ) − I2 E) = 0
d
det(Ĥ(λ) − I2 E) = 0
dE
with respect to E and λ.

~ω ∆
Ĥ = .
∆ −~ω
Consider the unitary matrix
−e−iθ sin(φ)

cos(φ)
U= .
eiθ sin(φ) cos(φ)
Can one find φ, θ such that U ∗ ĤU is a diagonal matrix?
Problem 16. Consider the Pauli spin matrices σ1 , σ2 and σ3 . Can one
find an α ∈ R such that
exp(iασ3 )σ1 exp(−iασ3 ) = σ2 ?
Problem 17. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Let α1 , α2 , α3 ∈

C. Find the conditions on α1 , α2 , α3 such that
U = α1 σ1 + α2 σ2 + α3 σ3
is a unitary matrix.
Problem 18. Consider the map f : C2 → R3 defined by

 
sin(2θ) cos(φ)
cos(θ)
f : 7→  sin(2θ) sin(φ)  .
eiφ sin(θ)
cos(2θ)
Are the vectors in C2 and R3 normalized? Consider the four normalized

vectors in C2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
√ , √ , √ , √ .
2 1 2 −1 2 i 2 −i
Find the vectors in R3 .
Problem 19. Let σ1 , σ2 and σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Calculate
U (α, β, γ) = e−iασ3 /2 e−iβσ2 /2 e−iγσ3 /2
where α, β, γ are the Euler angles with the range 0 ≤ α < 2π, 0 ≤ β ≤ π
and 0 ≤ γ < 2π.
Problem 20. Let Ĥ0 and Ĥ1 be a pair of real symmetric n × n matrices,
where Ĥ0 is a diagonal matrix. Let
Ĥ() := Ĥ0 + Ĥ1 . (1)
When is real, Ĥ() is diagonalizable with eigenvalues E1 (), . . ., En ().

The eigenvalues are given by the characteristic polynomial
P (E, ) := det(Ĥ() − EIn ) = 0 (2)
where In is the n × n unit matrix. When is complex, the eigenvalues

may be viewed as the n values of a single function E() of , analytic on a
Riemann surface with N sheets joined at branch point singularities in the
complex plane. The exceptional points in the complex plane are defined
by the solution of (2) together with
d
det(Ĥ() − EIn ) = 0. (3)
dE
(i) Consider the two-level system

0 0 0 1
Ĥ() = + .
0 1 1 0
Find the exceptional points of Ĥ().

(ii) Let 1 and 2 be the two exceptional points. Find the eigenvalues and
eigenvectors of the matrices Ĥ(1 ) and Ĥ(2 ). Discuss.
Problem 21. Study the eigenvalue problem for the matrix
σ3 + eiφ σ1
Qubits 7
for φ ∈ [0, π/2].
Problem 22. (i) Let φ ∈ R. Is the matrix

0 e−iφ

A=
eiφ 0
hermitian, unitary?
(ii) Find the rank of the matrix.
(iii) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A.
(iv) Let I2 be the 2 × 2 unit matrix. Find the eigenvalues of A ⊗ I2 .
Problem 23. Let |φ1 i, |φ2 i be two normalized vectors in the Hilbert
space R2 . Assume that
1
hφ1 |φ2 i = .
2
Give a geometric interpretation of this equation.
Problem 24. Consider the vectors

i i
i i
|ψ1 i = , |ψ2 i =
eiπ sin(i)
in the Hilbert space C2 . Are the vectors normalized? If not normalize the
vectors.
Problem 25. Let H be an arbitrary Hilbert space. Let |ψi and |φi be
arbitrary normalized states in H. Find all the solutions of the equation
hφ|ψihψ|φi = i.
Problem 26. What is the condition on φ1 , φ2 , φ3 (all real) such that

1 1 eiφ1
V =√ iφ iφ
2 e 2 e 3
is a unitary matrix?
Problem 27. Consider the matrices

1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
A= , B= , C= , D= .
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
Find unitary matrices U1 , U2 , U3 , U4 such that
U1−1 AU1 = B, U2−1 BU2 = C, U3−1 CU3 = D, U4−1 DU4 = A.
Problem 28. (i) Consider the normalized state

−iφ/2
e cos(θ/2)
|ψi = .
eiφ/2 sin(θ/2)
in the Hilbert space C2 . Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Calculate
nj := hψ|σj |ψi, j = 1, 2, 3
Is the vector  
n1
n =  n2 
n3
in R3 normalized?
(ii) Consider the Hamilton operator
µ~ µ~
Ĥ(t) = − B(t) · σ ≡ − (B1 (t)σ1 + B2 (t)σ2 + B3 (t)σ3 )
2 2
where B(t) is a time-dependent homogeneous magnetic field. Show that
the Schrödinger equation
d
i~ |ψ(t)i = Ĥ(t)|ψ(t)i
dt
can be written as
d
n(t) = −µB(t) × n
dt
where × denotes the vector product.
Problem 29. Find the square roots of the Pauli spin matrices

1 0 0 1 0 −i 1 0
σ0 = , σ1 = , σ2 = , σ3 =
0 1 1 0 i 0 0 −1
i.e. find the matrices Rj such that Rj2 = σj (j = 0, 1, 2, 3).
Problem 30. Consider a d-dimensional Hilbert space with two orthonor-

mal bases
|b11 i, |b12 i, . . . |b1d i ∈ B1
|b21 i, |b22 i, ... |b2d i ∈ B2 .
The two bases are said to be mutually unbiased bases if
1
|hb2j |b1k i| = √
d
Qubits 9
for all j, k = 1, . . . , d and h | i denotes the scalar product in the Hilbert

space. Consider the Hilbert space M2 (C) of 2 × 2 matrices over C, where
the scalar product is defined as
hA|Bi = tr(AB ∗ ), A, B ∈ M2 (C)
Thus d = dim(M2 (C)) = 4. The standard basis in this Hilbert space is

given by

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
E11 = , E12 = , E21 = , E22 = .
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Let UH be the Hadamard matrix

1 1 1 ∗
UH = √ UH = UH .
2 1 −1
(i) Show that the matrices E

ejk (j, k = 1, 2)
∗
E
ejk = UH Ejk UH , j, k = 1, 2
and the standard basis form mutually unbiased bases.

(ii) Apply the vec-operator to the matrices Ejk and E
ejk (j, k = 1, 2) to find
mutually unbiased bases in the Hilbert space C4 .
Problem 31. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Find all 2 × 2

matrices A such that
[σ1 , A] = [σ2 , A] = [σ3 , A] = 02 .
Problem 32. Let φ1 , φ2 , φ3 , φ4 ∈ R. The 2 × 2 matrix U = (v1 v2 )

contains the two column vectors
iφ iφ
1 e 1 1 e 3
v1 = √ iφ2 , v 2 = √ iφ .
2 e 2 e 4
Find the conditions on φ1 , φ2 , φ3 , φ4 such that
hv1 |v2 i = 0.
Is the matrix U unitary if this condition is satisfied.
Problem 33. (i) Find the norms of the vectors in the Hilbert space C2
iα
e sin(i)
|ψi = , |φi =
e−iα cos(i)
where α ∈ R.
(ii) Normalize the vectors |ψi and |φi.
(iii) After normalizing the vectors calculate the probability
p(α) = |hψ(α)|φi|2 .
Discuss p as a function of α.
Problem 34. Let α ∈ R. Consider the vector in C2

cosh(α)
v= .
sinh(α)
Normalize the vector and then study the cases α → +∞ and α → −∞.
Can one find a non-zero (column) vector u in C2 such that
u∗ v = 0 ?
Problem 35. Is the state

cos(θ/2)eiφ/2
|ψi =
sin(θ/2)e−iφ/2
normalized? Find a normalized vector which is orthogonal to this vector.

If so calculate the density matrix ρ = |ψihψ|.
Problem 36. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices.

(i) Consider the normalized state |ψi in the Hilbert space C2

cos(θ/2)
|ψi =
eiφ sin(θ/2)
and the Pauli spin matrices σ1 , σ2 , σ3 . Find
hψ|σ1 |ψi, hψ|σ2 |ψi, hψ|σ3 |ψi.
(ii) Consider the normalized state in C2

iφ
e cos(θ)
ψ= ⇒ ψ ∗ = ( e−iφ cos(θ) sin(θ) ) .
sin(θ)
Find the vector v = (v1 v2 v3 )T in R3 with
v1 = ψ ∗ σ1 ψ, v2 = ψ ∗ σ2 ψ, v3 = ψ ∗ σ3 ψ.
Is the vector v normalized?

Qubits 11
Problem 37. Let φ, θ ∈ R and

p iφ/2

1 p1 + sin(θ)e −iφ/2
v1 = √
2 − 1 − sin(θ)e
be the eigenvector of a 2 × 2 matrix with eigenvalue λ1 = +1 and
p iφ/2

1 1 − sin(θ)e
v2 = √ p
2 1 + sin(θ)e−iφ/2
the second eigenvector with eigenvalue λ2 = −1. Find v1∗ v1∗ , v2∗ v2 and
v1∗ v2 . Discuss. Find
λ1 v1 v1∗ + λ2 v2 v2∗ .
Discuss.
Chapter 2
Kronecker and Tensor

Product
√
Problem 1. Let := e2πi/3 ≡ (−1 + i 3)/2. Consider the eight states
in C8

1 1 1 0 0 0
|ψ1 i = ⊗ ⊗ , |ψ2 i = ⊗ ⊗
0 0 0 1 1 1

1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
|ψ3 i = √ ⊗ ⊗ + ⊗ ⊗ + ⊗ ⊗
3 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
|ψ4 i = √ ⊗ ⊗ + ⊗ ⊗ + ⊗ ⊗
3 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
|ψ5 i = √ ⊗ ⊗ + ⊗ ⊗ + ⊗ ⊗
3 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
|ψ6 i = √ ⊗ ⊗ + ⊗ ⊗ + ⊗ ⊗
3 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
|ψ7 i = √ ⊗ ⊗ + ⊗ ⊗ + ⊗ ⊗
3 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
|ψ8 i = √ ⊗ ⊗ + ⊗ ⊗ + ⊗ ⊗
3 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
(i) Calculate the scalar product hψj |ψk i for j, k = 1, 2, . . . , 8.
(ii) Which of the vectors are entangled?
12
Kronecker and Tensor Product 13
Problem 2. (i) Can we find 2 × 2 matrices A and B with det A =

a11 a22 − a12 a21 6= 0, det B = b11 b22 − b12 b21 6= 0 (i.e. we assume that A
and B are invertible) such that
1 0
   
1 0 1 1
√   = (A ⊗ B) √   ?
2 0 2 1
1 0
On the left-hand side we have the Bell state |Φ+ i and on the right-hand
side we have the Bell state |Ψ+ i. Since A and B are invertible we find that
A ⊗ B is also invertible with (A ⊗ B)−1 = A−1 ⊗ B −1 .
(ii) Can we also find 2 × 2 matrices A, B such that det(A) = det(B) = 1,
i.e. A, B ∈ SL(2, R)?
Problem 3. Can we find 2 × 2 matrices A, B, C with det(A) = 1,

det(B) = 1 and det(C) = 1 such that
0 1
   
1 0
1 0
   
1 0
  1 
0

√   = (A ⊗ B ⊗ C) √   ?
3 1 2 0
0 0
   
0 0
   
0 1
On the left-hand side we have the W-state and on the right-hand side we
have the GHZ-state.
Problem 4. Let A, B be n × n hermitian matrices over C. Let K be an

n×n hermitian matrix over C and H = ~ωK be a Hamilton operator, where
~ is the Planck constant and ω the frequency. The Heisenberg equation of
motion for the operators A and B are given by
dA dB
i~ = [A, H](t), i~ = [B, H](t).
dt dt
The solutions can be given as
A(t) = eitĤ/~ Ae−itĤ/~ , B(t) = eitĤ/~ Be−itĤ/~ .
(i) Find the time evolution of A ⊗ B, B ⊗ A, A ⊗ A and B ⊗ B.

(ii) Assume that [A, H] = 2i~ωB and [B, H] = −2i~ωA. Simplify the
Heisenberg equation of motion with these conditions.
Problem 5. Let A be an m × m hermitian matrix and let B be an n × n

hermitian matrix. Then A ⊗ B, A ⊗ In , Im ⊗ B are also hermitian matrices,
where Im is the m×m identity matrix. Let 1 , 2 and 3 be real parameters.
Consider the Hamilton operator
H = ~ω(1 A ⊗ B + 2 A ⊗ In + 3 Im ⊗ B).
The partition function Z(β) is given by Z(β) = tr(exp(−βH)), where H

is the (hermitian) Hamilton operator and tr denotes the trace. From the
partition function we obtain the Helmholtz free energy, entropy and specific
heat.
(i) Calculate Z(β) for the Hamilton operator given above.
(ii) Consider the special case that n = m = 2 and A, B are any of the Pauli
spin matrices σ1 , σ2 , σ3 .
Problem 6. Let A, B be n × n matrices over C. Is
tr(eA ⊗ eB ) = tr(eA⊗B ) ?
Prove or disprove.
Problem 7. (i) Let A, B be n × n matrices and In be the n × n identity

matrix. Show that
(A ⊗ In )(In ⊗ B)eA⊗In +In ⊗B = (AeA ) ⊗ (BeB ).
(ii) Let λ be an eigenvalue of A and µ be an eigenvalue of B. Provide an

eigenvalue of (AeA ) ⊗ (BeB ).
Problem 8. (i) Let A be an invertible n × n matrix. Find the inverse

matrix of
(A−1 ⊗ In )(In ⊗ A).
(ii) Let B be an invertible n × n matrix. Calculate
(A−1 ⊗ In )(In ⊗ A)(B −1 ⊗ In )(In ⊗ B).
Problem 9. The two-qubit Pauli group P2 can be generated as
P2 = hσ1 ⊗ σ1 , σ3 ⊗ σ3 , σ1 ⊗ σ2 , σ2 ⊗ σ3 , σ3 ⊗ σ1 i.
It is of order 64. Generate the element i(I2 ⊗ I2 ).

Problem 10. Consider the hermitian matrices of the three dipole oper-
ators
     
0 1 0 0 −i 0 1 0 0
1  1
L1 = √ 1 0 1  , L2 = √  i 0 −i  , L3 =  0 0 0 
2 0 1 0 2 0 i 0 0 0 −1
and the hermitian matrices of five quadrupole operators
   
0 0 1 0 0 −i
U1 =  0 0 0, U2 =  0 0 0  ,
1 0 0 i 0 0
     
0 1 0 0 −i 0 1 0 0
1  1  1
V1 = √ 1 0 −1  , V2 = √ i 0 i  , Q0 = √  0 −2 0.
2 0 −1 0 2 0 −i 0 3 0 0 1
Multiplying these eight hermitian matrices by i we obtain a basis for the
semi-simple Lie algebra su(3). Consider the Hamilton operator
Ĥ = κ0 Q0 ⊗ Q0 + κ1 (V1 ⊗ V1 + V2 ⊗ V2 ) + κ2 (U1 ⊗ U1 + U2 ⊗ U2 ).
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of Ĥ.
Problem 11. Consider the Pauli spin matrices σ3 , σ1 , σ2 . The eigenval-

ues are given by +1 and −1 with the corresponding normalized eigenvectors

1 0 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 −i
, , √ , √ , √ , √ .
0 1 2 1 2 −1 2 1 2 1
Consider the three 4 × 4 matrices
σ1 ⊗ σ1 , σ2 ⊗ σ2 , σ3 ⊗ σ3 .
(i) Find the eigenvalues.

(ii) Show that the eigenvectors can be given as product states (unentangled
states), but also as entangled states (i.e. they cannot be written as product
states). Explain.
Problem 12. (i) Consider the two 4 × 4 matrices σ1 ⊗ σ3 , σ3 ⊗ σ1 . Find

the eigenvalues.
states). Explain.
Problem 13. Consider the Pauli spin matrix σ2 . Find the eigenvalues
and eigenvectors for σ2 and σ2 ⊗ σ2 . For σ2 ⊗ σ2 show that we find two sets
of entangled states for the eigenvectors and set of unentangled eigenvectors

(product states).
Problem 14. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the Hamilton

operator
Ĥ = ~ω1 σ3 ⊗ I2 + ~ω2 I2 ⊗ σ3 + σ2 ⊗ σ2 .
Problem 15. (i) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
σ1 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ3 .
Can one find entangled eigenvectors?

(ii) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the Hamilton operator
Ĥ = 1 (σ1 ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2 ) + 2 (I2 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ I2 ) + 3 (I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ σ3 ) + γ(σ1 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ3 )
where 1 , 2 , 3 , γ ∈ R.
Problem 16. (i) Let U1 , U2 be unitary 2 × 2 matrices and Π1 , Π2 be

2 × 2 projection matrices with Π1 Π2 = 0 and Π1 + Π2 = I2 . Show that
U 1 ⊗ Π1 + U 2 ⊗ Π2
is unitary.
(ii) Let U1 = σ1 , U2 = σ3 and

1 1 1 1 1 −1
Π1 = , Π2 = .
2 1 1 2 −1 1
Find the normalized state

1 0
(U1 ⊗ Π1 + U2 ⊗ Π2 ) ⊗ .
0 1
Show that this state is entangled, i.e. it can not be written as a product
state.
Problem 17. Consider the n × n unitary matrices U1 , . . . , Un and

the n × n projection matrices Π1 , . . . , Πn such that Πj Πk = δjk In and
Π1 + · · · + Πn = In . Show that the n2 × n2 matrix
n
X
(Uj ⊗ Πj )
j=1
is unitary.
Problem 18. (i) Let A be an n × n matrix over C and Π be an m × m

projection matrix. Let z ∈ C. Calculate
exp(z(A ⊗ Π)).
(ii) Let A1 , A2 be n × n matrices over C. Let Π1 , Π2 be m × m projection

matrices with Π1 Π2 = 0. Calculate
exp(z(A1 ⊗ Π1 + A2 ⊗ Π2 )).
(iii) Use the result from (ii) to find the unitary matrix
U (t) = exp(−iĤt/~)
where Ĥ = ~ω(A1 ⊗ Π1 + A2 ⊗ Π2 ) and we assume that A1 and A2 are

hermitian matrices.
(iv) Apply the result of (iii) to

1 1 1 1 1 −1
A1 = σ 1 , Π1 = , A2 = σ3 , Π2 = .
2 1 1 2 −1 1
Problem 19. Every 4 × 4 unitary matrix U can be written as
U = (U1 ⊗ U2 ) exp(i(ασ1 ⊗ σ1 + βσ2 ⊗ σ2 + γσ3 ⊗ σ3 ))(U3 ⊗ U4 )
where Uj ∈ U (2) (j = 1, 2, 3, 4) and α, β, γ ∈ R. Calculate
exp(i(ασ1 ⊗ σ1 + βσ2 ⊗ σ2 + γσ3 ⊗ σ3 )).
Problem 20. Consider the Hilbert space C16 and the normalized state
1
|ψi = √ (| ↑i ⊗ | ↑i ⊗ | ↑i ⊗ | ↑i + | ↓i ⊗ | ↓i ⊗ | ↓i ⊗ | ↓i
2
where
1 0
| ↑i = , | ↓i = .
0 1
Give a computer algebra implementation that calculates the 256 expecta-
tion values
Tjk`m = hψ|σj ⊗ σk ⊗ σ` ⊗ σn |ψi, j, k, `, m = 0, 1, 2, 3
where σ0 , σ1 , σ2 , σ3 are the Pauli spin matrices with σ0 = I2 (2×2) identity

matrix.
Problem 21. Consider the unitary matrices

1 1 1 1 1 i
H= √ , A= √ ,
2 1 −1 2 i 1

1 1 1 1 1−i 1+i
B=√ , C=
2 i −i 2 1−i −1 − i
and
1 0 0 0
 
0 0 1 0 
R= .
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 −1
Find (B ⊗ C)(R(I2 ⊗ A)R)(H ⊗ H).
Problem 22. Consider the spin matrix for spin- 12

1 1 0 1
s1 = σ1 =
2 2 1 0
with the eigenvalues 1/2 and −1/2 and the corresponding normalized eigen-
vectors
1 1 1 1
e1/2 = √ , e−1/2 = √ .
2 1 2 −1
Do the four vectors
1 1
√ (e1/2 ⊗ e1/2 + e−1/2 ⊗ e−1/2 ), √ (e1/2 ⊗ e1/2 − e−1/2 ⊗ e−1/2 ),
2 2
1 1
√ (e1/2 ⊗ e−1/2 + e−1/2 ⊗ e−1/2 ), √ (e1/2 ⊗ e−1/2 − e−1/2 ⊗ e−1/2 ),
2 2
form a basis in C4 ? Prove or disprove.
N
Problem 23. Let N ≥ 1. Consider the Hilbert space C2 . The (N + 1)
Dicke states are defined by

N N 1
, ` − i := p (|0i ⊗ · · · ⊗ |0i ⊗ |1i ⊗ · · · ⊗ |1i +permutations)

2 2 N C` | {z } | {z }
` N −`

where ` = 0, 1, . . . , N and N C` = N !/(`!(N − `)!). Write down the Dicke

states for N = 2 and N = 3. Which of the states are entangled?
Problem 24. Consider the 2 × 2 permutation matrices

1 0 0 1
P1 = I2 = , P2 = .
0 1 1 0
(i) Show that

1 1
Π1 = (P1 + P2 ), Π2 = (P1 − P2 )
2 2
are projection matrices. Find Π1 Π2 . Discuss.
(ii) Show that
1 1
Π1 = (P1 ⊗ P1 + P2 ⊗ P2 ), Π2 = (P1 ⊗ P1 − P2 ⊗ P2 )
2 2
are projection matrices. Find Π1 Π2 . Discuss.
Problem 25. Consider the six 3 × 3 permutation matrices

     
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
P1 = I3 =  0 1 0  , P2 =  0 0 1  , P3 =  1 0 0  ,
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
     
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
P4 =  0 0 1  , P5 =  1 0 0  , P6 =  0 1 0 
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
with the signatures of the permutation P1 → +1, P2 → −1, P3 → −1,
P4 → +1, P5 → +1, P6 → −1.
(i) Is
1
Π1 = (P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + P5 + P6 )
6
a projection matrix?
(ii) Is
1
Π2 = (P1 − P2 − P3 + P4 + P5 − P6 )
6
a projection matrix? Calculate Π1 Π2 . Discuss.
(iii) Is
1
Π1 = (P1 ⊗ P1 + P2 ⊗ P2 + P3 ⊗ P3 + P4 ⊗ P4 + P5 ⊗ P5 + P6 ⊗ P6 )
6
a projection matrix?
(iv) Is
1
Π2 = (P1 ⊗ P1 − P2 ⊗ P2 − P3 ⊗ P3 + P4 ⊗ P4 + P5 ⊗ P5 − P6 ⊗ P6 )
6
a projection matrix? Find Π1 Π2 . Discuss.
Problem 26. Consider the Hilbert space C9 and the three normalized
states        
1 0 0 1
1        
|ψ12 i = √ 0 ⊗ 1 − 1 ⊗ 0
2 0 0 0 0
       
0 0 0 0
1
|ψ23 i = √  1  ⊗  0  −  0  ⊗  1 
2 0 1 1 0
       
0 1 1 0
1
|ψ31 i = √  0  ⊗  0  −  0  ⊗  0  .
2 1 0 0 1
(i) Are the states entangled?
(ii) Find the density matrices.
(iii) Form a mixed state from the three density matrices.
Problem 27. Consider the two Hilbert spaces H1 = H2 = Cd and the

product Hilbert space H = H1 ⊗ H2 . A state |ψi ∈ H is called maximally
entangled if
1
trH1 (|ψihψ|) = trH2 (|ψihψ|) = .
d
Apply this definition to the Bell states in H = C4 , i.e. d = 2
1 1
   
1 0 1  0 
|ψ1 i = √   , |ψ2 i = √  ,
2 0 2 0
1 −1
0 0
   
1 1 1  1 
|ψ3 i = √   , |ψ4 i = √  .
2 1 2 −1
0 0
Problem 28. (i) Let

1 0
|1i = , |2i =
0 1
be the standard basis in C2 . Calculate the 4 × 4 matrix
2 X
X 2
P := |jihk| ⊗ |kihj|.
j=1 k=1
What type of matrix is this?

(ii) Calculate P 2 . Discuss.
(iii) Let
1 1 1 1
|1i = √ , |2i = √
2 1 2 −1
be the Hadamard basis in C2 . Calculate the 4 × 4 matrix
2 X
X 2
Q := |jihk| ⊗ |kihj|.
j=1 k=1
What type of matrix is this?

(iv) Calculate Q2 . Discuss.
Problem 29. Can the normalized state

1 T
√ (1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0)
2
in the Hilbert space C8 be written as a product state of three normalized
vectors in C2 ?
Problem 30. (i) Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Find the
commutators and anticommutators
[σ1 , σ2 ], [σ2 , σ3 ], [σ3 , σ1 ], [σ1 , σ2 ]+ , [σ2 , σ3 ]+ , [σ3 , σ1 ]+ .
(ii) Consider the 4 × 4 matrices σ1 ⊗ σ2 , σ2 ⊗ σ3 , σ3 ⊗ σ1 . Find the com-

mutators and anticommutators
[σ1 ⊗ σ2 , σ2 ⊗ σ3 ], [σ2 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ1 ], [σ3 ⊗ σ1 , σ1 ⊗ σ2 ]
[σ1 ⊗ σ2 , σ2 ⊗ σ3 ]+ , [σ2 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ1 ]+ , [σ3 ⊗ σ1 , σ1 ⊗ σ2 ]+

(iii) Consider the 8 × 8 matrices σ1 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ3 , σ3 ⊗ σ1 ⊗ σ2 , σ2 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ1 .
Find the commutators and anticommutators
[σ1 ⊗σ2 ⊗σ3 , σ3 ⊗σ1 ⊗σ2 ], [σ3 ⊗σ1 ⊗σ2 , σ2 ⊗σ3 ⊗σ1 ], [σ2 ⊗σ3 ⊗σ1 , σ1 ⊗σ2 ⊗σ3 ]
[σ1 ⊗σ2 ⊗σ3 , σ3 ⊗σ1 ⊗σ2 ]+ , [σ3 ⊗σ1 ⊗σ2 , σ2 ⊗σ3 ⊗σ1 ]+ , [σ2 ⊗σ3 ⊗σ1 , σ1 ⊗σ2 ⊗σ3 ]+ .
Problem 31. Let σ0 , σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices, where σ0 = I2

is the 2 × 2 unit matrix. Is
3
1X
P = (σj ⊗ σj )
2 j=0
a permutation matrix?
Problem 32. (i) Let σ0 , σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices, where

σ0 = I2 is the 2 × 2 unit matrix. Let
 
v1
v =  v2 
v3
be a vector in R3 with kvk ≤ 1. Show that

1
ρv = (σ0 + v1 σ1 + v2 σ2 + v3 σ3 )
2
is a density matrix.
(ii) Is
3
1 X
ρ= (σ0 ⊗ σ0 + vj σ j ⊗ σ j )
4 j=1
a density matrix?
(iii) Is
3
1 X
ρ= (σ 0 ⊗ σ 0 ⊗ σ 0 + vj σj ⊗ σj ⊗ σj )
23 j=1
a density matrix? Extend the result to n Kronecker products.
Problem 33. Consider the invertible matrix

1 0 0 1
 
1 0 1 1 0 
U=√  .
2 0 1 −1 0
1 0 0 −1
Can the matrix be written as the Kronecker product of two 2 × 2 matrices?
Problem 34. Are the two state in C9

           
1 1 0 0 0 0
1        
|ψ1 i = √ 0 ⊗ 0 + 1 ⊗ 1 − 2  0  ⊗  0 
6 0 0 0 0 1 1
           
1 1 0 0 0 0
1
|ψ2 i = − √  0  ⊗  0  +  1  ⊗  1  +  0  ⊗  0 
3 0 0 0 0 1 1
orthogonal to each other?
Problem 35. Let σ1 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Find the 4 × 4

permutation matrix P such that
P (σ1 ⊗ σ3 )P −1 = σ3 ⊗ σ1 .
Problem 36. Consider the two normalized states

1
 
iα iδ
1 0 1 e cos(β) 1 e cos(γ)
|ψi = √   , |φi = √ ⊗√
2 0 2 sin(β) 2 sin(γ)
1
with α, β, γ, δ ∈ [0, 2π). Find
maxα,β,γ,δ |hψ|φi|2 .
Problem 37. Let

|0i, |1i, ... , |ni
n+1
be an orthonormal basis in C . Are the states
n
1 1 X
|ψ0 i = √ |0i ⊗ |0i + √ |ji ⊗ |ji
2 2n j=1
n
1 1 X
|ψ1 i = √ |0i ⊗ |0i − √ |ji ⊗ |ji
2 2n j=1
normalized? Are the state orthogonal to each other? Is

ρ = (|ψ0 ihψ0 |) ⊗ (|ψ1 ihψ1 |)
a density matrix?
Problem 38. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Show that the
4 × 4 matrix

1 1 1 1 1 −i 1 1 1 1 1 1
R= √ ⊗√ (σ1 ⊗σ2 ) √ ⊗√
2 1 −1 2 1 i 2 1 −1 2 i −i
can be written as direct sum of two 2 × 2 matrices. Discuss.
Problem 39. Let σ2 be the second Pauli spin matrix. Then

0 0 0 −1
 

0 −i 0 −i  0 0 1 0 
σ2 ⊗ σ2 = ⊗ = .
i 0 i 0 0 1 0 0
−1 0 0 0
Find the normalized state (γ ∈ R)
1
 

iγσ2 ⊗σ2  0  iγσ ⊗σ 1 1
e  ≡e 2 2 ⊗ .
0 0 0
0
Is the state entangled? Discuss.
Problem 40. Let ω = exp(iπ). Consider the 4 × 4 matrices

0 1 1 0
S1 = ⊗ I2 , S2 = I2 ⊗
1 0 0 ω
(i) Show that S12 = I4 , S22 = I4 and S1 S2 S1−1 S2−1 = ωI4 .

(ii) Find the commutator [S1 , S2 ].
Problem 41. Let γ, αj , βj ∈ R. Can any vector in C4 be written as
cos(γ/2)
 
0
(U1 (α) ⊗ U2 (β))  ?
 
0
sin(γ/2)
Here U1 (α), U2 (β) are the unitary matrices
U1 (α) = exp(iα3 σ3 /2) exp(iα1 σ2 /2) exp(iα2 σ3 /2)
U2 (β) = exp(iβ3 σ3 /2) exp(iβ1 σ2 /2) exp(iβ2 σ3 /2)

and σ1 , σ2 , σ3 are the Pauli spin matrices.
Chapter 3
Matrix Properties
Problem 1. The vectors

     
1 0 1
1   1 
v1 = √ 0 , v2 =  1  , v3 = √ 0 
2 1 0 2 −1
form an orthonormal basis in the Hilbert space C3 . Find the unitary ma-
trices U12 , U23 , U31 such that
U12 v1 = v2 , U23 v2 = v3 , U31 v3 = v1 .
Then calculate U31 U23 U12 and the matrix
V = λ1 v1 v1∗ + λ2 v2 v2∗ + λ3 v3 v3∗
where the complex numbers λ1 , λ2 , λ3 satisfy λ1 λ1 = 1, λ2 λ2 = 1, λ3 λ3 = 1.

Is the matrix unitary?
Problem 2. Can the unitary matrix (permutation matrix)
1 0 0 0
 
0 1 0 0
U =
0 0 0 1

0 0 1 0
be written as the Kronecker product of two 2 × 2 matrices, i.e. U = A ⊗ B?
25
Problem 3. Let A, B, C be n × n matrices. Let In be the n × n identity

matrix.
(i) What can be said about the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
A ⊗ In ⊗ In + In ⊗ B ⊗ In + In ⊗ In ⊗ C
if we know the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A, B, C?

(ii) Is
eA⊗In ⊗In +In ⊗B⊗In +In ⊗In ⊗C = eA ⊗ eB ⊗ eC ?
Problem 4. Let σ1 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Calculate (θ ∈ R)

√
R(θ) = exp(−i(θ/2)(σ1 + σ3 )/ 2)
Is the matrix R(θ) unitary?
Problem 5. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Does the set of

4 × 4 matrices
{ I2 ⊗ I2 , σ1 ⊗ σ1 , −σ2 ⊗ σ2 , σ3 ⊗ σ3 }
form a group under matrix multiplication?
Problem 6. The spin matrices for spin- 32 particles are given by

√
√0 3 0 0
 
~ 3 0 2 √0 
J1 = 
2 0 2 √0 3

0 0 3 0
√
0 −i 3 0 0
 
√
~ i 3 0 −2i 0√ 
J2 = 
2 0 2i 0 −i 3

√
0 0 i 3 0
3 0 0 0
 
~ 0 1 0 0 
J3 =  .
2 0 0 −1 0
0 0 0 −3
(i) Show that the matrices are hermitian.

(ii) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of these matrices.
(iii) Calculate the commutation relations, i.e. [J1 , J2 ], [J2 , J3 ], [J3 , J1 ].
(iv) Are the matrices unitary?
Matrix Properties 27
Problem 7. Two orthonormal bases in an n-dimensional complex Hilbert

space
{ |uj i : j = 1, 2, . . . , n }, { |vj i : j = 1, 2, . . . , n }
are called mutually unbiased if inner products (scalar products) between all
possible
√ pairs of vectors taken from distinct bases have the same magnitude
1/ n, i.e.
1
|huj |vk i| = √ for all j, k ∈ { 1, 2, . . . , n }.
n
(i) Find such bases for the Hilbert space C2 . Start of with the standard
basis
1 0
u1 = , u2 = .
0 1
(ii) Find such bases for the Hilbert space C3 . Start of with the standard
basis      
1 0 0
u1 =  0  , u2 =  1  , u3 =  0  .
0 0 1
(iii) Find such bases for the Hilbert space C4 using the result from C2 and
the Kronecker product.
Problem 8. (i) Let A, B be n × n matrices over C such that A2 = In

and B 2 = In . Furthermore assume that
[A, B]+ ≡ AB + BA = 0n
i.e. the anticommutator vanishes. Let α, β ∈ C. Calculate eαA+βB using

∞
X (αA + βB)j
eαA+βB = .
j=0
j!
(ii) Consider the case that n = 2 and

1 0
α = −iωt, A = σ3 =
0 −1

0 1
β = −i∆t/~, B = σ1 = .
1 0
(iii) Consider the case that n = 8 and
α = −iωt, A = σ3 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ3
β = −i∆t/~, B = σ1 ⊗ σ1 ⊗ σ1 .
Problem 9. Let A, B be n × n matrices with A2 = In and B 2 = In .

Assume that the commutator of A and B vanishes, i.e.
[A, B] = AB − BA = 0n .
Let a, b ∈ C. Calculate
eaA+bB .
(ii) Let a = −iωt, b = −i∆t/~ (∆ real) and
A = σ3 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ · · · ⊗ σ3 , B = σ1 ⊗ σ1 ⊗ · · · ⊗ σ1
with n (even) factors of the Kronecker products. Then the conditions given
above are satisfied. Simplify the result from (i) with this assumption.
Problem 10. Let A, B be n × n matrices with A2 = In and B 2 = In .

Assume that the anticommutator of A and B vanishes, i.e.
[A, B]+ = AB + BA = 0n .
(i) Let a, b ∈ C. Calculate

eaA+bB .
(ii) Let a = −iωt, b = −i∆t/~ (∆ real) and
A = σ3 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ · · · ⊗ σ3 , B = σ1 ⊗ σ1 ⊗ · · · ⊗ σ1
with n (odd) factors of the Kronecker products. Then the conditions given
above are satisfied. Simplify the result from (i) with this assumption.
Problem 11. Consider the Hilbert space C3 and the standard basis
     
1 0 0
|0i =  0  , |1i =  1  , |2i =  0  .
0 0 1
Consider the unitary matrices

   
1 0 0 0 0 1
R = 0 ω 0 , T = 1 0 0
0 0 ω2 0 1 0
where ω = e2πi/3 .
(i) Calculate the state R|ji, T |ji, where j = 0, 1, 2.
(ii) Find the commutator [R, T ].

(iii) Consider the normalized state
1
|ψi = √ (|0i ⊗ |0i + |1i ⊗ |1i + |2i ⊗ 2i).
3
Calculate the state (R ⊗ T )|ψi and discuss.
[σm ⊗ σn , σk ⊗ I2 ] ≡ [σm , σk ] ⊗ σn
[σm ⊗ σn , I2 ⊗ σk ] ≡ σm ⊗ [σn , σk ]
where k, m, n ∈ { 1, 2, 3 }.
Problem 13. Given two arbitrary normalized states |ψi and |φi in C2 .
Find a 2 × 2 unitary matrix U such that |ψi = U |φi, i.e. U must be
expressed in terms of the compenents of the states |ψi and φi.
Problem 14. Consider the Hamilton operator in C4
Ĥ = −t(|00ih11| + |11ih00|) + v(|00ih00| + |11ih11|.
The kinetic parameter is t ≥ 0 and v is the potential parameter. Find

the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of Ĥ. Keep t = 1 fixed and disucss the
dependence of the eigenvalues of Ĥ as a function of v.
Problem 15. Let H be an n × n hermitian matrix. Let λ1 , . . . , λn be

the eigenvalues with the pairwise orthogonal normalized eigenvectors v1 ,
. . . , vn . Then we can write
n
X
H= λ` v` v`∗ .
`=1
Let
P = In − vj vj∗ − vk vk∗ + vj vk∗ + vk vj∗ , j 6= k.
(i) What is the condition on the eigenvalues of H such that P HP ∗ = H.
(ii) Find P 2 .
Problem 16. Let B be an n × n matrix with B 2 = In . Show that

1
exp − iπ(B − In ) ≡ B.
2
Problem 17. Consider the vector

sin(φ1 ) sin(φ2 ) sin(θ)
 
 sin(φ1 ) sin(φ2 ) cos(θ) 
|ψi = 
sin(φ1 ) cos(φ2 )

cos(φ1 )
in the Hilbert space R4 with φ1 , φ2 , θ ∈ R. Find the norm of this vector.
For which values of φ1 , φ2 , θ is the norm a mimimum? What is the use of
this vector?
Problem 18. Let R be a nonsingular n × n matrix. Let A and B be

n × n matrices. Assume that R−1 AR and R−1 BR are diagonal matrices.
Calculate the commutator [A, B].
Problem 19. Let A, B be two n × n matrices. Assume that

tr(A) = 0, tr(B) = 0.
Can we conclude that tr(AB) = 0? Prove or disprove.
Problem 20. We know that any n × n hermitian matrix has only real
eigenvalues. Assume that a given n × n matrix has only real eigenvalues.
Can we conclude that the matrix is hermitian? Prove or disprove.
Problem 21. Consider the Hilbert space Cn . Let e1 , e2 , . . . , en be the

standard basis in Cn , Sn be the symmetric group of order n! and Uσ be the
unitary matrix on ⊗n Cn such that
Uσ (e1 ⊗ · · · ⊗ en ) := eσ(1) ⊗ · · · ⊗ eσ(n)
where σ ∈ Sn . We define the matrix (“antisymmetrization operator”) in
the Hilbert space ⊗n Cn by
1 X
Πn := sgn(σ)Uσ
n!
σ∈Sn
where sgn is the signature of the permutation σ ∈ Sn . The matrices Πn

are projection matrices. Find Π2 and Π3 .
Problem 22. (i) The four-dimensional face-centered hypercubic lattice

plays a central role in simulating three-dimensional hydrodynamics on a
cellular automata machine. Consider the four-dimensional face-centered
hypercubic lattice in connection with entanglement. This lattice is gener-
ated from the four basis vectors
(±1, ±1, 0, 0). (1)
Permuting the components of these four vectors in R4 we find 20 additional

vectors. Show that the 24 vectors can be classified as follows. In class A
we have eight vectors
1 1 −1 −1 0 0 0 0
               
0  0   0   0  1  1   −1   −1 
 , , , ,  ,  ,  , .
0 0 0 0 1 −1 1 −1
   
1 −1 1 −1 0 0 0 0
√
The normalization factor would be 1/ 2. In class B we have the eight
vectors
0 0 0 0 1 −1 1 −1
               
1  1   −1   −1  0  0   0   0 
 ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  , .
0 0 0 0 1 1 −1 −1

1 −1 1 −1 0 0 0 0
√
The normalization factor is also 1/ 2. In class C we have the eight vectors
0 0 0 0 1 1 −1 −1
               
0  0   0   0  1  −1   1   −1 
 , , , ,  ,  ,  ,  .
1 1 −1 −1 0 0 0 0
  
1 −1 1 −1 0 0 0 0
√
Again the normalization factor is 1/ 2. Show that if α(nA , m) is the angle
between the nth vector of class A and the mth vector of class B, then
α(nA , mB ) = α(nB , mC ) = α(nC , mA )
and
α(nA , mA ) = α(nB , mB ) = α(nC , mC ).
Each class contains four oppositely oriented pairs of vectors. This means
that the ordering of the vectors is such that class B is related to class A in
exactly the same way as class C is related to B and A is related to C.
(ii) Show that the normalized vectors in class A are maximally entangled.
(iii) Show that the vectors in class B and class C can be written as the
Kronecker product of two vectors from R2 .
(iv) The Hadamard gate given by the unitary matrix

1 1 1
H=√
2 1 −1
plays a central role in quantum computing. Consider now the 4 × 4 matrix
R = I2 ⊗ H
where ⊗ denotes the Kronecker product and I2 is 2×2 unit matrix. Thus R
itself is a unitary matrix. Applying this matrix to the 24 vectors. Discuss.
(v) Show that the construction given above can be extended to higher
dimensional cases. For example in R8 we would start with
1
√ (±1, ±1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0)T
2
and all permutations. Show that this provides us with the GHZ-state
1
√ (1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1)T
2
which is fully entangled when we use the three tangle (based on the hy-
perdeterminant) as measure of entanglement. Show that we find a set of
unentangled states, for example
1
 
1
0
 

1 1 1 1 1 0

⊗ ⊗√ = √  .
0 0 2 1 2 0
0
 
0
 
0
Show that using the three-tangle as measure for entanglement we find 0 for
these vectors.
Problem 23. The associative algebra Md (C) of d × d matrices can be

considered as a C ∗ algebra with the square of the norm k . k defined by
(A ∈ Md (C))
kAk2 := largest eigenvalue of the (normal) matrix A∗ A.
Let d = 2 and
1 i
A= .
i −1
Find the norm.
Problem 24. Consider the Hilbert space Cd . Let |ji (j = 1, . . . , d) be

an orthonormal basis in Cd . Then a d × d matrix A acting in Cd can be
written as
Xd
A= ajk |jihk|
j,k=1
with ajk ∈ C. Obviously A depends on the underlying orthonormal basis.

If we have the standard basis, then A reduces to the matrix A = (ajk ). We
2
can associate a vector |ψA i in the Hilbert space Cd with the matrix A via
d
X
|ψA i = ajk |ji ⊗ |ki.
j,k=1
(i) Let d = 2 and consider the standard basis

1 0
|1i = , |2i = .
0 1
Find A and |ψA i.

(ii) Let d = 2 and consider the Hadamard basis

1 1 1 1
|1i = √ , |2i = √ .
2 1 2 −1
Find A and |ψA i.

(iii) Let d = 3 and consider the basis
     
1 0 1
1   1 
|1i = √ 0 , |2i =  1  , |3i = √ 0 .
2 1 0 2 −1
Find A and |ψA i.

(iv) Describe the connection of the map A 7→ |ψA i with the vec-operator.
Problem 25. Let φ1 , φ2 ∈ R. From the Bell basis
eiφ1 0 0 eiφ1
       
1  0  1 e  iφ2 1  e iφ2 1  0 
√  , √  iφ2  , √  iφ2  , √ 

0 2 e −e 0

2 2 2
iφ1 iφ1
e 0 0 −e
we form the matrix
eiφ1 0 0 eiφ1
 
1  0 iφ2 iφ2
e e 0 
M (φ1 , φ2 ) = √  .
2 0 eiφ2 −eiφ2 0
eiφ1 0 0 −eiφ1
Is M (φ1 , φ2 ) an element of the Lie group SU (4)?

Problem 26. (i) Let x1 , x2 , x3 ∈ R. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin

matrices. Show that
sin(r)
ei(x1 σ1 +x2 σ2 +x3 σ3 ) = cos(r)I2 + i(x1 σ1 + x2 σ2 + x3 σ3 )
r
cos(r) + ix3 sin(r)/r i(x1 − ix2 ) sin(r)/r
=
i(x1 + ix2 ) sin(r)/r cos(r) − ix3 sin(r)/r
p
where r := x21 + x22 + x23 .
(ii) Let y1 , y2 , y3 ∈ R and
X := x1 σ1 + x2 σ2 + x3 σ3 , Y := y1 σ1 + y2 σ2 + y3 σ3 .
Consider the maps

   
x1 y1
X ↔ x =  x2  , Y ↔ y =  y2  .
x3 y3
Let x · y := x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 (scalar product). Show that
1
x·y = tr(XY ).
2
(iii) Show that
 
x2 y3 − x3 y2
i
− [X, Y ] ↔ x × y =  x3 y1 − x1 y3  .
2
x1 y2 − x2 y1
Problem 27. Let s be a spin with a fixed total angular momentum

quantum number
s ∈ {1/2, 1, 3/2, 2, . . .}.
The (normalized) eigenstates of x3 -angular momentum |s, mi form a ladder
with
m = −s, −s + 1, . . . , s − 1, s.
The eigenstates |s, mi form an orthonormal basis in a 2s + 1 dimensional
Hilbert space. For example if s = 1/2 we have the two states |1/2, −1/2i,
|1/2, 1/2i and can identify

1 0
|1/2, 1/2i 7→ , |1/2, −1/2i 7→ .
0 1
Thus we have the Hilbert space C2 . For s = 1 we have the three states
|1, −1i, |1, 0i, |1, 1i and can identify
     
0 0 1
|1, −1i 7→  0  , |1, 0i 7→  1  , |1, 1i 7→  0  .
1 0 0
A spin coherent state |s, θ, φi for s = 1/2, 1, 3/2, . . . can be given by

s
m=s
X (2s)!
|s, θ, φi = (cos(θ/2))s+m (sin(θ/2))s−m e−imφ |s, mi.
m=−s
(s + m)!(s − m)!
(i) Find |1/2, θ, φi and write it as a vector in C2 .

(ii) Find |1, θ, φi and write it as a vector in C3 .
(iii) For a given s find the scalar product hs, m|s, θ, φi.
Problem 28. (i) Consider the Pauli spin matrix σ2 and the Lie group
SL(2, C). Let S ∈ SL(2, C). Show that
Sσ2 S T = σ2
where T denotes the transpose.

(ii) Show that
(S ⊗ S)(σ2 ⊗ σ2 )(S T ⊗ S T ) = σ2 ⊗ σ2 .
Problem 29. Let |1i, |2i, . . . , |di be an orthonormal basis in the Hilbert
space Cd . Consider the matrix
d
X
S= (|jihk| ⊗ |kihj|).
j,k=1
Is S independent of the chosen orthonormal basis?
Problem 30. (i) Let φ1 , φ2 ∈ R. Show that
−e−iφ2

1 eiφ1
U (φ1 , φ2 ) = √
2 eiφ2 e−iφ1
is unitary. Is U (φ1 , φ2 ) an element of SU (2)? Find the eigenvalues of

U (φ1 , φ2 ).
(ii) Let φ1 , φ2 , φ3 , φ4 ∈ R. Show that
eiφ1 0 0 −e−iφ2
 
1  0 eiφ3 −e−iφ4 0 
U (φ1 , φ2 , φ3 , φ4 ) = √ 
0 eiφ4 e−iφ3 0

2
eiφ2 0 0 e−iφ1
is unitary. Is U (φ1 , φ2 , φ3 , φ4 ) an element of SU (4)? Find the eigenvalues

of U (φ1 , φ2 , φ3 , φ4 ).
(iii) Let φ1 , φ2 ∈ R. Show that
e 1 √0 −e−iφ2
 iφ 
1
U (φ1 , φ2 ) = √  0 2 0 
2 eiφ2 0 e−iφ1
is unitary. Is U (φ1 , φ2 ) an element of SU (2)? Find the eigenvalues of

U (φ1 , φ2 ).
Problem 31. Consider the Hadamard matrix

1 1 1
U= √ .
2 1 −1
The eigenvalues of the Hadamard matrix are given by +1 and −1 with the
corresponding normalized eigenvectors
p √ p √
1 4 + 2 2 1 p4 − 2 √2 .
√ p √ , √
8 4−2 2 8 − 4+2 2
How can this information be used to find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors
of the Bell matrix
1 0 0 1
 
1 0 1 1 0 
B=√  .
2 0 1 −1 0
1 0 0 −1
Problem 32. (i) Consider the Hilbert space C4 . Do the vectors
1 1 0 1
       
1 1 1  0  1  1  1  −1 
v1 =   , v2 = √  , v3 = √  , v4 = 
2 1 2 −1 0 2 1

2
1 0 −1 −1
form an orthonormal basis in C4 . Prove or disprove.

(ii) Can the vectors v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 be written as Kronecker products of

vectors in C2 . Prove or disprove.
(iii) Consider the 4 × 4 matrices
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
   
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
S= , T =  .
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of the two matrices. Com-
pare to (i). Disucss.
(iv) Find the commutator of S and T , i.e. [T, S]. What can be said about
eigenvectors of such a pair of matrices? Discuss. Hint. Look at your result
from (iii).
Problem 33. Consider the matrix

 √ √ 
1/ 2 0 1/ 2
U =  0√ 1 0√  .
1/ 2 0 −1/ 2
(i) Is the matrix unitary?

(ii) Find the eigenvalues and nonnormalized eigenvectors of U . Use this
information to write down the spectral decomposition of U .
(iii) Find a skew-hermitian matrix K such that U = exp(K). One can
utilize the results from (ii).
(iv) Apply the unitary matrix to the normalized state
 
1
1
|ψi = √  1  .
3 1
Find the state U |ψi and calculate the probability |hψ|K|ψi|2 .
Problem 34. Let φ1 , φ2 , φ3 , φ4 ∈ R. Consider the 2 × 2 matrix

iφ
1 e 1 eiφ2
U (φ1 , φ2 , φ3 , φ4 ) = √ iφ iφ .
2 e 3 e 4
The matrix contains the two column vector
iφ iφ
1 e 1 1 e 3
v1 = √ iφ2 , v2 = √ iφ .
2 e 2 e 4
Find the conditions on φ1 , φ2 , φ3 , φ4 such that
hv1 |v2 i = 0.
Is the matrix unitary if this condition is satisfied?
Problem 35. (i) An n × n matrix H = (hjk ) over C is called a complex

Hadamard matrix if |hjk | = 1 for j, k = 1, . . . , n and HH ∗ = nIn . Note
that √1n H is then a unitary matrix. Let φ ∈ [0, π). Let n = 4. Show that
1 1 1 1
 
1 ieiφ −1 −ie iφ
H(φ) = 
1 −1 1 −1

1 −ieiφ −1 ie iφ
is a complex Hadamard matrix.

(ii) Given two complex Hadamard matrices H1 and H2 . Is H1 ⊗ H2 a
complex Hadamard matrix?

0 0 1 0
 
 0 0 0 −1 
γ̂3 = i~ωA, A=
−1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0
where ~ and ω (frequency) are constants.

(i) Find
exp(−iγ̂3 t/~).
(ii) Let
1
 
1 0
|ψ(t = 0)i = √  
2 0
1
be the initial state in the Hilbert space C4 . Calculate
|ψ(t)i = exp(−iγ̂3 t/~)|ψ(t = 0)i
and thus solve the Schrödinger equation.

(iii) If we know the eigenvalues of γ3 what can be said about the eigenvalues
of exp(−iγ̂3 t/~)?
Problem 37. Let α, θ, φ ∈ R. Consider the vector in C4

sinh(α) sin(θ) cos(φ)
 
 sinh(α) sin(θ) sin(φ) 
v= .
cosh(α) cos(θ)
cosh(α) sin(θ)
(i) Normalize the vector.

(ii) Apply the Bell matrix
1 0 0 1
 
1 0 1 1 0 
B=√ 
2 0 1 −1 0

1 0 0 −1
to the normalized vector. Calculate v∗ Bv. Discuss.
Problem 38. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. For the Dirac
equation the following 4 × 4 matrices play a central role. We define

I2 0 2 02 σk
β := , αk = k = 1, 2, 3.
02 −I2 σk 0 2
Let γk = iβαk for k = 1, 2, 3, γ0 = −iβ and γ5 = iγ1 γ2 γ3 γ0 . Find the

gamma matrices and calculate their anticommutators.
Problem 39. (i) Consider the finite-dimensional Hilbert space Cd . A

symmetric informatially complete positive operator valued measure (SIC-
POVM) consists of d2 outcomes that are subnormalized projection matrices
Πj onto pure states
1
Πj = |ψj ihψj |
d
for j, k = 1, . . . , d2 such that
1 + dδjk
|hψk |ψk i|2 = .
d+1
Consider the case d = 2. Show that the normalized vectors
 q √ 
(3 + 3)/6
|ψ1 i =  q √ 
eiπ/4 (3 − 3)/6
 q √ 
(3 + 3)/6
|ψ2 i =  q √ 
−eiπ/4 (3 − 3)/6
 q √ 
eiπ/4 (3 − 3)/6
|ψ3 i =  q √ 
(3 + 3)/6
 q √ 
−eiπ/4 (3 − 3)/6
|ψ4 i =  q √ 
(3 + 3)/6
satisfy this condition.

(ii) Consider the matrices σ1 , −iσ2 , σ3 . Find
σ1 |ψ1 i, −iσ2 |ψ1 i, σ3 |ψ1 i.
(iii) Let d = 2. Let

d
X X 1 1
Sd := |ji⊗|ji⊗hj|⊗hj|+ √ (|ji⊗|ki+|ki⊗|ji)⊗ √ (hj|⊗hk|+hk|⊗hj|)
j=1 k>j=1
2 2
where |1i, |2i denotes the standard basis in C2 , i.e.

1 0
|1i = , |2i = .
0 1
Show that
2
d
X 2d
|ψj i ⊗ |ψj ihψj | ⊗ hψj | = .
j=1
d+1
(iv) Can one find a SIC-POVM in C4 using the states from (i) and the
Kronecker product?
Problem 40. Let a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 be real. Find the normalization factors

for the vector in C4
a1 cos(φ/2) + b1 sin(φ/2)
 
 a cos(φ/2) + b2 sin(φ/2) 
|ψi =  2 .
ia1 sin(φ/2) − ib1 cos(φ/2)
ia2 sin(φ/2) − ib2 cos(φ/2)
Problem 41. Any 2 × 2 matrix can be written as a linear combination

of the Pauli spin matrices and the 2 × 2 identity matrix
A = aI2 + bσ1 + cσ2 + dσ3
where a, b, c, d ∈ C.
(i) Find A2 and A3 .
(ii) Use the result from (i) to find all matrices A such that A3 = σ1 .
Problem 42. Let r, s, θ ∈ R. Consider the Hamilton operator given by

the 2 × 2 matrix iθ
Ĥ re s
K̂ = = .
~ω s re−iθ
(i) Is the matrix a normal matrix?

(ii) Is the matrix hermitian?
(iii) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of K̂.
Problem 43. Consider the vector space of n × n matrices over C. Let

B1 , B2 , . . . , Bn2 be a basis. Assume that all B’s are invertible. Is B1−1 ,
B2−1 , . . . , Bn−1
2 also a basis for the vector space?
Problem 44. What can be said about the eigenvalues of an n × n matrix

which is unitary and skew-hermitian? Give an example of such a matrix.
Problem 45. Let φ11 , φ12 , φ21 , φ22 ∈ R. Consider the matrix

1 eiφ11 eiφ12
V =√ .
2 eiφ21 eiφ22
(i) What are the conditions on φ11 , φ12 , φ21 , φ22 such that the matrix is
unitary?
(ii) What are the conditions on φ11 , φ12 , φ21 , φ22 such that the matrix is
hermitian?
What are the conditions on φ11 , φ12 , φ21 , φ22 such that V = V −1 ?
Problem 46. Is the 3 × 3 matrix

 √ √ √ 
1/ 2 −1/ √6 1/
p 3
V =  1/2 −1/(2 √ 3) − 2/3 
1/2 3/2 0
unitary?
Problem 47. Let A be an n × n matrix over C. An n × n matrix B is

called a square root of A if B 2 = A. Find the square roots of the 2 × 2
identity matrix applying the spectral theorem. The eigenvalues of I2 are
λ1 = 1 and λ2 = 1. As normalized eigenvectors choose

eiφ1 cos(θ) eiφ1 sin(θ)
,
eiφ2 sin(θ) −eiφ2 cos(θ)
√ √
which
√ √ form an orthonormal
√ basis
√ in C2 . Four√cases√( λ1 , λ2 ) = (1, 1),
( λ1 , λ2 ) = (1, −1), ( λ1 , λ2 ) = (−1, 1), ( λ1 , λ2 ) = (−1, −1) have
to
√be studied.
√ The first and last case are trivial. So study the second case
( λ1 , λ2 ) = (1, −1). The second case and the third case are “equivalent”.
Problem 48. Let |ji (j = 1, . . . , d) be an orthonormal basis in Cd and

hk| (k = 1, . . . , d) be the dual basis. We define
Rjk = |jihk|, j, k = 1, . . . , d.
Show that
d
X
Rjk R`m = Rjm δ`k , [Rjk , R`m ] = Rjm δ`k − R`k δjm , Rjj = Id .
j=1
Hint. Utilize
Problem 49. Let |0i, |1i, . . . |d − 1i be an orthonormal basis in Cd . Let

Tjk ∈ C with j, k = 0, 1, . . . , d − 1. Consider the linear operator
d−1 X
X d−1
T = Tjk |jihk|.
j=0 k=0
(i) Let d = 2 and

1 0
|0i = , |1i = .
0 1
Find T .
(ii) Let d = 2 and

1 1 1 1
|0i = √ , |1i = √ .
2 1 2 −1
Find T .
Problem 50. Let Ĥ be a hermitian n×n matrix describing the Hamilton

operator and acting in the Hilbert space Cn . Let A, B be n × n hermitian
matrices and |ψi ∈ Cn . One defines (quantum correlation function)
1
Q(|ψi) := hψ|(A(t)B − AB(t) + BA(t) − B(t)A)|ψi
2
where
A(t) = eiĤt/~ Ae−iĤt/~ , B(t) = eiĤt/~ Be−iĤt/~ .
(i) Let
cos(θ)
Ĥ = ~ωσ2 , A = σ1 , B = σ3 , |ψi = .
sin(θ)
(ii) Let
cos(φ1 )
 
sin(φ1 ) cos(φ2 )
Ĥ = ~ωσ2 ⊗σ2 , A = σ1 ⊗σ1 , B = σ3 ⊗σ3 , |ψi = 
 
sin(φ1 ) sin(φ2 ) cos(φ3 )

sin(φ1 ) sin(φ2 ) sin(φ3 )
Problem 51. Let H be a hermitian matrix. Then all unitary matrices

U0 = In , U1 , . . . , Uk with Uj HUj∗ = H form a group under matrix multi-
plication, where j = 0, 1, . . . , k. Note that depending on H is group could
consist only of U0 = In . From Uj HUj∗ = H it follows that [H, Uj ] = 0n . If
v is an (normalized) eigenvector of H with eigenvalue λ, then Uj v is also
an eigenvector of H with the same eigenvalue since
HUj v = Uj Hv = λUj v.
The eigenvectors of H are bases of the irreducible representations of the
group of H and can be classified according to them. Let
 
0 1 0
H = 1 0 1.
0 1 0
(i) Find all 3 × 3 permutation matrices P such that P HP −1 = H.

(ii) Find the eigenvalues λ1 , λ2 , λ3 and the corresponding normalized eigen-
vectors v1 , v2 , v3 of H.
(iii) Find P vj for j = 1, 2, 3 and the permutation matrices found in (i)
Problem 52. Consider the Bell basis

1 0 0 1
      
1 0 1 1 1  1  1  0 
v1 = √   , v2 = √   , v3 = √  , v4 = √ 
0 1 2 −1 0

2 2 2
1 0 0 −1
which form an orthonormal basis in C4 . We can form 24 = 4! unitary
matrices
(vj1 vj2 vj3 vj4 ) jk 6= j` (pairwise)
with the lexigographical order (v1 v2 v3 v4 ), (v1 v2 v4 v3 ), . . . , (v4 v3 v2 v1 ).
Apply the 24 unitary matrices to the normalized vector
1
 

1 1 1 1 1 1
w=  ≡ √ ⊗√ .
2 1 2 1 2 1
1
Discuss.
Problem 53. Can the Bell matrix be written as

1 0 0 1
 
1 0 1 1 0 
B=√   = c0 σ0 ⊗ σ0 + c1 σ1 ⊗ σ1 + c2 σ2 ⊗ σ2 + c3 σ3 ⊗ σ3
2 0 1 −1 0
1 0 0 −1
where σ0 = I2 and σ1 , σ2 , σ3 are the Pauli spin matrices.
Problem 54. Let S1 , S2 , S3 be the spin matrices for spin

1 3
s= , 1, , 2, . . .
2 2
These matrices are (2s + 1) × (2s + 1) hermitian matrices with trace equal
to 0 satisfying the commutation relations
[S1 , S2 ] = iS3 , [S2 , S3 ] = iS1 , [S3 , S1 ] = iS2 .
The eigenvalues of these three matrices are s, s − 1, . . . , −s for a given s.

Furthermore one has
S12 + S22 + S32 = s(s + 1)I2s+1
where I2s+1 is the (2s + 1) × (2s + 1) identity matrix.

(i) Show that tr(Sj2 ) = 31 s(s + 1)(2s + 1).
(ii) Show that tr(Sj Sk ) = 0 for j 6= k and j, k = 1, 2, 3.
(iii) Show that the hermitian (2s + 1)2 × (2s + 1)2 matrices
e = H = S1 ⊗ S1 + S2 ⊗ S2 + S3 ⊗ S3
H
~ω
e = K = S1 ⊗ S2 + S2 ⊗ S3 + S3 ⊗ S1
K
~ω
admit the same spectrum for all s.
(iv) Find the commutator
[S1 ⊗ S1 + S2 ⊗ S2 + S3 ⊗ S3 , S1 ⊗ S2 + S2 ⊗ S3 + S3 ⊗ S1 ]
and anticommutator
[S1 ⊗ S1 + S2 ⊗ S2 + S3 ⊗ S3 , S1 ⊗ S2 + S2 ⊗ S3 + S3 ⊗ S1 ]+ .
(v) For the case s = 21 , s = 1, s = 32 find the eigenvalues and the normalized
eigenvectors.
(vi) Calculate exp(z H)
e and exp(z K). e
Problem 55. (i) Consider the hermitian 3 × 3 matrices to describe a

particle with spin-1
     
0 1 0 0 −i 0 1 0 0
~  ~
S1 := √ 1 0 1  , S2 := √  i 0 −i  , S3 := ~  0 0 0  .
2 0 1 0 2 0 i 0 0 0 −1
With S+ := S1 + iS2 , S− := S1 − iS2 we find

   
√ 0 1 0 √ 0 0 0
S+ = 2~  0 0 1, S− = 2~  1 0 0. (3)
0 0 0 0 1 0
An example of a spin-1 particle is the photon. Let m, n be normalized
vectors in R3 which are orthogonal, i.e. mT n = 0. Find the eigenvalues of
the 3 × 3 matrix
K = (m · S)2 − (n · S)2
where m · S = m1 S1 + m2 S2 + m3 S3 .
(ii) Show that
Pm = I3 − (m · S)2
is a projection operator.
Problem 56. Let A, B be n × n matrices over C. Let v be a normalized

(column) vector in Cn . Let hAi := v∗ Av and hBi := v∗ Bv. We have the
identity
AB ≡ (A − hAiIn )(B − hBiIn ) + AhBi + BhAi − hAihBiIn .
We approximate AB as AB ≈ AhBi + BhAi − hAihBiIn .

(i) Let
1 1
A = σ1 , B = σ2 , u = √ .
2 1
Find AB and AhBi + BhAi − hAihBiIn and the distance (Frobenius norm)
between the two matrices.
(ii) Apply the result to the case n = 2 and

1 1
A = σ1 , B = σ2 , v = √ .
2 −1
(iii) Consider the case

cos(θ)
A = σ1 , B = σ2 , v= .
sin(θ)
Problem 57. Let a, b ∈ R3 and σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices.

We define
a · σ := a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + a3 σ3 .
What is the condition on a, b such that
(a · σ)(b · σ) ≡ (a · b)I2 + i(a × b) · σ?

Here × denotes the vector product and I2 is the 2 × 2 identity matrix.
Problem 58. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Consider the

2 × 2 matrix over the complex numbers
 
3
1 X
Π(n) := I2 + nj σj 
2 j=1
where n := (n1 , n2 , n3 ) (nj ∈ R) is a unit vector, i.e. n21 + n22 + n23 = 1.

(i) Describe the property of Π(n), i.e. find Π∗ (n), tr(Π(n)) and Π2 (n),
where tr denotes the trace. The trace is the sum of the diagonal elements
of a square matrix.
(ii) Find the vector
iφ
e cos(θ)
Π(n) .
sin(θ)
Discuss.
Problem 59. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Let A, B be two

arbitrary 2 × 2 matrices. Is
3
1 X 1 1
tr(AB) ≡ tr(σj A) tr(σj B) ?
2 j=1
2 2
Problem 60. Let σj (j = 0, 1, 2, 3) be the Pauli spin matrices, where σ0

is the 2 × 2 identity matrix. Form the four 4 × 4 matrices

02 σk
γk = , k = 0, 1, 2, 3
−σk 02
where 02 is the 2 × 2 identity matrix.

(i) Are the matrices γk linearly independent?
(ii) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the γk ’s.
(iii) Are the matrices γk invertible. Use the result from (ii). If so, find the
inverse.
(iv) Find the commutators [γk , γ` ] for k, ` = 0, 1, 2, 3. Find the anticommu-
tators [γk , γ` ]+ for k, ` = 0, 1, 2, 3.
(v) Can the matrices γk be written as the Kronecker product of two 2 × 2
matrices?
Problem 61. Consider the 4 × 4 matrices

0 0 0 1
 
0 0 1 0
α1 =   = σ1 ⊗ σ1
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 −i
 
0 0 i 0 
α2 =   = σ1 ⊗ σ2
0 −i 0 0
i 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 −1 
α3 =   = σ1 ⊗ σ3 .
1 0 0 0
0 −1 0 0
Let a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ), b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ), c = (c1 , c2 , c3 ), d = (d1 , d2 , d3 ) be
elements in R3 and
a · α := a1 α1 + a2 α2 + a3 α3 .
Calculate the traces
tr((a · α)(b · α)), tr((a · α)(b · α)(c · α)(d · α)).

4 × 4 gamma matrices

0 2 σ1 02 σ2 0 2 σ3
γ1 = , γ2 = , γ3 =
−σ1 02 −σ2 02 −σ3 02
and
I2 02
γ0 = .
02 −I2
Find γ1 γ2 γ3 γ0 and tr(γ1 γ2 γ3 γ0 ).
Problem 63. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of σ1 σ2 σ3 .
Problem 64. Consider the spin-1 matrices

     
0 1 0 0 −i 0 1 0 0
1  1
S1 = √ 1 0 1  , S2 = √  i 0 −i  , S3 =  0 0 0 
2 0 1 0 2 0 i 0 0 0 −1
and
Sα,1 = Sα ⊗ I3 ⊗ I3 , Sα,2 = I3 ⊗ Sα ⊗ I3 , Sα,3 = I3 ⊗ I3 ⊗ Sα
with α = 1, 2, 3. Let
     
S1 ⊗ I3 ⊗ I3 I3 ⊗ S1 ⊗ I3 I3 ⊗ I3 ⊗ S1
S1 =  S2 ⊗ I3 ⊗ I3  , S2 =  I3 ⊗ S2 ⊗ I3  , S3 =  I3 ⊗ I3 ⊗ S2 
S3 ⊗ I3 ⊗ I3 I3 ⊗ S3 ⊗ I3 I3 ⊗ I3 ⊗ S3
and  
I3 ⊗ S2 ⊗ S3 − I3 ⊗ S3 ⊗ S2
S2 × S3 =  I3 ⊗ S3 ⊗ S1 − I3 ⊗ S1 ⊗ S3 
I3 ⊗ S1 ⊗ S2 − I3 ⊗ S2 ⊗ S1
Thus
S1 ·(S2 ×S3 ) = S1 ⊗S2 ⊗S3 −S1 ⊗S3 ⊗S2 +S2 ⊗S3 ⊗S1 −S2 ⊗S1 ⊗S3 +S3 ⊗S1 ⊗S2 −S3 ⊗S2 ⊗S1 .
Find the eigenvalues of S1 · (S2 × S3 ).
Problem 65. (i) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
σ1 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ3 .
Can one find entangled eigenvectors?
(ii) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the Hamilton operator
Ĥ = 1 (σ1 ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2 ) + 2 (I2 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ I2 ) + 3 (I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ σ3 ) + γ(σ1 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ3 )
where 1 , 2 , 3 , γ ∈ R.
Problem 66. Find the nonzero (column) vectors u ∈ C16 such that
(σ1 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ I2 ⊗ σ3 )u = u
(σ3 ⊗ σ1 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ I2 )u = u
(I2 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ1 ⊗ σ3 )u = u
(σ3 ⊗ I2 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ1 )u = u.
Problem 67. Consider the Pauli spin matrices σ1 , σ2 , σ3 . Find the

skew-hermitian matrices Σ1 , Σ2 , Σ3 such that
σ1 = exp(Σ1 ), σ2 = exp(Σ2 ), σ3 = exp(Σ3 ).
Find the commutators [Σ1 , Σ2 ], [Σ2 , Σ3 ], [Σ3 , Σ1 ] and compare with the
commutators [σ1 , σ2 ], [σ2 , σ3 ], [σ3 , σ1 ].
Problem 68. (i) Consider the three (hermitian) spin-1 matrices

     
0 1 0 0 −1 0 1 0 0
1  i
S1 = √ 1 0 1  , S2 = √  1 0 −1  , S3 =  0 0 0 
2 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 −1
all with the eigenvalues +1, 0 and −1. Show that Sj3 = Sj .
(ii) Let φ ∈ R. Show that
exp(iφSj ) = I3 + i sin(φ)Sj − (1 − cos(φ))Sj2
which is a unitary matrix.
Problem 69. (i) Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices and z1 , z2 , z3 ∈

C. Calculate
exp(z1 σ1 + z2 σ2 + z3 σ3 ).
(ii) Calculate the matrix
exp(z1 σ1 ⊗ σ1 + z2 σ2 ⊗ σ2 + z3 σ3 ⊗ σ3 ).
Problem 70. Find the unitary matrix
U (t) = eiφ sin(ωt)σ1
with the Pauli spin matrix σ1 .
Problem 71. Let z ∈ C. Calculate
exp(−z(σ1 ⊗ σ1 ))(σ2 ⊗ σ2 ) exp(z(σ1 ⊗ σ1 ))
exp(−z(σ2 ⊗ σ2 ))(σ3 ⊗ σ3 ) exp(z(σ2 ⊗ σ2 ))

exp(−z(σ3 ⊗ σ3 ))(σ1 ⊗ σ1 ) exp(z(σ3 ⊗ σ3 )).
Problem 72. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Calculate the

commutator
[σj ⊗ σk , σ` ⊗ σm ]
where j 6= ` and k 6= m.
Problem 73. Let σ3 , σ1 be the Pauli spin matrices. Find the commuta-
tors
[σ1 ⊗ σ1 ⊗ σ1 , σ3 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ3 ]
and
[σ1 ⊗ σ1 ⊗ σ1 ⊗ σ1 , σ3 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ3 ].
Discuss the general case with n Kronecker products.
Problem 74. Consider the spin-1 matrices S1 , S2 , S3 . Find the eigen-

values of the hermitian matrix
H
K= = cos(θ)(S1 ⊗S1 +S2 ⊗S2 +S3 ⊗S3 )+sin(θ)(S1 ⊗S1 +S2 ⊗S2 +S3 ⊗S3 )2 .
~ω
Problem 75. Consider the Pauli spin matrices σ1 , σ2 , σ3 and the 4 × 4

matrices
σ1 ⊗ σ2 , σ2 ⊗ σ3 , σ3 ⊗ σ2 .
Find the commutators
[σ1 ⊗ σ2 , σ2 ⊗ σ3 ], [σ2 ⊗ σ3 , σ3 ⊗ σ1 ], [σ3 ⊗ σ2 , σ1 ⊗ σ2 ].
Discuss

commutators
[σ1 ⊗ I2 + I2 ⊗ σ2 , σ2 ⊗ I2 + I2 ⊗ σ3 ]
[σ2 ⊗ I2 + I2 ⊗ σ3 , σ3 ⊗ I2 + I2 ⊗ σ1 ]
[σ3 ⊗ I2 + I2 ⊗ σ1 , σ1 ⊗ I2 + I2 ⊗ σ2 ].

4 × 4 matrices
σ1 ⊗ I2 + I2 ⊗ σ1 , σ2 ⊗ I2 + I2 ⊗ σ2 , σ3 ⊗ I2 + I2 ⊗ σ3 .
Find the commutators. Discuss.
Problem 78. Consider the 26 × 26 unitary and hermitian matrices

X = σ1 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ1 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ3 , S = σ3 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ3 .
Find the commutator [X, S] and anticommutator [X, S]+ .
Problem 79. Consider the Bell matrix

1 0 0 1
 
1 0 1 1 0 
B=√ 
2 0 1 −1 0

1 0 0 −1
which is a unitary matrix. Each column vector of the matrix is a fully en-
tangled state. Are the normalized eigenvectors of B are also fully entangled
states?
Problem 80. Consider the Pauli spin matrices σ1 , σ2 , σ3 . Let x1 , x2 , x3 ∈

R. Show that
sin(r)
ei(x1 σ1 +x2 σ2 +x3 σ3 ) = I2 cos(r) + i(x1 σ1 + x2 σ2 + x3 σ3 )
r
where r2 = x21 + x22 + x23 .
Problem 81. Consider the Pauli spin matrices to describe a spin- 12 par-
ticle. In the square array of 4 × 4 matrices
I2 ⊗ σ3 σ3 ⊗ I2 σ3 ⊗ σ3
σ1 ⊗ I2 I2 ⊗ σ1 σ1 ⊗ σ1
σ1 ⊗ σ3 σ3 ⊗ σ1 σ2 ⊗ σ2
each row and each column is a triad of commuting operators. Consider the
hermitian 3 × 3 matrices to describe a particle with spin-1
     
0 1 0 0 −i 0 1 0 0
~  ~
S1 := √ 1 0 1  , S2 := √  i 0 −i  , S3 := ~  0 0 0  .
2 0 1 0 2 0 i 0 0 0 −1
Is in the square array of 9 × 9 matrices
I3 ⊗ S3 S3 ⊗ I3 S3 ⊗ S3
S1 ⊗ I3 I3 ⊗ S1 S1 ⊗ S1
S1 ⊗ S3 S3 ⊗ S1 S2 ⊗ S2
each row and each column a triad of commuting operators?
Problem 82. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices and

     
a1 b1 σ1
a =  a2  ∈ R3 , b =  b2  ∈ R3 , σ =  σ2  .
a3 b3 σ3
Calculate (a × σ)T ) · (b × σ), where × denotes the vector product and · the
scalar product.
Problem 83. Consider the Pauli spin matrices σ = (σ1 , σ2 , σ3 ). Let q,

r, s, t be unit vectors in R3 . We define
Q := q · σ, R := r · σ, S := s · σ, T := t · σ
where q · σ := q1 σ1 + q2 σ2 + q3 σ3 . Calculate
(Q ⊗ S + R ⊗ S + R ⊗ T − Q ⊗ T )2 .
Express the result using commutators.

(i) Find
R1x (α) := exp(−iα(σ1 ⊗ I2 )), R1y (α) := exp(−iα(σ2 ⊗ I2 ))
where α ∈ R and I2 denotes the 2 × 2 unit matrix.

(ii) Consider the case R1x (α = π/2) and R1y (α = π/4). Calculate R1x (π/2)R1y (π/4).
Discuss.
Problem 85. Let σ1 , σ2 and σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. We define

σ+ := σ1 + iσ2 and σ− := σ1 − iσ2 . Let

∗ 1
ck := σ3 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ · · · ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ+ ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ · · · ⊗ I2
2
where σ+ is on the kth position and we have N − 1 Kronecker products.
Thus c∗k is a 2N × 2N matrix.
(i) Find ck .
(ii) Find the anticommutators [ck , cj ]+ and [c∗k , cj ]+ .
(iii) Find ck ck and c∗k c∗k .
Problem 86. Using the definitions from the previous problem we define
1 1 1 1
s−,j := (σx,j − iσy,j ) = σ−,j , s+,j := (σx,j + iσy,j ) = σ+,j
2 2 2 2
and
c1 = s−,1
j−1
!
X
cj = exp iπ s+,` s−,` s−,j for j = 2, 3, . . .
`=1
(i) Find c∗j .

(ii) Find the inverse transformation.
(iii) Calculate c∗j cj .
Problem 87. Find the conditions on c1 , c2 , c3 ∈ C such that

1 1 1 1
(c1 σ1 ⊗ σ1 + c2 σ2 ⊗ σ2 + c3 σ3 ⊗ σ3 ) ⊗ = ⊗ .
0 0 0 0
Problem 88. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Find the 3 × 3

matrix R defined by
Rjk = tr(σj ⊗ σk ), j, k = 1, 2, 3.

trace of σ1 , σ2 , σ3 , σ1 σ2 , σ1 σ3 , σ2 σ3 , σ1 σ2 σ3 .
Problem 90. Consider

 
n
X
exp  s− − 
j sj+1
j=1
with s− −
n+1 = s1 (cyclic boundary condition) and the term
 m
n
1 X − − 
Y = s s .
m! j=1 j j+1
Let
1 0
u= , v= .
0 1
Calculate
Y (u ⊗ u ⊗ · · · ⊗ u), Y (v ⊗ v ⊗ · · · ⊗ v).
Problem 91. Let z ∈ C. Calculate the commutator

[σ2 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ2 , σ1 ⊗ σ1 ⊗ σ1 ]
and
exp(−zσ2 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ2 )(σ1 ⊗ σ1 ⊗ σ1 ) exp(zσ2 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ2 ).
Problem 92. Find the eigenvalues of the unitary operator

π
U = exp −i b† b ⊗ σ3 .
4
√ √
Note that eiπ/4 = (1 + i)/ 2, e−iπ/4 = (1 − i)/ 2.

1 0 0 1
 
1 0 1 1 0 
B=√  .
2 0 1 −1 0
1 0 0 −1
Write the matrix B in the form

3
X
B= cj1 ,j2 σj1 ⊗ σj2 .
j1 ,j2 =0
Problem 94. Consider the 4 × 4 matrix

0 0 −a −b
 
 0 0 b −a 
M =
−a b 0 0

−b −a 0 0
where a, b ∈ R and the Bell matrix
1 0 0 1
 
1  0 −1 −1 0 
B=√ 
2 0 −1 1 0

1 0 0 −1
Show that B T M B can be written as the direct sum of two 2 × 2 matrices.

1 0 0 1
 
1 0 1 1 0 
B=√  .
2 0 1 −1 0
1 0 0 −1
(i) Find all matrices A such that BAB ∗ = A.
(ii) Find all matrices A such that BAB ∗ is a diagonal matrix.
Problem 96. Consider the standard basis in the vector space of 2 × 2

matrices

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
E00 = , E01 = , E10 = , E11 = .
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
and the mutually unbiased basis

1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 −i 1 1 0
µ0 = √ , µ1 = √ , µ2 = √ , µ3 = √ ,
2 0 1 2 1 0 2 i 0 2 0 −1
Express the Bell matrix
1 0 0 1
 
1 0 1 1 0 
B=√ 
2 0 1 −1 0

1 0 0 −1
with the basis given by µj ⊗ µk (j, k = 0, 1, 2, 3).
Problem 97. Let σ0 = I2 , σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Find
(σ1 ⊗ σ1 + σ2 ⊗ σ2 )2 , (σ1 ⊗ σ1 + σ2 ⊗ σ2 )3 .
Problem 98. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Let
R := σ1 ⊗ σ1 + σ2 ⊗ σ2 + σ3 ⊗ σ3 .
(i) Find tr(R). Using this result what can be said about the eigenvalues of
R.
(ii) Find R2 . Using this result and the result from (i) derive the eigenvalues
of the matrix R.
(iii) Find 41 (I4 + R)2 .
Problem 99. Given the 4 × 4 matrix

1 0 1 0
 
1 0 1 0 1 
A= √  .
2 1 0 −1 0
0 1 0 −1
Are the four column vectors
1 0 1 0
       
1 0 1 1 1  0  1  1 
√  , √  , √  , √ 
2 1 2 0 2 −1 0

2
0 1 0 −1
eigenvectors of A? Are the vectors entangled?
Problem 100. Find 4×4 matrices A, B consisting of Kronecker products

of σ1 , σ2 , σ3 , I2 such that
[A, B] = σ2 ⊗ σ3 − σ3 ⊗ σ2 .
Problem 101. Let A, B be hermitian n × n matrices. Consider the

Hamilton operator
Ĥ = A ⊗ In + In ⊗ B + (A ⊗ B)
where ∈ R. Let Ĥ0 = A ⊗ In + In ⊗ B. Find the Moller operator
Ω̂± := lim exp(−iĤT /~) exp(iĤ0 T /~).

T →∓∞
Problem 102. Calculate

exp(−iπ(σ3 ⊗I2 ⊗I2 +I2 ⊗I2 ⊗I2 )(I2 ⊗σ3 ⊗I2 +I2 ⊗I2 ⊗I2 )(I2 ⊗I2 ⊗σ1 /8).
This is the Toffoli gate.
Problem 103. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Let α ∈ R.

Calculate
exp(α(σ1 ⊗ σ1 + σ2 ⊗ σ2 + σ3 ⊗ σ3 ))
and the trace of this expression
tr exp(α(σ1 ⊗ σ1 + σ2 ⊗ σ2 + σ3 ⊗ σ3 )).
Problem 104. Every 4 × 4 unitary matrix U can be written as

U = (U1 ⊗ U2 ) exp(i(ασ1 ⊗ σ1 + βσ2 ⊗ σ2 + γσ3 ⊗ σ3 ))(U3 ⊗ U4 )
where Uj ∈ U (2) (j = 1, 2, 3, 4) and α, β, γ ∈ R. Calculate
exp(i(ασ1 ⊗ σ1 + βσ2 ⊗ σ2 + γσ3 ⊗ σ3 )).
Problem 105. Let ω = exp(2πi/4) ≡ exp(πi/2). Consider the four

64 × 64 invertible matrices
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
   
3
0 ω 0 0  0 ω 0 0
S1 =  ⊗  ⊗ I4
0 0 ω2 0 0 0 ω2 0
3
0 0 0 ω 0 0 0 ω
0 1 0 0
 
0 0 1 0
S2 = I4 ⊗   ⊗ I4
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
   
3
0 ω 0 0  0 ω 0 0
S3 = I4 ⊗  ⊗
0 0 ω2 0 0 0 ω2 0

3
0 0 0 ω 0 0 0 ω
0 1 0 0
 
0 0 1 0
S4 = I4 ⊗ I4 ⊗  .
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
Find Sj4 for j = 1, 2, 3, 4. Find
S1 S2 S1−1 S2−1 , S2 S3 S2−1 S3−1 , S3 S4 S3−1 S4−1 , S4 S1 S4−1 S1−1 .

Find the commutators [S1 , S2 ], [S2 , S3 ], [S3 , S4 ], [S4 , S1 ].
Problem 106. Consider the Pauli spin matrices σ1 , σ2 and σ3 . Can one
find an α ∈ R such that
exp(iασ3 )σ1 exp(−iασ3 ) = σ2 ?

 
0 −1 0
i 
S2 = √ 1 0 −1  .
2 0 1 0
Is the matrix hermitian? Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of S2 .
(ii) Show that S23 = S2 .
(iii) Let φ ∈ R. Find exp(iφS2 ).
√
Problem 108. (i) Let τ = ( 5 − 1)/2 be the golden mean number.
Consider the 2 × 2 matrices
−i7π/10 √
−τ e−iπ/10

e 0 √ −i τ
B1 = , B2 = .
0 −e−i3π/10 −i τ −τ eiπ/10
The matrices are invertible. Are the matrices unitary? Is B1 B2 B1 =
B2 B1 B2 ?
(ii) Show that using computer algebra

−2 4 −1 −1 −2 −1 −5 −1 0 i
B2 B1 B2 B1 B2 B1 B2 B1 B2 B1 B2 B1 B2 ≈ .
i 0
Problem 109. Consider the Hamilton operator Ĥ = Ĥ0 + Ĥ1 , where

Ĥ0 = ~ωσ3 , Ĥ1 = ~ωσ1 .
Let U and U0 be the unitary matrices
U = exp(−iĤt/~), U0 = exp(−iĤ0 t/~).
Let n be a positive integer. The Moller wave operators
Ω± := lim U n U0−n .
n→±∞
Owing to their intertwining property the Moller wave operators transform

the eigenvectors of the free dynamics U0 = exp(−iĤ0 t/~) into eigenvectors
of the interacting dynamics U = exp(−iĤt/~). Find Ω± .

U = α1 σ1 + α2 σ2 + α3 σ3
is a unitary matrix. Note that
U U ∗ = (α1 σ1 + α2 σ2 + α3 σ3 )(α1∗ σ1 + α2∗ σ2 + α3∗ σ3 )

= (α1 α1∗ + α2 α2∗ α3 α3 )I2 + (α1 α2∗ − α2 α1∗ )σ1 σ2 + (α3 α1∗ − α1 α3∗ )σ3 σ1 + (α2 α3∗ − α3 α2∗ )σ2 σ3 .

1
U = √ (I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2 + iσ1 ⊗ σ1 ⊗ σ1 + iσ3 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ3 )
3
unitary?
Problem 112. Consider the Pauli spin matrices σ0 = I2 , σ1 , σ2 , σ3 . The

matrices are unitary and hermitian.
(i) Is the 4 × 4 matrix
1 σ0 σ1
√
2 σ2 σ3
unitary?
(ii) Is the 4 × 4 matrix
1 σ0 σ1
√
2 −iσ2 σ3
unitary?
Problem 113. Consider the two spin-1 matrices

   
0 0 i 0 −i 0
L2 =  0 0 0  , L3 =  i 0 0  .
−i 0 0 0 0 0
Let θ, φ ∈ R. Calculate T (θ, φ) = exp(−iφL3 ) exp(−iθL2 ). Is T (θ, φ) an

elements of SO(3, R)?
Problem 114. The following states form an orthonormal basis in the

Hilbert space C3
     
1 0 1
1 1
|π + i = √  0  , |π 0 i =  1  , |π − i = √  0  .
2 1 0 2 −1
These states play a role for the π-mesons. Show that the states
|π + i ⊗ |π + i, |π − i ⊗ |π − i
1 1
√ (|π + i ⊗ |π 0 i + |π 0 i ⊗ |π + i), √ (|π 0 i ⊗ |π − i + |π − i ⊗ |π 0 i)
2 2
1 1 1
√ (|π + i⊗|π 0 i−|π 0 i⊗|π + i), √ (|π + i⊗|π − i−|π − i⊗|π + i), √ (|π 0 i⊗|π − i−|π − i⊗|π 0 i)
2 2 2
1 1
√ (2|π 0 i⊗|π 0 i+|π + i⊗|π − i+|π − i⊗|π + i), √ (|π + i⊗|π − i+|π − i⊗|π + i−|π 0 i⊗|π 0 i)
6 3
form an orthonormal basis in the Hilbert space C9 . Which of these states
are entangled?
Problem 115. (i) The electronic scattering matrix has the form
S(φ1 , φ2 , φ3 , γ) = eiφ1 σ0 eiφ2 σ3 eiγσ2 eiφ3 σ3
where φ1 , φ2 , φ3 ∈ [0, 2π), γ ∈ [0, π/2). Find S(φ1 , φ2 , φ3 , γ).

(ii) Find
T (φ1 , φ2 , φ3 , γ) = eiφ1 σ0 ⊗ eiφ2 σ3 ⊗ eiγσ2 ⊗ eiφ3 σ3 .
−3 − 2 − 1 0 1 2 3
X02 = I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ σz ⊗ I2 ⊗ σz ⊗ I2
X−20 = I2 ⊗ σz ⊗ I2 ⊗ σz ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2
X12 = I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ σz ⊗ σz ⊗ I2
X−2−1 = I2 ⊗ σz ⊗ σz ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2
X23 = I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ σz ⊗ σz
X−3−2 = σz ⊗ σz ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2 .
Let
K = λ(X02 + X−20 + X12 + X−2−1 + X23 + X−3−2 )
where λ ∈ R. Calculate tr(exp(K)) and discuss the behaviour on λ.
Problem 117. Consider the two 4 × 4 matrices σ1 ⊗ σ3 , σ3 ⊗ σ1 .

(i) Find the eigenvalues.
states). Explain.
Problem 118. Find a unitary matrix U which can be written as a direct

sum of two 2 × 2 matrices and
1 1
   

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
U  ≡U√ ⊗√ = √  .
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 0
1 1
Problem 119. A wave-scattering problem can be described by its scat-

tering matrix U . In a stationary problem, U relates the outgoing-wave to
the ingoing-wave amplitudes. The condition of flux conservation implies
unitary of U , i.e.
UU† = I
where I is the identity operator. If, additionally, the scattering problem is
invariant under the operation of time reversal, we also have U = U T , i.e.
U is symmetric. Find all 2 × 2 unitary matrices that also satisfy U = U T .
Do these matrices form a subgroup of the Lie group U (2)?
Problem 120. Is
(σ3 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ1 )(σ1 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ3 )(σ3 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ1 ) = σ1 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ3 ?
Is
(σ3 ⊗ I2 ⊗ σ1 )(σ1 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ3 )(σ3 ⊗ I2 ⊗ σ1 ) = σ1 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ3 ?
Problem 121. Let n be odd and n ≥ 3. Consider the matrices

 √ √ 
 √ √  1/ 2 0√ 0 0√ 1/ 2
1/ 2 0 1/ 2  0 1/ 2 0 1/ 2 0 
A3 =  0√ 1 0√  , A5 =  0 0√ 1 0√ 0 
 
1/ 2 0 −1/ 2 0√ 1/ 2 0 −1/ 2 0√
 
1/ 2 0 0 0 −1/ 2
and generally
 √ √ 
1/ 2 0√ ... 0 0 0 ... 0√ 1/ 2
 0 1/ 2 ... 0 0 0 ... 1/ 2 0 
 .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
 

 . . ... . . . ... . .
√ √

 
 0 0 ... 1/ 2 0 1/ 2 ... 0 0 
 
An =  0 0 ... 0√ 1 0√ ... 0 0 .

 0
 0 ... 1/ 2 0 −1/ 2 ... 0 0 

 . .. .. .. .. .. ..
 ..

 √. ... . . . ... .√ . 

 0
√ 1/ 2 ... 0 0 0 ... −1/ 2 0√ 
1/ 2 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0 −1/ 2
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A3 , A5 . Then solve the general

case. The rank of the matrix An is n. Thus the matrices are invertible.
The determinant of An is −1. Since tr(An ) = 1 the sum of the eigenvalues
is 1.

(i) Let z ∈ C. Calculate cosh(zσj ), sinh(zσj ), j = 1, 2, 3. Note that
σj2 = I2 .
(ii) Show that sin(θσj ) = sin(θ)σj .
(iii) Find the matrix

1
U = exp i √ (σ1 + σ3 ) .
2
Is the matrix U unitary? Prove or disprove. If so find the group generated
by U .
Problem 123. Let v be a normalized vector in Cn . Do all n × n matrices

M which satisfy
M v = v, det(M ) = 1
form a group under matrix multiplication?
Problem 124. Let c†1 , c†2 , . . . , c†n be Fermi creation operators and c1 , c2 , . . . , cn
be Fermi annihilation operators with the anticommutation relations
[c†j , ck ]+ = δjk I.
(i) Consider the unitary matrix

0 1
U= .
1 0
Is the operator

0 1 c1
K̂U = c†1 c†2 = c†1 c2 + c†2 c1

1 0 c2
unitary?
(ii) Consider the hermitian matrix

0 −i
U= .
i 0
Is the operator

0 −i c1
K̂H = c†1 c†2 = −ic†1 c2 + ic†2 c1

i 0 c2
hermitian?
(iii) Consider the nonnormal matrix

0 1
N= .
0 0
Is the operator

0 1 c1
c†1 c†2 = c†1 c2 + c†2 c1

K̂N =
0 0 c2
nonnormal?
Problem 125. Let Γ = (Γjk ) (j, k = 1, . . . , n), Γ1 , Γ2 be n × n skew-

hermitian matrices. Then V = exp(Γ), V1 = exp(Γ1 ), V2 = exp(Γ2 ) are
unitary matrices. Let c†1 , . . . , c†n be Fermi creation operators and c1 , . . . ,
cn be Fermi annihilation operators. Then
n
n X
Γjk c†j ck )
X
U (V ) = exp(
j=1 k=1
is a unitary operator with V = exp(Γ). The commutation relation for the

operators are c†j ck are
[c†j ck , c†` cm ] = δk` c†j cm − δjm c†` ck .
Show that owing to these commutation relations we have
U (V1 )U (V2 ) = U (V1 V2 ), U (V −1 ) = U −1 (V ) = U † (V ), U (In ) = I
where I is the identity operator.

0 1 0 0
A= , B= .
0 0 0 1
Then [A, B] = A and A, B form a basis of a two-dimensional non-abelian

Lie algebra. Let c†1 , c†2 be Fermi creation operators and c1 , c2 be Fermi
annihilation operators. We define

0 1 c1
Â := c†1 c†2 = c†1 c2
0 0 c2

0 0 c1
B̂ := c†1 c†2 = c†2 c2 .
0 1 c2
Find the commutator [Â, B̂]. Discuss.
Problem 127. Let A, B be n × n matrices over C and [A, B] be the

commutator of A and B. Let c†1 , . . . , c†n be Fermi creation operators and
c1 , . . . , cn be Fermi annihilation operators. We define the operators
c1 c1
   
† †
.
. † †
.. 
Â = c1 . . . cn A  .  , B̂ = c1 . . . cn B  . .
cn cn
Show that
\
[Â, B̂] = [A, B].
Utilize that
[c†i cj , c†k c` ] = c†i c` δjk − c†k cj δi` .
Problem 128. Let c†1 , c†2 be Fermi creation operators and annihilation
and c1 , c2 be Fermi annihilation operators. Consider the operators
F1 = c†1 c†2 , F2 = c2 c1 , F3 = c†1 c2 , F4 = c†2 c1
i.e. F2 = F1† and F4 = F1† . Find the commutators [Fj , Fk ] and anti-
commutators [Fj , Fk ]+ .
Problem 129. Consider a vector a in C4 and the corresponding 2 × 2

matrix A via the vec−1 operator
a1
 

 a2  a1 a3
a=  ⇒
a3 a2 a4
a4
and analogously
b1


b  b1 b3
b= 2 ⇒ .
b3 b2 b4
b4
Show that
a∗ b = tr(A∗ B).
Problem 130. Let v1 , v2 , v3 be elements of C2 . Find the conditions on

v1 , v2 , v3 such that
v1 ⊗ v2 ⊗ v3 = v3 ⊗ v2 ⊗ v1 .
Problem 131. Let n ≥ 1 and {|0ii, |1i, . . . , |ni} be an orthonormal basis

in Cn+1 . Consider the linear operators ((n + 1) × (n + 1) matrices)
n
X n √
X
a†n =
p
an = j|j − 1ihj|, k|kihk − 1|.
j=1 k=1
Find the commutator [an , a†n ]. Note that

n
X
|`ih`| = In+1 .
`=0
T
Problem 132. Consider the vector v = 21 ( 1 0 1 1 0 1 ) ∈ C6 .
Find a Schmidt decomposition of v over C6 = C2 ⊗ C3 and over C6 =
C3 ⊗ C2 .
Problem 133. Consider the Pauli spin matrices σ1 , σ2 , σ3 . Let u0 , u1 , u2 , u3 ∈

R and
u20 + u21 + u22 + u23 = 1.
Is
3
X
U = u0 I2 + uj σj
j=1
a unitary matrix?
Problem 134. Consider the spin-1 matrices

     
0 1 0 0 i 0 1 0 0
1  1
S1 = √ 1 0 1  , S2 = √  −i 0 i  , S3 =  0 0 0 .
2 0 1 0 2 0 −i 0 0 0 −1
Show that the eigenvalues of the matrix
M (k) = S32 + k 2 S22
are given by 1, k 2 , 1 + k 2 .
Problem 135. Find all 2 × 2 matrices A and B over C such that the
4 × 4 matrix
U = A ⊗ I2 + I2 ⊗ B
is unitary. Start of with

r11 eiα11 r12 eiα12 s11 eiβ11 s12 eiβ12
A= , A= ,
r21 eiα21 r22 eiα22 s21 eiβ21 s22 eiβ22
Problem 136. Let A be a 2 × 2 matrix which admit the eigenvalues

λ1 = +1 and λ2 = −1 with the corresponding normalized eigenvectors
−iφ/2 −iφ/2
1 e (cos(θ/2) − sin(θ/2)) 1 −e (cos(θ/2) + sin(θ/2))
v1 = √ , v2 = √ .
2 eiφ/2 (cos(θ/2) + sin(θ/2)) 2 eiφ/2 (cos(θ/2) − sin(θ/2))
The eigenvectors form an orthonormal basis in C2 . Reconstruct the matrix

A from this imformation applying the spectral theorem.
Problem 137. Let S1 , S2 , S3 be the spin matrices for spin s = 21 , 1, 32 ,

2, 52 , . . . . Thus the size of the matrices is (2s + 1) × (2s + 1). Find the
eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the (2s + 1)3 × (2s + 1)3 matrix
S1 ⊗ S3 ⊗ S2 .

five gamma matrices

σ1 02 σ2 02 02 σ3
Γ1 = , Γ2 = , Γ3 = ,
02 σ1 02 σ2 σ3 0 2

02 −iσ3 −σ3 02
Γ4 = , Γ5 =
iσ3 02 02 σ3
Note that
Γµ Γν + Γν Γµ = δµν I4 .
Find the ten matrices Γ[µ,ν] defined by
1
Γ[µ,ν] := i(Γµ Γν − Γν Γµ ).
2
Do these fifteen matrices together with the 4 × 4 identity matrix form an
orthogonal basis in the vector space of 4 × 4 matrices over C?

1
tr(eiπσ1 /2 eiπσ2 eiπσ3 ) = 1.
2
Problem 140. Let a, b ∈ R and a 6= b. Find all unitary matrices U such

that
a 0 b 0
U U −1 = .
0 b 0 a
Problem 141. Let J2 be the 2 × 2 matrix with all entries 1 and I2 the
2 × 2 identity matrix. Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of
I2 ⊗ J2 + J2 ⊗ I2 .
Extend to Jn and In .
Chapter 4
Density Operators

√ −iφ
3/4 2e /4
ρ = √ iφ .
2e /4 1/4
(i) Is the matrix a density matrix?
(ii) If so do we have a pure state or a mixed state?
(iii) Find the eigenvalues of ρ.
(iv) Find tr(σ1 ρ), where σ1 is the first Pauli spin matrix.
Problem 2. Let ∈ [0, 1]. Is

p
(1 − )e−iφ

ρ = p
(1 − )eiφ 1−
with 0 ≤ φ < 2π a density matrix?
Problem 3. (i) Find a normalized state |φi in the Hilbert space C2 such
that we have the density matrix

1 1
|φihφ| = I2 + √ (σ1 + σ3 ) .
2 2
(ii) Find a normalized state |ψi in the Hilbert space C2 such that we have
the density matrix

1 1
|ψihψ| = I2 + √ (σ1 + σ2 + σ3 ) .
2 3
67
Problem 4. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Find the conditions

on the coefficients aj , bj and cjk such that ρ
3 3 3
1 X X X
ρ= (I4 + ( aj σj ) ⊗ I2 + I2 ⊗ ( bj σ j ) + cjk σj ⊗ σk )
4 j=1 j=1 j,k=1
is a density matrix.
Problem 5. Let m, n ∈ R3 and kmk = knk = 1. Is the 4 × 4 matrix

1
ρ(m, n) = (I4 + (n · σ) ⊗ I2 + I2 ⊗ (m · σ) + (n · σ) ⊗ (m · σ))
4
a density matrix?

 
1/2 0 1/4
ρ =  0 1/4 0  .
1/4 0 1/4
(i) Find the eigenvalues of ρ.

(ii) Is ρ a density matrix? Prove or disprove. If so, is ρ a mixed or pure
state?
Problem 7. Consider the normalized state

 i(α+γ) 
e cos(β) sin(θ)
|ψi = e−iφ  e−i(α−γ) sin(β) sin(θ)  .
cos(θ)
Find the density matrix ρ = |ψihψ| and the eigenvalues of ρ.
Problem 8. Let ∈ R and || < 1. Is the 4 × 4 matrix
1 0 0 1−
 
1 0 0 0 0 
ρ() = 
2 0 0 0 0

1− 0 0 1
a density matrix?
Problem 9. Show that the 4 × 4 matrices

1
ρ− = (I2 ⊗ I2 − σ1 ⊗ σ1 − σ2 ⊗ σ2 − σ3 ⊗ σ3 )
4
Density Operators 69
1
ω− = (I2 ⊗ I2 − σ1 ⊗ σ1 + σ2 ⊗ σ2 + σ3 ⊗ σ3 )
4
1
ω + = (I2 ⊗ I2 + σ1 ⊗ σ1 − σ2 ⊗ σ2 + σ3 ⊗ σ3 )
4
+ 1
ρ = (I2 ⊗ I2 + σ1 ⊗ σ1 + σ2 ⊗ σ2 − σ3 ⊗ σ3 )
4
are density matrices. How they are related to the 4 Bell states
0 1 1 0
       
1  1  1  0  1 0 1 1
|ψ − i = √  , |φ− i = √  , |φ+ i = √   , |ψ + i = √   ?
2 −1 2 0 2 0 2 1
0 −1 1 0
Problem 10. Let ρ1 and ρ2 be density matrices is a finite-dimensional

Hilbert space. Let λ ∈ [0, 1]. Is
λρ1 + (1 − λ)ρ2
a density matrix?
Problem 11. Show that

√
ε1 0 0 ε1 ε2
 
 0 0 0 0 
ρ=
0 0 1 − ε1 − ε2 0

√
ε1 ε2 0 0ε2
where 0 ≤ ε1 , ε2 ≤ 1 and ε1 + ε2 ≤ 1 is a density matrix.
Problem 12. Consider the density matrix

4
X 4
X
ρ= pj |ψj ihψj |, 0 ≤ pj ≤ 1, pj = 1
j=1 j=1
where the |ψj i are the Bell states
1 1
|ψ1 i = √ (|0i ⊗ |0i + |1i ⊗ |1i), |ψ2 i = √ (|0i ⊗ |0i − |1i ⊗ |1i)
2 2
1 1
|ψ3 i = √ (|0i ⊗ |1i + |1i ⊗ |0i), |ψ2 i = √ (|0i ⊗ |1i − |1i ⊗ |0i).
2 2
Write ρ using the Pauli spin matrices σ1 , σ2 , σ3 , the 2 × 2 identity matrix
I2 and the Kronecker product.
Problem 13. Consider the Hilbert space Cn . Let ρ be a density matrix,

i.e. ρ ≥ 0 and tr(ρ) = 1. The mean value of an observable A (hermitian
n × n matrix) is given by
hAi = tr(ρA).
If the density ρ is unkown, then it may be determined using n2 mean values
hA(k) i (k = 1, 2, . . . , n2 ) obtained from measurement if the set {A(k) } is a
basis in the space of all hermitian n × n matrices.
(i) Let n = 2,
0 −i
A = σ2 =
i 0
and
tr(ρA) = 0, tr(ρA2 ) = 1, tr(ρA3 ) = 0, tr(ρA4 ) = 1.
Find the density matrix.
(ii) Let n = 2 and
tr(ρI2 ) = 1, tr(ρσ1 ) = −1, tr(ρσ2 ) = 0, tr(ρσ3 ) = 0.
Find ρ.
Problem 14. (i) Let x1 , x2 , x3 ∈ R. Consider the hermitian matrix

1 1 + x3 x1 − ix2
ρ= .
2 x1 + ix2 1 − x3
Find the condition on x1 , x2 , x3 such that ρ2 = ρ. Is this matrix then a

density matrix?
(ii) Let ∈ [0, 1]. Consider the hermitian matrix
 
+ x3 0 x1 − ix2
1
ρ=  0 2 − 2 0 .
2
x1 + ix2 0 − x3
Find the condition on x1 , x2 , x3 and such that ρ2 = ρ.

4
X 4
X
ρ= pj |ψj ihψj |, 0 ≤ pj ≤ 1, pj = 1
j=1 j=1
where the |ψj i are the Bell states

1 1
|ψ1 i = √ (|0i ⊗ |0i + |1i ⊗ |1i), |ψ2 i = √ (|0i ⊗ |0i − |1i ⊗ |1i)
2 2
1 1
|ψ3 i = √ (|0i ⊗ |1i + |1i ⊗ |0i), |ψ2 i = √ (|0i ⊗ |1i − |1i ⊗ |0i).
2 2
Write ρ using the Pauli spin matrices and the 2 × 2 identity matrix I2 .
Problem 16. Let A be a nonzero n × n matrix over C. Consider the map

AA∗
A→ρ= .
tr(AA∗ )
(i) Show that ρ is a density matrix.

(ii) Show that ρ is invariant under the map A → AU , where U is an n × n
unitary matrix.
(iii) Is AA∗ = A∗ A in general?
(iv) Consider the map
A∗ A
A→σ= .
tr(A∗ A)
Is σ = ρ? Prove or disprove.
Problem 17. Consider the state

cos(θ)
|ψi =
eiφ sin(θ)
and the density matrix

ρ(0) = |ψihψ|.
Given the Hamilton operator
Ĥ = ~ωσ1 .
Solve the von Neumann equation for the given ρ(0) and the given Ĥ. The
von Neumann equation is given by
dρ
i~ = [Ĥ, ρ](t)
dt
with the solution
ρ(t) = e−iĤt/~ ρ(0)eiĤt/~ .
Problem 18. Consider the Bell state

1
 
1 0
|ψi = √  
2 0
1

ρ = |ψihψ|.
Given the Hamilton operator
Ĥ = ~ωσ1 ⊗ σ1 .
Solve the von Neumann equation for given ρ and the given Ĥ. The von
Neumann equation is given by
dρ
i~ = [Ĥ, ρ](t)
dt
with the solution
ρ(t) = e−iĤt/~ ρ(0)eiĤt/~ .
Problem 19. (i) Is the 2 × 2 matrix

1/2 −i/2
ρ=
i/2 1/2
a density matrix?
(ii) Can one find a state |ψi in C2 such that
ρ = |ψihψ| ?
(iii) Are the 4 × 4 matrices
ρ ⊗ ρ, ρ ⊕ ρ, ρ?ρ
density matrices? Here ⊗ denotes the Kronecker product, ⊕ the direct sum
and ? operation which is defined for two 2 × 2 matrices A and B as
a11 0 0 a12
 
 0 b11 b12 0 
A?B = .
0 b21 b22 0
a21 0 0 a22
Problem 20. Let |0i, |1i be the standard basis in C2 . Consider the
entangled state
1
|ψi = √ (|0i ⊗ |1i − |1i ⊗ |0i)
2
with the density matrix ρ = |ψihψ|. Find the reduced density matrix ρ1 .
Discuss.
1 1 + r cos(θ) r sin(θ)e−iφ

ρ=
2 r sin(θ)eiφ 1 − r cos(θ)
a density matrix? What are the conditions on r, θ, φ?
Problem 22. Consider a finite dimensional Hilbert space of dimension

d on which the density matrix ρ acts. A quantum operation is represented
by a completely positive and trace preserving map Λ which takes the form
2
d
X
Λ(ρ) = Vj ρVj∗ .
j=1
Show that the trace preserving condition tr(Λ(ρ)) = tr(ρ) is equivalent to

the equality
Xd2
Vj∗ Vj = I.
j=1
Problem 23. Let S be the set of unit vectors in the Hilbert space Cn .
Let u ∈ S. A function µ(u) from S to R is called a generalized probability
measure if the following two conditions hold: (i) for u ∈ S, 0 ≤ µ(u) ≤ 1,
n
(ii)
Pn if u1 , . . . , un form an orthonormal basis in the Hilbert space C , then
j=1 µ(uj ) = 1.
Let n ≥ 3. Then any generalized probability measure µ on Cn has the form
µ(ρ) = tr(ρuu∗ )
for a uniquely defined density matrix ρ. (Gleason 1957)
(i) Consider the Hilbert space C3 , the orthonormal basis

     
1 0 1
1   1
u1 = √ 0 , u2 =  1  , u3 = √  0 
2 1 0 2 −1

 
1 1 1
1
ρ= 1 1 1.
3
1 1 1
Find µ(u1 ), µ(u2 ), µ(u3 ).
(ii) Consider the Hilbert space C4 , the orthonormal basis

 iφ   iφ 
e e 0 0
   
1  0  1  0  1 e  iφ iφ
1  e 
u1 = √   , u2 = √   , u3 = √  iφ  , u4 = √  iφ 
2 0 2 0 2 e 2 −e
eiφ −eiφ 0 0
1 1 1 1
 
1 1 1 1 1
ρ=  .
4 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
Find µ(u1 ), µ(u2 ), µ(u3 ), µ(u4 ).
Problem 24. Consider the two 2 × 2 density matrices

ρ11 ρ12 σ11 σ12
ρ= , σ= .
ρ21 ρ22 σ21 σ22
Is the 4 × 4 matrix
ρ11 0 0 ρ12
 
1 0 σ11 σ12 0 
ρ?σ = 
2 0 σ21 σ22 0

ρ21 0 0 ρ22
a density matrix?

1 1 1
ρ=
2 1 1
and let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Calculate the commutators
[ρ, σ1 ], [ρ, σ2 ], [ρ, σ3 ] and discuss.

1 1 1
ρ= .
2 1 1
Find the Cayley transform
U = (ρ − iI2 )(ρ + iI2 )−1

and then the commutator [ρ, U ]. Discuss
Problem 27. Consider the Pauli spin matrices σ1 , σ2 , σ3 . Find the

normalized eigenvectors
v11 , v12 , v21 , v22 , v31 , v32
and construct the six density matrices (pure states)

∗
ρjk = vjk vjk
where j = 1, 2, 3 and k = 1, 2. Calculate commutators [ρjk , ρj 0 k0 ] and anti-

commutators [ρjk , ρj 0 k0 ]+ and compare to the commutators [σj , σk ] and
anti-commutators [σj , σk ]+ .
Problem 28. Does the density matrix

1 0 0 1
 
1 0 1 1 0
ρ= 
4 0 1 1 0

1 0 0 1
represent a pure or mixed state?
Problem 29. Consider the Hamilton operator acting in the Hilbert space
C4
Ĥ = ~ω1 (σ3 ⊗ I2 + I2 ⊗ σ3 ) + ~ω2 (σ1 ⊗ σ1 )
where ω1 , ω2 > 0.
(i) Find the (real) eigenvalues (the matrix Ĥ is hermitian) E0 , E1 , E2 , E3
with the ordering E0 ≤ E1 ≤ E2 ≤ E3 .
(ii) Find the corresponding normalized eigenvectors |E0 i, |E1 i, |E2 i, |E3 i.
Are the eigenvectors separable?
(iii) Calculate the partition function Z(β) (β = 1/(kB T )) defined by
3
X
Z(β) := exp (−βEj ) .
j=0
(iv) We define
e−βEj
pj (β) := , j = 0, 1, 2, 3.
Z(β)
Calculate the density matrix
3
X
ρ(β) = pj (β)|Ej ihEj |.
j=0
Do we have a mixed or pure state? Study the cases ρ(∞) and ρ(0).
Problem 30. Let 1 , 2 , 3 ∈ R. Consider the hermitian matrix

1 + 3 0 0 1 + 2
 
1 0 1 − 3 1 − 2 0 
ρ(1 , 2 , 3 ) =  .
4 0 1 − 2 1 − 3 0
1 + 2 0 0 1 + 3
What is the condition such that ρ(1 , 2 , 3 ) is a density matrix? For the
eigenvalues of the matrix ρ(1 , 2 , 3 ) we find
1 1
λ1 = (1 + 1 + 2 + 3 ), λ2 = (1 + 1 − 2 − 3 ),
4 4
1 1
λ3 = (1 − 1 + 2 − 3 ), λ4 = (1 − 1 − 2 + 3 ).
4 4
Problem 31. Consider the Hilbert space Cn . Let ρ be a density matrix

in this Hilbert space and H and K be two hermitian n × n matrices. One
defines
hHi := tr(ρH), hH 2 i := tr(ρH 2 )
and analogously for K. Let
p p
∆H := hH 2 i − hHi2 , ∆K := hK 2 i − hKi2 .
Then we have the uncertainty relation

1
(∆H)(∆K) ≥ |hi[H, K]i| .
2
Let  
1 0 0
1
ρ = 0 0 0
2
0 0 1
and    
0 1 0 0 i 0
H = 1 2 0, K =  −i 0 0  .
0 0 0 0 0 0
Show that the uncertainty relation becomes an equality for the given ρ, H
and K.
Problem 32. Let Id be the d × d identity matrix. Consider the matrix

1
ρ= (Id + K)
d
where K is a hermitian d × d matrix with all diagonal entries equal to 0.

What is the condition on such a K such that ρ is a density matrix?
Problem 33. Let α ∈ [0, 1]. Show that
1−α 0 0 0
 
1 0 1+α −2α 0 
ρ(α) = 
4 0 −2α 1+α 0

0 0 0 1−α
is a density matrix (so-called Werner state). Find the eigenvalues and

eigenvectors of ρ.
Problem 34. Are the matrices

2 sin2 θ 0 0 0
 
1 0 cos2 θ cos2 θ 0
ρ(θ) = 
2 0 cos2 θ cos2 θ 0

0 0 0 0
and
2 cos2 θ 0 0 0
 
1 0 sin2 θ sin2 θ 0
ρ(θ) = 
2 0 sin2 θ sin2 θ 0

0 0 0 0
density matrices? Prove or disprove. If so, do we have a mixed or pure
state?
Problem 35. Is the matrix

1 0 0 1
 
1 0 1 1 0 1
ρ=   ≡ (I2 ⊗ I2 + σ1 ⊗ σ1 )
4 0 1 1 0 4
1 0 0 1
a density matrix?
Problem 36. Can the density matrix
1 0 1 0
 
1 0 1 0 1
ρ= 
4 1 0 1 0

0 1 0 1
be written as a Kronecker product of two 2 × 2 density matrices?

Problem 37. Let ρ be a density matrix given as an n × n matrix and U

be an n × n unitary matrix. Then U ρU −1 is again a density matrix. Let
1 0 0 1 1 √0 0 1
   
1 0 1 1 0 1  0 2 √0 0 
ρ=  , U = √  .
4 0 1 1 0 2 0 0 2 0
1 0 0 1 −1 0 0 1
Find the density matrix U ρU −1 .
Problem 38. Let

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 ∓1
   
∓ 1 0 1 ∓1 0 ∓ 1 0 0 0 0 
ρ1 =  , ρ2 = 
2 0 ∓1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 ∓1 0 0 1
be the four density matrices for the Bell states.
(i) Let t ∈ [0, 1]. Is the convex combination
ρ = tρ1 + (1 − t)ρ2
a density matrix?
(ii) The Hilbert-Schmidt distance d(ρ1 , ρ2 ) is given by
p
d(ρ1 , ρ2 ) := tr((ρ1 − ρ2 )2 ).
Find d(ρ1 , ρ2 ) for the given density matrices.
Problem 39. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Find the condi-
tions on the real coefficients rj , uj , tjk (j, k = 1, 2, 3) such that
3 3 3 X3
1 X X X
ρ= (I2 ⊗ I2 + rj σj ⊗ I2 + uj I2 ⊗ σj + tjk σj ⊗ σk )
4 j=1 j=1 j=1 k=1
is a density matrix. Note that since tr(σj ) = 0 for j = 1, 2, 3 we have

tr(ρ) = 1.
Problem 40. The variance of an observable A and a density operator ρ

in a Hilbert space H is defined as
V (ρ, A) := tr(ρA2 ) − (tr(ρA))2 .
Let |ψi be a normalized state in the Hilbert space H. Show that if ρ =

|ψihψ| (pure state) we obtain
V (|ψihψ|, A) = hψ|A2 |ψi − hψ|A|ψi2 .

Problem 41. (i) Consider the spin-1 matrices

     
0 1 0 0 −1 0 1 0 0
1 i
S1 = √  1 0 1  , S2 = √  1 0 −1  , S3 =  0 0 0 
2 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 −1
which are hermitian and traceless. Let I3 be the 3 × 3 unit matrix. Let
 
v1
v =  v2 
v3
be a vector in R3 with kvk ≤ 1. Is the matrix

3
1 X
ρ= (I3 + vj Sj )
3 j=1
a density matrix. Obviously this matrix is hemitian and has trace 1, but
are all the eigenvalues are non-zero?
(ii) Is the matrix
3
1 X
ρ = (I3 ⊗ I3 + vj Sj ⊗ Sj )
9 j=1
a density matrix?
Problem 42. (i) Consider the three 3 × 3 matrices

     
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
1 1
ρ1 =  0 0 0  , ρ2 =  1 1 1  , ρ3 =  0 1 0
3 3
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
Which of these matrices are density matrices?
(ii) For the matrices which represent density matrices found out whether it
represents of pure state or mixed state. If it is pure state find the state |ψi
in the Hilbert space C3 such that ρ = |ψihψ|.
Problem 43. Consider a mixture of 25% of the pure state (1, 0)T , 25%
of the pure state (0, 1)T and 50% of the pure state √12 (1, 1)T described by
the density matrix

1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
ρ= (1 0) + (0 1) + √ √ (1 1).
4 0 4 1 2 2 1 2
Find the spectral representation of ρ. Use the spectral representation of ρ to
find another mixture of pure states with the same (measurement) statistical
properties as ρ.

cos(θ)
|ψi =
eiφ sin(θ)
in the Hilbert space C2 , where φ, θ ∈ R. Let ρ(t = 0) = ρ(0) = |ψihψ| be

a density matrix at time t = 0. Given the Hamilton operator Ĥ = ~ωσ1 .
Solve the von Neumann equation to find ρ(t).
Problem 45. Let H1 and H2 be two Hilbert spaces and H1 ⊗ H2 be the

product Hilbert space. Let ρ be a density operators of the Hilbert space
H1 ⊗ H2 . Show that if one of the reduced density operators trH2 (ρ) = ρ1
or trH1 (ρ) = ρ2 is pure, then ρ = ρ1 ⊗ ρ2 . If both ρ1 and ρ2 are pure, then
ρ is pure too.
Problem 46. Let α ∈ [0, 1] and φ ∈ R. Is
e−iφ
 
α 0
1
ρ(α, φ) = 0 2 − 2α 0 
2
eiφ 0 α
a density matrix?
Problem 47. Let |φj i (j = 1, . . . , d) be an orthonormal basis in the

Hilbert space Cd . Is
d
1 X
ρ= |φj ihφk |
d
j,k=1
a density matrix.
Problem 48. (i) Consider the density matrix (pure state)

1 0 1
ρ= = (1 0).
0 0 0
Apply the Cayley transform to find the corresponding unitary matrix. Dis-
cuss.
(ii) Consider the density matrix (pure state)

1 1 −i 1 1 1
ρ= =√ √ ( 1 −i ) .
2 i 1 2 i 2
cuss.
(iii) Consider the n × n density matrix (pure state)
1 1 ··· 1
 
1 1 1 ··· 1
ρ=  . . .. . .
n  .. .. . .. 
1 1 ··· 1
cuss.
(iv) Consider the mixed state

1/2 0
ρ= .
0 1/2
cuss.
Problem 49. Let |ni (n = 0, 1, . . . , N ) be the standard basis in CN +1 .

Consider the states
N 1/2
X N
|θ, φi = (cos(θ/2))N −n (sin(θ/2))n e−inφ |ni.
n=0
n
Consider the density matrix

N X
X N
∗
ρ(t) = Cm (t)Cn (t)|nihm|.
n=0 m=0
Show that
N +1
Q(θ, φ, t) := hθ, φ|ρ(t)|θ, φi
4π
N N 1/2 1/2
N +1 X X N N ∗
= Cm (t)Cn (t)
4π m=0 n=0
m n
2N −m−n
×(cos(θ/2)) (sin(θ/2))m+n e−i(m−n)φ .
Problem 50. A quantum system is described by the density matrix ρ a

positive semi-definite operator with tr(ρ) = 1. The observable is described
by self-adjoint operators A and their expectation values are given by tr(Aρ).
Consider the Hilbert space C2 , the density matrices

1/2 0 1/2 1/2
ρ1 = , ρ2 =
0 1/2 1/2 1/2
and the hermitian 2 × 2 matrix

0 −i
σ2 = .
i 0
Find
tr(ρ1 σ2 ), tr(ρ2 σ2 ), tr((ρ1 ⊗ ρ2 )(σ2 ⊗ σ2 )).
Problem 51. Let t ∈ [0, 1]. Let ρ1 , ρ2 be two density matrices.

(i) Is the convex combination
ρ = tρ1 + (1 − t)ρ2
a density matrix.
(ii) If so apply it to the density matrices which are related to the Bell states
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
   
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
ρ1 =   , ρ2 =  .
2 0 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
(iii) The Hilbert-Schmidt distance d(ρ1 , ρ2 ) is given by
p
d(ρ1 , ρ2 ) = tr((ρ1 − ρ2 )2 ).
Find the distance for the two density matrices given in (ii).
Problem 52. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices and I2 the 2 × 2

identity matrix.
(i) Show that the four matrices
1 1 1 1
ρ1 = (I2 + σ3 ), ρ2 = (I2 − σ3 ), ρ3 = (I2 + σ1 ), ρ4 = (I2 + σ2 )
2 2 2 2
are density matrices.
(ii) Show that the four matrices ρ1 , ρ2 , ρ3 , ρ4 form a basis in the Hilbert
space M2 (C) with the scalar product hA, Bi := tr(AB ∗ ).
Problem 53. Consider the Hilbert space C2 and the projection matrices

1 1 1 1 1 −1
Π1 = , Π2 = .
2 1 1 2 −1 1
Find Π1 Π2 and Π1 + Π2 . Let

cos(θ)
ρ(θ) = ( cos(θ) sin(θ) ) .
sin(θ)
Find
tr(ρΠ1 ), tr(ρΠ2 ).
Problem 54. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices and I2 be the

2 × 2 identity matrix.
(i) Show that the four 2 × 2 matrices
1 1 1 1
ρ1 = (I2 + σ3 ), ρ2 = (I2 − σ3 ), ρ3 = (I2 + σ1 ), ρ4 = (I2 + σ2 )
2 2 2 2
are density matrices in the Hilbert space C2 .
(ii) Show that the four matrices form a basis in the Hilbert space M2 (C)
with the scalar product hA, Bi := tr(AB ∗ ).
(iii) Are the matrices ρ1 ⊗ρ1 , ρ2 ⊗ρ2 , ρ3 ⊗ρ3 density matrices in the Hilbert
space M2 (C).
Problem 55. Let A, B be hermitian n × n matrices and hAi = tr(Aρ)

with ρ an n × n density matrix or hAi = hψ|A|ψi with |ψi a normalized
state in Cn . Let
2
σA := hA2 i − hAi2 , 2
σB := hB 2 i − hBi2 .
Then 2 2
2 2
1 1
σA σB ≥ h[A, B]+ i − hAihBi + h[A, B]i .

2 2
(i) Let n = 2 and A = σ1 , B = σ2 and

1 1 1
ρ= .
2 1 1
Find the left and right hand side of the inequality.

(ii) Let n = 2 and A = σ1 , σ2 and

1 1
|ψi = √ .
2 1
Find the left and right hand side of the inequality.
Problem 56. Let

1 1 1 1
|ψ0 i = √ , |ψ1 i = √ .
2 1 2 i
Calculate
ρ = (|ψ0 ihψ0 |) ⊗ (|ψ1 ihψ1 |).
Is ρ a density matrix?
Problem 57. Let A, B be positive semidefinite n × n matrices. Then
det(A + B) ≥ det(A) + det(B), tr(AB) ≤ tr(A)tr(B).
Let    
1 1 1 1 0 0
1 1
A= 1 1 1, B= 0 1 0.
3 3
1 1 1 0 0 1
Both matrices are density matrices, with A a pure state and B a mixed
state. Calculate the left- and right-hand side of the two inequality. Discuss.
Problem 58. Let v1 , v2 , . . . , vn be an orthonormal

P basis in Cn and µ1 ,
µ2 , . . . , µn be nonnegative numbers such that j=1 µj = 1. Is
n
X
ρ= µj vj v1∗
j=1
a density matrix? If so would it cover pure and mixed states?
Problem 59. Let

ρ11 ρ12
ρ=
ρ21 ρ22
be a density matrix. Is
 
ρ11 0 ρ12
ρ= 0 0 0 
ρ21 0 ρ22
a density matrix?
Problem 60. Let v1 , . . . , vn (column vectors) be an orthonormal basis

in Cn and let λ1 , . . . , λn be nonnegative real numbers with
n
X
λj = 1.
j=1
Is
n
X
ρ= λj vj vj∗
j=1
a density matrix?
Problem 61. Consider the Hilbert space C4 and the states

1
 
1 1 0
|ψ1 i = √ (|0i ⊗ |0i + |1i ⊗ |1i = √  
2 2 0
1
0
 
1 1 1
|ψ2 i = √ (|0i ⊗ |1i + |1i ⊗ |0i) = √   .
2 2 1
0
Let γ ∈ [−1, 1]. Consider the density matrix
1
ρ= (1 + γ)|ψ1 ihψ2 |.
2
Let
e−iθ1 e−iθ2

0 0
M= ⊗ .
eiθ1 0 eiθ2 0
Problem 62. Consider the Hilbert space Cn . Let ρ be a density matrix.

Then the diagonal part σ of ρ is also a density matrix. Let f be a convex
function on the interval [0, 1]. Then (Klein inequality)
tr(f (ρ)) ≥ tr(f (σ)).
Let
1 1 1
ρ= f (x) = x2 .
2 1 1
Calculate the right-hand side and left-hand side of the inequality.
Problem 63. Let ρ1 , ρ2 be density matrices. Then one has (Klein

inequality)
tr(f (ρ1 ) − f (ρ2 ) − (ρ1 − ρ2 )f 0 (ρ2 )) ≥ 0
where f : (0, ∞) is a convex function. Consider

1 1 1 1 1 −1
ρ1 = , ρ2 =
2 1 1 2 −1 1
and f (x) = x2 . Calculate the left-hand side of the inequality.

 
1 1 −1
1
ρ= 1 1 −1 
3
−1 −1 1
is a density matrix (pure state). Find the normalized vector v in C3 such

that
ρ = vv∗ .

1 1 −1
ρ=
2 −1 1
and let A be an 2 × 2 real symmetric matrix. Assume that
tr(ρA) = −1, tr(ρA2 ) = 1.
Reconstruct the matrix from this information.
Problem 66. Let p = (p1 , p2 , . . . , pN ) be a probability vector, i.e. pj ≥ 0

PN
and j=1 pj = 1. Let U be a unitary N × N matrix. Then
p1 0 ··· 0
 
 0 p2 0 · · ·  ∗
ρ(U, p) = U  U
··· ··· ··· ···
0 0 · · · pN
is a density matrix. Find the density matrix for the case N = 2 and with
p = (1/4, 3/4) and
1 1 1
U=√ .
2 1 −1
Problem 67. Let x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ∈ [−1, 1]. Is

1 1 + x3 x1 − ix2
ρ=
2 x1 − ix2 1 − x3
a density matrix?
Chapter 5
Partial Trace
Problem 1. Consider the finite-dimensional Hilbert spaces H1 = Cn1

and H2 = Cn2 . Let H1 ⊗ H2 be the product Hilbert space. Let |ψi and |φi
be states in the product Hilbert space H1 ⊗ H2 . Show that if
trH2 (|ψihψ|) = trH2 (|φihφ|)
then there exists a unitary matrix U acting in the Hilbert space H2 such
that
|ψi = (In1 ⊗ U )|φi
where In1 is the identity matrix in the Hilbert space H1 .
Problem 2. Consider the GHZ-state in the Hilbert space C8 (C8 ∼

=
C2 ⊗ C2 ⊗ C 2 )

1 1 1 1 0 0 0
|GHZi = √ ⊗ ⊗ + ⊗ ⊗ .
2 0 0 0 1 1 1
Then the density matrix is given by the 8 × 8 matrix
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

ρ = |GHZihGHZ| =  .
2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
87
(i) Calculate the partial trace ρAB = trC (ρ) with the basis

1 0
I4 ⊗ , I4 ⊗ .
0 1
(ii) Calculate the partial trace ρA = trB (ρAB ) with the basis

1 0
I2 ⊗ , I2 ⊗ .
0 1
Problem 3. Consider the product Hilbert space `2 (N0 ) ⊗ C2s+1 , where

s = 1/2, 1, 3/2, 2, . . . is the spin. Find the partial trace over C2s+1 .
Chapter 6
Reversible Logic Gates
Problem 1. Find the truth table for the boolean function
f (a, a0 , b, b0 ) = (a · b0 ) ⊕ (a0 · b).
Problem 2. The Feynman gate is a 2 input/2 output gate given by
x01 = x1
x02 = x1 ⊕ x2
(i) Give the truth table for the Feynman gate.

(ii) Show that copying can be implemented using the Feynman gate.
(iii) Show that the complement can be implemented using the Feynman
gate.
(iv) Is the Feynman gate invertible?
Problem 3. Consider the 3-input/3-output gate given by
x01 = x1
x02 = x1 ⊕ x2
x03 = x1 ⊕ x2 ⊕ x3 .
(i) Give the truth table.

(ii) Is the transformation invertible.
89
x01 = x1
x02 = x1 ⊕ x2
x03 = x3 ⊕ (x1 · x2 ).

(ii) Is the gate invertible?
x01 = x1 ⊕ x3
x02 = x1 ⊕ x2
x03 = (x1 · x2 ) ⊕ (x1 · x3 ) ⊕ (x2 · x3 ).

Problem 6. Consider the Toffoli gate
T : {0, 1}3 → {0, 1}3 , T (a, b, c) := (a, b, (a · b) ⊕ c)
where ā is the NOT operation, + is the OR operation, · is the AND oper-

ation and ⊕ is the XOR operation.
1. Express N OT (a) exclusively in terms of the TOFFOLI gate.
2. Express AN D(a, b) exclusively in terms of the TOFFOLI gate.
3. Express OR(a, b) exclusively in terms of the TOFFOLI gate.
4. Show that the TOFFOLI gate is invertible.
Thus the TOFFOLI gate is universal and reversible (invertible).
Problem 7. Consider the Fredkin gate
F : {0, 1}3 → {0, 1}3 , F (a, b, c) := (a, a · b + ā · c, a · c + ā · b)

ation and ⊕ is the XOR operation.
1. Express N OT (a) exclusively in terms of the FREDKIN gate.
2. Express AN D(a, b) exclusively in terms of the FREDKIN gate.

Reversible Logic Gates 91
3. Express OR(a, b) exclusively in terms of the FREDKIN gate.

4. Show that the FREDKIN gate is invertible.
Thus the FREDKIN gate is universal and reversible (invertible).
Problem 8. The Toffoli gate T(x1 , x2 ; x3 ) has 3 inputs (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and

three outputs (y1 , y2 , y3 ) and is given by
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) → (x1 , x2 , x3 ⊕ (x1 · x2 ))
where x1 , x2 , x3 ∈ { 0, 1 }, ⊕ is the XOR-operation and · the AND-operation.

Give the truth table.
Problem 9. A generalized Toffoli gate T(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ; xn+1 ) is a gate

that maps a boolean pattern (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , xn+1 ) to
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , xn+1 ⊕ (x1 · x2 · . . . · xn ))
where ⊕ is the XOR-operation and · the AND-operation. Show that the

generalized Toffoli gate includes the NOT-gate, CNOT-gate and the original
Toffoli gate.
Problem 10. The Fredkin gate F(x1 ; x2 , x3 ) has 3 inputs (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and
three outputs (y1 , y2 , y3 ). It maps boolean patterns
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) → (x1 , x3 , x2 )
if and only if x1 = 1, otherwise it passes the boolean pattern unchanged.

Give the truth table.
Problem 11. The generalized Fredkin gate F(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ; xn+1 , xn+2 )

is a gate is the mapping of the boolean pattern
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , xn+1 , xn+2 ) → (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , xn+2 , xn+1 )
if and only if the boolean product x1 · x2 · . . . · xn = 1 (· is the bitwise AND

operation), otherwise the boolean pattern passes unchanged. Let n = 2
and (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (1, 1, 0, 1). Find the output.
Problem 12. Is the gate (a, b, c ∈ { 0, 1 })
(a, b, c) → (a, a · b ⊕ c, a · c ⊕ b)
reversible?
Problem 13. Prove that the Fredkin gate is universal. A set of gates is
called universal if we can build any logic circuits using these gates assuming
bit setting gates are given.
Problem 14. The half-adder is given by
S=A⊕B
C = A · B.
Construct a half-adder using two Toffoli gates.
x01 = x1 ⊕ x3
x02 = x1 ⊕ x2
x03 = (x1 + x2 ) ⊕ (x1 + x3 ) ⊕ (x2 + x3 ).

x01 = x1
x02 = x2
x03 = x3
x04 = x4 ⊕ x1 ⊕ x2 ⊕ x3 .

x01 = x1 ⊕ x3
x02 = x2 ⊕ x3 ⊕ (x1 · x2 ) ⊕ (x2 · x3 )
x03 = x1 ⊕ x2 ⊕ x3
x04 = x4 ⊕ x3 ⊕ (x1 · x2 ) ⊕ (x2 · x3 ) .

Problem 18. Show that one Fredkin gate
(a, b, c) → (a, a · b + a · c, a · c + a · b)
Reversible Logic Gates 93
is sufficient to implement the XOR gate. Assume that either b or c are

available.
Problem 19. Show that the map f : {0, 1}3 → {0, 1}3
abc xyz
000 -> 000
100 -> 100
010 -> 101
110 -> 011
001 -> 001
101 -> 010
011 -> 110
111 -> 111
is invertible. The map describes a reversible half-adder. If c = 0, then x is

the first digit of the sum a + b and y is the carry bit. If c = 1, then z is the
first digit of the sum a + b + c and y is the carry bit.
Problem 20. Show that the Toffoli gate which maps
|ai ⊗ |bi ⊗ |ci 7→ |ai ⊗ |bi ⊗ |c ⊕ (a · b)i
can simulate the FANOUT and the NAND gate.
Problem 21. (i) Let x1 , x2 ∈ {0, 1}. Let ⊕ be the XOR operation. Show
that
(x1 , x2 ) 7→ (x1 ⊕ 1, x1 ⊕ x2 )
is a 2-bit reversible gate.
(ii) Let
1 0
|0i = , |1i = .
0 1
Find the 4 × 4 permutation matrix P such that
P (|x1 i ⊗ |x2 i) = |x1 ⊕ 1i ⊗ |x1 ⊕ x2 i .
(iii) Show that

(x1 , x2 ) 7→ (x1 ⊕ x2 , x2 ⊕ 1)
is a 2-bit reversible gate.
(iv) Find the 4 × 4 permutation matrix P such that
P (|x1 i ⊗ |x2 i) = |x1 ⊕ x2 i ⊗ |x2 ⊕ 1i.

(v) Given a 4 × 4 permutation matrix (as a quantum gate). How can one
construct a corresponding 2-bit reversible gate? Apply it to the permuta-
tion matrix
0 1 0 0
 
0 0 1 0
P = .
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
Problem 22. The NOT, AND and OR gate form a universal set of oper-
ations (gates) for boolean algebra. The NAND operation is also universal
for boolean algebra. However these sets of operations are not reversible sets
of operations. Consider the Toffoli and Fredkin gates
T OF F OLI : {0, 1}3 → {0, 1}3 , T OF F OLI(a, b, c) = (a, b, (a · b) ⊕ c)
F REDKIN : {0, 1}3 → {0, 1}3 , F REDKIN (a, b, c) = (a, a·c+ā·b, a·b+ā·c)
ation and ⊕ is the XOR operations.
1. Express NOT(a) exclusively in terms of the TOFFOLI gate.

2. Express NOT(a) exclusively in terms of the FREDKIN gate.
3. Express AND(a,b) exclusively in terms of the TOFFOLI gate.
4. Express AND(a,b) exclusively in terms of the FREDKIN gate.
5. Express OR(a,b) exclusively in terms of the TOFFOLI gate.
6. Express OR(a,b) exclusively in terms of the FREDKIN gate.
7. Show that the TOFFOLI gate is reversible.
8. Show that the FREDKIN gate is reversible.
Thus the TOFFPLI and FREDKIN gates are eachuniversal and reversible
(invertible).
Chapter 7
Unitary Transformations
and Quantum Gates
Problem 1. Consider the compact Lie group SU (4). Let U ∈ SU (4).

Then the 4 × 4 matrix U can be factorized as follows
 
3
i X
U = (V1 ⊗ V2 ) exp  θj σj ⊗ σj  (V3 ⊗ V4 )
2 j=1
where V1 , V2 , V3 , V4 ∈ SU (2) and θj ∈ R. Let
0 0 0 1
 
0 0 1 0
S= .
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
Show that S ∈ SU (4). Find the factorization given above for S.
Hint. Since [σj ⊗ σj , σk ⊗ σk ] = 04 we can write

 
3
i X iθ1 iθ2 iθ3
exp  θj σj ⊗ σj ≡ exp
 σ1 ⊗ σ1 exp σ2 ⊗ σ2 exp σ3 ⊗ σ3 .
2 j=1 2 2 2
95

1 0 0 1
 
1  0 1 −1 0
B=√  .
2 0 1 1 0
−1 0 0 1
(i) Show that B is invertible and find B −1 . Is B unitary?

(ii) Express B 2 using the Pauli spin matrices, an overall phase and the
Kronecker product.
(iii) Find a 4 × 4 matrix A such that B = exp(iA).
(iv) Can one find a positive integer n such that B n = I4 ?
(v) Show that
1
B = √ (I4 + B 2 ).
2
Problem 3. Consider the state |ψi in the Hilbert space C9

           
1 1 0 0 0 0
1            
|ψi = √ 0 ⊗ 0 + 1 ⊗ 1 + 0 ⊗ 0 .
3 0 0 0 0 1 1
Is the state invariant under U ⊗ U , where U is the 3 × 3 unitary matrix

 
0 0 1
U = 0 1 0.
1 0 0
Problem 4. (i) The Schrödinger equation is given by
dψ
i~ = Hψ(t) (1)
dt
with ψ(0) the initial value. The evolution of ψ(t) is determined by
ψ(t) = U (t)ψ(0) (2)
where U (t) is a unitary evolution operator and U (0) = I. Show that
dU (t)
i~ ψ(0) = HU (t)ψ(0). (3)
dt
(ii) Assume that H = ~ωσ3 . Find U (t).
Unitary Transformations and Quantum Gates 97
Problem 5. Let I2 be the 2 × 2 identitity matrix and σ1 be the Pauli

spin matrix and |0i, |1i be the standard basis. The CNOT-gate can be
represented as
UCN OT = |0ih0| ⊗ I2 + |1ih1| ⊗ σ1 .
2
Is UCN OT hermitian? Is UCN OT = I4 ?
Problem 6. Let U be an n × n unitary matrix. Show that if the bipartite

states |ψi, |φi ∈ Cn ⊗ Cm satisfy
|φi = (U ⊗ Im )|ψi
then the ranks of the corresponding reduced density matrices satisfy
r(ρψ φ
1 ) ≥ r(ρ1 ), r(ρψ φ
2 ) ≥ r(ρ2 ).

1 1 1 0 1
VH = √ ⊗ I2 , VM = ⊗ I2
2 1 −1 1 0
iχ
0 0 e 0
VC = ⊗ U2 + ⊗ I2
0 1 0 0
where U2 is an arbitrary 2 × 2 unitary matrix and χ ∈ R. Consider the
4 × 4 density matrix

1 1 0
ρin = ( 1 0 ) ⊗ ρ2 ≡ ⊗ ρ2
0 0 0
where ρ2 is an arbitrary 2 × 2 density matrix. Find the density matrix
ρout = VH VM VC VH ρin VH∗ VC∗ VM

∗
VH∗ .
Problem 8. The n-qubit Pauli group is defined by
Pn := { I2 , σ1 , σ2 , σ3 }⊗n ⊗ { ±1, ±i }
where σ1 , σ2 , σ3 are the 2 × 2 Pauli matrices and I2 is the 2 × 2 identity ma-

trix. The dimension of the Hilbert space under consideration is dim H = 2n .
Thus each element of the Pauli group Pn is (up to an overall phase ±1, ±i)
a Kronecker product of Pauli matrices and 2 × 2 identity matrices acting
on n qubits.
The n-qubit Clifford group Cn is the normalizer of the Pauli group. A

2n × 2n unitary matrix U acting on n qubits is an element of the Clifford
group iff
U M U ∗ ∈ Pn for each M ∈ Pn .
This means the unitary matrix U acting by conjugation takes a Kronecker
product of Pauli matrices to Kronecker product of Pauli matrices. An
element of the Clifford group is defined as this action by conjugation, so
that the overall phase of the unitary matrix U is not relevant. In other
words the Clifford group is the group of all matrices that leave the Pauli
group invariant.
(i) What is order of the n-qubit Pauli group?
(ii) Show that the single-qubit Hadamard gate

1 1 1
UH = √
2 1 −1
and the single-qubit phase gate

1 0
UP =
0 i
are elements of the Clifford group C1 .

(iii) Show that the CNOT-gate
1 0 0 0
 
0 1 0 0
UCN OT =
0 0 0 1

0 0 1 0
is an element of C2 .
(iv) Is the Fredkin gate an element of C3 ?
Problem 9. Find the 4 × 4 matrix
U = e−iπ(σ1 ⊗I2 )/4 e−iπ(σ3 ⊗σ3 )/4 e−iπ(σ2 ⊗I2 )/4 .
Is the matrix U unitary?
Problem 10. Consider the four unary gates (2 × 2 unitary matrices)

0 1 1 1 1
N= , H=√ ,
1 0 2 1 −1

1 0 1 0
V = , W =
0 eiπ/2 0 eiπ/4
and the state

1 1
|ψi = √ .
2 1
Calculate the state N HV W |ψi and the expection value hψ|N HV W |ψi.
Problem 11. (i) Let U be an n × n unitary matrix. Then the eigenvalues

take the form eiφ , where φ ∈ R. Let eiφ1 , . . . , eiφn be the eigenvalues of U
with the corresponding normalized eigenvectors u1 , . . . , un which form an
orthonormal basis in Cn . Then one has (spectral decomposition)
n
X
U= eiφj uj u∗j .
j=1
Then the unitary matrix

n
X
V = eiφj /2 uj u∗j
j=1
satisfies V 2 = U and can be viewed as the square root of U . Show that

[U, V ] = 0n .
(ii) Let U1 , U2 be two unitary matrices with the spectral representation
n
X
U1 = eiφ1j u1j u∗1j
j=1
n
X
U2 = eiφ2j u2j u∗2j
j=1
iφ1j iφ2j
where e , e (j = 1, . . . , n) are the eigenvalues of U1 and U2 , re-
spectively and u1j , u2j (j = 1, . . . , n) are the corresponding normalized
eigenvectors of U1 and U2 , respectively. Let the unitary matrices
n
X
V1 = eiφ1j /2 u1j u∗1j
j=1
n
X
V2 = eiφ2j /2 u2j u∗2j
j=1
be the square roots of U1 and U2 , respectively. Find the commutators

[U1 , U2 ] and [V1 , V2 ].
(iii) Study the question from (ii) under the condition that the bases u1j
and u2j (j = 1, . . . , n) are mutually unbiased bases, i.e.
1
|hu1j |u2k i|2 = , j, k = 1, . . . , n.
n
Problem 12. (i) Consider the Hadamard gate

1 1 1 1
UH = √ ≡ √ (σ3 + σ1 )
2 1 −1 2
with the eigenvalues +1 and −1. Find a square root of the Hadamard gate.
(ii) The star product of the Hadamard gate with itself provides the Bell
matrix
1 0 0 1
 
1 0 1 1 0 
B = UH ? UH = √  .
2 0 1 −1 0
1 0 0 −1
Use the result from (i) to find a square root of the Bell matrix. Note that
the eigenvalues of the Bell matrix are +1 (twice) and −1 (twice).
Problem 13. In the Hilbert space C4 the Bell states

1 0 0 1
       
1 0 1 1 1  1  1  0 
√  , √  , √  , √ 
0 1 −1 0

2 2 2 2
1 0 0 −1
(i) Let ω = e2πi/4 . Apply the Fourier transformation

1 1 1 1
 
1 1 ω ω ω  2 3
UF = 
2 1 ω2 1 ω2

3 2
1 ω ω ω
to the Bell states and study the entanglement of these states.
(ii) Apply the Haar wavelet transformation
1 1 1 1
 
1 1 1 −1 −1 
UH =  √ √
2 2 − 2 √0 0

√
0 0 2 − 2
(iii) Apply the Walsh-Hadamard transformation
1 1 1 1
 
1  −1 −1 1 1 
UW = 
2 −1 1 1 −1

1 −1 1 −1
n
Extend to the Hilbert space C2 with the first Bell state given by
1 T
√ (1 0 ··· 0 1)
2
Problem 14. Consider the Bell matrix B and the normalized vector v
1 0 0 1 1
   

1 0 1 1 0  1 1 1 1 1 1
B=√  , v =   ≡ √ ⊗√ .
2 0 1 −1 0 2 1 2 1 2 1
1 0 0 −1 1
Is the normalized vector Bv entangled?
Problem 15. Find a 4 × 4 unitary matrix U such that
1 1 0 0
       
0 1 0 1 1 1
U   = √  , U   = √  ,
0 2 0 0 2 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1
       
0 1  1  0 1  0 
U = √  , U = √  .
1 2 −1 0 2 0
0 0 1 −1
Problem 16. Find a 4 × 4 matrix U such that

1 1
   
1 1 1 0
U   = √  .
2 1 2 0
1 1
Problem 17. Apply the quantum Fourier transform to the state

7
1X
cos(2πj/8)|ji
2 j=0
where the quantum Fourier transform is given by

7
1 X −i2πkj/8
UQF T = √ e |kihj|.
2 2 j,k=0
Is the operator UQF T unitary? Prove or disprove. Remember that
eiθ = cos(θ) + i sin(θ)

N
X −1
ei2πk(n−m)/N = N δnm .
k=0
We use
{|ji, j = 0, 1, . . . , 7}
as an orthonormal basis in C8 .
Problem 18. Write the Bell matrix

1 0 0 1
 
1 0 1 1 0 
UB = √ 
2 0 1 −1 0

1 0 0 −1
as a linear combination of Kronecker products of Pauli spin matrices.
Problem 19. Let α, β, γ ∈ R. Show that any U ∈ SU (2) can be written

as
U = exp(iγσ3 ) exp(iβσ1 ) exp(iασ3 ).
Problem 20. (i) Let A, B be n × n matrices over R. Show that one can
find a 2n × 2n unitary matrix U such that

A B A + iB 0n
U U∗ = .
−B A 0n A − iB
Here 0n denotes the n × n zero matrix.

(ii) Use the result from (i) to show that

A B
det = det(A + iB)det(A + iB) ≥ 0.
−B A
Problem 21. Let u be a column vector in Cn with u∗ u = 1, i.e. the

vector is normalized. Consider the matrix
U = In − 2uu∗ .
(i) Show that U is hermitian.

(ii) Show that U is unitary.
Problem 22. Can one find a 2 × 2 unitary matrix such that

−1 0 0 −1
U U −1 = .
0 1 −1 0
Problem 23. (i) Do the 2 × 2 unitary matrices

−iπ/4
e 0 1 1 i
A= , B=√
0 ie−iπ/4 2 i 1
satisfy the braid-like relation
ABA = BAB.
(ii) Find the smallest n ∈ N such that An = I2 .

(iii) Find the smallest m ∈ N such that B m = I2 .
Problem 24. Find all (n + 1) × (n + 1) matrices A such that
A∗ U A = U
where U is the unitary matrix

 
0 0 i
U = 0 In−1 0
−i 0 0
and det(A) = 1. Consider first the case n = 2.
Problem 25. Consider the 2×2 hermitian matrices A and B with A 6= B

with the eigenvalues λ1 , λ2 ; µ1 , µ2 ; and the corresponding normalized eigen-
vectors u1 , u2 ; v1 , v2 , respectively. Form from the normalized eigenvectors
the 2 × 2 matrix ∗
u1 v1 u∗1 v2

.
u∗2 v1 u∗2 v2
Is this matrix unitary? Find the eigenvalues of this matrix and the corre-
sponding normalized eigenvectors of the 2 × 2 matrix. How are the eigen-
values and eigenvectors are linked to the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A
and B?
Problem 26. Let In be the n × n unit matrix. Is the 2n × 2n matrix

1 In iIn
Ω= √
2 In −iIn
unitary?
Problem 27. Consider the two 2 × 2 unitary matrices

1 0 0 1
U1 = , U2 = .
0 1 1 0
Can one find a unitary 2 × 2 matrix V such that
U1 = V U2 V ∗ ?
Problem 28. Let U be an n × n unitary matrix.

(i) Is U + U ∗ invertible?
(ii) Is U + U ∗ hermitian?
(iii) Calculate exp((U + U ∗ )), where ∈ R
Problem 29. Let U be an n × n unitary matrix. Then U + U ∗ is a

hermitian matrix. Can any hermitian matrix represented in this form?
Problem 30. (i) Find the condition on the n × n matrix A over C such
that In + A is a unitary matrix.
(ii) Let B be an 2 × 2 matrix over C. Find all solutions of the equation
B + B ∗ + BB ∗ = 02 .
Problem 31. Find all 2 × 2 invertible matrices A such that
A + A−1 = I2 .
Problem 32. Let z1 , z2 , w1 , w2 ∈ C. Consider the 2 × 2 matrices

0 z1 0 w1
U= , V =
z2 0 w2 0
where z1 z̄1 = 1, z2 z̄2 = 1, w1 w̄1 = 1, w2 w̄2 = 1. This means the matrices

U , V are unitary. Find the condition on z1 , z2 , w1 , w2 such that the
commutator [U, V ] is again a unitary matrix.

U = α1 σ1 + α2 σ2 + α3 σ3
is a unitary matrix.
Problem 34. Consider the unitary matrix
1 0 0 1
 
1 1  0 1 −1 0
U = √ (I2 ⊗ I2 + iσ1 ⊗ σ2 ) = √  .
2 2 0 1 1 0
−1 0 0 1
Calculate
U (σ1 ⊗ I2 )U −1 , U (σ2 ⊗ I2 )U −1 , U (σ3 ⊗ I2 )U −1 ,
U (σ1 ⊗ σ1 )U −1 , U (σ2 ⊗ σ2 )U −1 , U (σ3 ⊗ σ3 )U −1 .
Problem 35. (i) What are the conditions on φ11 , φ12 , φ21 , φ22 ∈ R such
that iφ
1 e 11 eiφ12
U (φ11 , φ12 , φ21 , φ22 ) = √ iφ iφ
2 e 21 e 22
is a unitary matrix?
(ii) What are the condition on φ11 , φ12 , φ21 , φ22 ∈ R such that U (φ11 , φ12 , φ21 , φ22 )
is an element of SU (2)?
Chapter 8
Entropy
Problem 1. An n × n density matrix ρ is a positive semidefinite matrix

such that tr(ρ) = 1. The nonnegative eigenvalues of ρ are the probabilities
of the physical states described by the corresponding eigenvectors. The
entropy of the statistical state described by the density matrix ρ is defined
by
S(ρ) := −tr(ρ ln(ρ))
with the convention 0 ln(0) = 0. For the n × n hermitian matrix H (energy
operator) the statistical average of the energy E is defined by
E := tr(Hρ).
Let
ψ(ρ) := tr(Hρ) − tr(ρ ln(ρ)).
(i) Show that
ln tr(eH ) = max { tr(Hρ) + S(ρ) }.
(ii) Show that
−S(ρ) = max { tr(Hρ) − ln tr(eH ) }.
Problem 2. The von Neumann entropy, the standard measure of ran-

domness of a statistical ensemble described by a n × n density matrix ρ, is
defined by
Xn
S(ρ) = −tr(ρ log(ρ)) = − λj log(λj )
j=1
106
Entropy 107
where λj (j = 1, 2, . . . , n) are the eigenvalues of the density matrix ρ and

the log is taken to base n, the dimension of the Hilbert space Cn . Consider
the density matrix in C4
1/3 0 0 1/6
 
 0 1/6 0 0 
ρ= .
0 0 1/6 0
1/6 0 0 1/3
Find the eigenvalues of ρ and then the von Neumann entropy S(ρ).
Problem 3. Consider the normalized states |ψk i, k = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1

in the Hilbert space CN . A positive operator valued measure is specified
by a decomposition of the identity matrix IN into M positive semidefinite
matrices Pm , i.e.
MX−1
IN = Pm .
m=0
The mutual information is defined by

N −1 M −1
X X pnm
I= pnm logN
n=0 m=0
pn· p·m
where
pnm := hψn |Pm |ψn i
are the joint probabilities and
M
X −1 N
X −1
pn· := pnm , p·m := pnm
m=0 n=0
are their marginals. Let M = N = 2 and

1 1 1 1 1 −1
P0 = , P1 =
2 1 1 2 −1 1

1 1 0
|ψ0 i = √ , |ψ1 i = .
2 −1 1
Find pnm , pn· , p·m and then I.
Problem 4. Let A, B be n × n hermitian matrices acting in the Hilbert

space Cn . Assume that the eigenvalues of A are pairwise different and
analogously for B. Then the normalized eigenvectors |αj i (j = 1, . . . , n) of
A form an orthonormal basis in Cn and analogously for B the normalized
eigenvectors |βj i (j = 1, . . . , n) form an orthonormal basis in Cn . Let

|ψi be a normalized state in Cn . Then there are n possible outcomes for
measurements of each observable and the probabilties pj (A, |ψi), pj (B, |ψi)
(j = 1, . . . , n) are given by
pj (A, |ψi) := |hψ|αj i|2 , pj (B, |ψi) := |hψ|βj i|2 .
Let H|ψi (X) be the Shannon information entropy
n
X
H|ψi (X) := − pj (X, |ψi) ln(pj (X, |ψi))
j=1
corresponding to the probability distribution {pj (X, |ψi)} (j = 1, . . . , n).

The (Maassen-Uffink) entropic uncertainty relation is given by
H|ψi (A) + H|ψi (B) ≥ −2 ln( max |hαj |βk i|) > 0.
1≤j,k≤n
Note that the right-hand side does not involve the state |ψi.
(i) Let

0 1 1 0 cos(θ)
A = σ1 = , B = σ3 = , |ψi = .
1 0 0 −1 sin(θ)
Calculate the left and right-hand side of the entropic uncertainty relation.
Is the entropic uncertainty relation tight for this case?
(ii) The (Landau-Pollak) uncertainty relation states that
p p
arccos( PA ) + arccos( PB ) ≥ arccos( max |hαj |βk i|)
1≤j,k≤n
where
PA := max pj (A, |ψi), PB := max pj (B, |ψi).
1≤j≤n 1≤j≤n
Calculate the left-hand and right-hand side of this uncertainty relation for
A and B given in (i).
Problem 5. Consider the Hilbert space Cn . Let A, B be two hermitian

n × n matrices (observable). Assume that A and B have non-degenerate
eigenvalues with the corresponding normalized eigenvectors |a1 i, |a2 i, . . . ,
|an i and |b1 i, |b2 i, . . . , |bn i, respectively. The entropic uncertainty relation
is an inequality given by
S (A) + S (B) ≥ S (AB)
where
n
X n
X
S (A) = − |hψ|aj i|2 ln(|hψ|aj i|2 ), S (B) = − |hψ|bj i|2 ln(|hψ|bj i|2 ),
j=1 j=1
Entropy 109
and S (AB) is a positive constant which gives the lower bound of the right-
hand side of the inequality. Consider the Hilbert space C2 . Let

cos θ
A = σ1 , B = σ2 , |ψi = .
sin θ
Find S (A) , S (B) and S (A) + S (B) .
Problem 6. Consider the Hilbert space Cn and |ψi ∈ Cn . Let A and

B n × n hermitian matrices (observable) with non-degenerate eigenvalues
and corresponding normalized eigenvectors |uj i, |vj i (j = 1, . . . , n). The
entropic uncertainty relation is an inequality of the form
S (A) + S (B) ≥ SAB
where
n
X n
X
S (A) = − |hψ|uj i|2 ln(|hψ|uj i|2 ), S (A) = − |hψ|vj i|2 ln(|hψ|vj i|2 )
j=1 j=1
and SAB is a positive constant providing the lower bound of the right-hand
side of the inequality. Let

0 1 1 0
A = σ1 = , B = σ3 =
1 0 0 −1
and
cos(θ)
|ψi = .
sin(θ)
Calculate S (A) and S (B) .
Chapter 9
Measurement
Problem 1. Consider the tripartite states

1 1
|GHZi = √ (|000i + |111i), |W i = √ (|001i + |010i + |100i).
2 3
Find the probability
p = |hW |GHZi|2 .
Problem 2. Consider the W -state

1
|W i = √ (|0i ⊗ |0i ⊗ |1i + |0i ⊗ |1i ⊗ |0i + |1i ⊗ |0i ⊗ |0i).
3
Apply the invertible local operator
√ √ √
a √d 3 √ 0√ 1 0
L̂ = ⊗ ⊗
0 c 0 3b/ a 0 1
to the W -state, where a, b, c > 0 and d = 1 − (a + b + c) ≥ 0. Calculate the
probability |hW |LW i|2 .
Problem 3. Consider the single qubit state

|ψi := a|0i + b|1i, |a|2 + |b|2 = 1.
Rewrite the first two qubits of the state
1
|ψi ⊗ √ (|01i + |10i)
2
110
Measurement 111
in terms of the Bell basis

1
|Φ+ i = √ (|00i + |11i),
2
1
|Φ− i = √ (|00i − |11i),
2
1
|Ψ+ i = √ (|01i + |10i),
2
− 1
|Ψ i = √ (|01i − |10i).
2
Describe how to obtain |ψi as the state of the last qubit by measuring the
first two qubits in the Bell basis. Suppose that the only errors which can
occur to three qubits are described by the transforms
{I ⊗ I ⊗ I, I ⊗ UN OT ⊗ UN OT , I ⊗ UP ⊗ UP , I ⊗ (UP UN OT ) ⊗ (UP UN OT )}.
Describe how an arbitrary error
αI ⊗I ⊗I +βI ⊗UN OT ⊗UN OT +δI ⊗UP ⊗UP +γI ⊗(UP UN OT )⊗(UP UN OT )
on the state
1
√ (|01i + |10i) ⊗ |ψi
2
can be corrected to obtain the correct |ψi as the last qubit.

1
 

1 0 1 1 1 0 0
|ψi = √   ≡ √ ⊗ + ⊗ .
2 0 2 0 0 1 1
1
and the 2 × 2 unitary matrices

cos(π/8) − sin(π/8) cos(π/8) sin(π/8)
UA = , UB = UA−1 = ,
sin(π/8) cos(π/8) − sin(π/8) cos(π/8)
p √ p √
Note that cos(π/8) = 21 ( 2 + 2. sin(π/8) = 21 ( 2 + 2. Let I2 be the
2 × 2 identity matrix. Find
hψ|(UA ⊗ I2 )|ψi, hψ|(I2 ⊗ UB )|ψi, hψ|(UA ⊗ UB )|ψi
and the probabilities
|hψ|(UA ⊗ I2 )|ψi|2 , |hψ|(I2 ⊗ UB )|ψi|2 , |hψ|(UA ⊗ UB )|ψi|2 .

These probabilities play a role for the CHSH game.

0
 

1 1 0 0 1 1  1 
|ψi = √ ⊗ − ⊗ =√  .
2 0 1 1 0 2 −1
0
Alice has the first qubit and Bob has the second qubit. Let I2 be the 2 × 2
identity matrix and UH be the Hadamard matrix

1 1 1
UH = √ .
2 1 −1
If Alice receives the bit a = 0 and Bob receives the bit b = 0, then Alice
applies I2 to her qubit and Bob applies I2 to his quibit, i.e. I2 ⊗ I2 to the
Bell states. If Alice receives the bit a = 1 and Bob receives the bit b = 0,
then Alice applies UH to her qubit and Bob applies I2 to his quibit, i.e.
UH ⊗ I2 is applied to the Bell states. If Alice receives the bit a = 0 and Bob
receives the bit b = 1, then Alice applies I2 to her qubit and Bob applies
UH to his quibit, i.e. I2 ⊗ UH is applied to the Bell states. If Alice receives
the bit a = 1 and Bob receives the bit b = 1, then Alice applies UH to her
qubit and Bob applies UH to his quibit, i.e. UH ⊗ UH is applied to the Bell
states. Find the states
|ψ1 i = (I2 ⊗I2 )|ψi, |ψ2 i = (UH ⊗I2 )|ψi, |ψ3 i = (I2 ⊗UH )|ψi, |ψ4 i = (UH ⊗UH )|ψi
and the probabilities |hψj |ψi|2 for j = 1, 2, 3, 4.

Chapter 10
Entanglement
Problem 1. Consider the singlet state (Bell state)
0
 
1  1 
|ψi = √  .
2 −1
0
Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Show that the matrices I2 ⊗ I2 ,
−σ1 ⊗ σ1 , −σ2 ⊗ σ2 , −σ3 ⊗ σ3 leave the state |ψi invariant.

commutators
[σ1 ⊗ σ1 , σ2 ⊗ σ2 ], [σ1 ⊗ σ1 , σ3 ⊗ σ3 ], [σ2 ⊗ σ2 , σ3 ⊗ σ3 ].
Problem 3. Let |0i, |1i be the standard basis in the Hilbert space C2 .
Consider the GHZ-state
1
|ψi = √ (|0i ⊗ |0|i ⊗ |0i + |1i ⊗ |1i ⊗ |1i).
2
Find the expectation values
hψ|σ1 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ2 |ψi, hψ|σ2 ⊗ σ1 ⊗ σ2 |ψi,
hψ|σ2 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ1 |ψi, hψ|σ1 ⊗ σ1 ⊗ σ1 |ψi.
113
Problem 4. Consider the state in the Hilbert space C4

n0 (τ, φ, θ) sin((τ − φ)/2) sin(θ/2)
   
 n1 (τ, φ, θ)   sin((τ + φ)/2) cos(θ/2) 
= .
n2 (τ, φ, θ) cos((τ − φ)/2) sin(θ/2)

n3 (τ, φ, θ) cos((τ + φ)/2) cos(θ/2)
The state is obviously normalized, i.e. n20 + n21 + n22 + n23 = 1. Find the
conditions on φ, τ , θ such that n0 n3 = n1 n2 (separability condition). Show
that in this case the state can be written as product state.
Problem 5. Let |0i, |1i be an arbitrary orthonormal basis. Can the state
1 1 1 1
|ψi = √ |0i ⊗ |0i + √ |0i ⊗ |1i + √ |1i ⊗ |0i + √ |1i ⊗ |1i
2 8 8 4
be written as a product state?

H = ~ω(σ1 ⊗ σ1 + σ2 ⊗ σ2 + σ3 ⊗ σ3 ).
(i) Is the 4 × 4 matrix H hermitian? Find the trace of H. What can be
said about the eigenvalues of H.
(ii) Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of H.
(iii) Calculate exp(−iHt/~).

U1 = eiπσ1 /4 ⊗ eiπσ1 /4 , U2 = eiπσ2 /4 ⊗ eiπσ2 /4 .
Calculate
U1∗ (σ3 ⊗ σ3 )U1 , U2∗ (σ3 ⊗ σ3 )U2 .

1
|ψi = (|0i ⊗ |0i + eiφ1 |0i ⊗ |1i + eiφ2 |1i ⊗ |0i + eiφ3 |1i ⊗ |1i).
2
(i) Let φ3 = φ1 + φ2 . Is the state |ψi a product state?
(ii) Let φ3 = φ1 + φ2 + π. Is the state |ψi a product state?
Problem 9. There are six different types of quark known as flavor: up,
down, charm, strange, top, bottom. Consider the two equations for states

1 1 1
cos θ √ (|uui + |ddi + |ssi) +sin θ √ (|uui + |ddi − 2|ssi) = √ (|uui+|ddi)
3 6 2
Entanglement 115

1 1
cos θ √ (|uui + |ddi − 2|ssi) − sin θ √ (|uui + |ddi + |ssi) = −|ssi
6 3
where |uui ≡ |ui ⊗ |ui etc. Find cos θ and sin θ from this two equations.
Problem 10. Let

     
1 0 0
|0i =  0  , |1i =  1  , |2i =  0  .
0 0 1
Consider the normalized state (Aharonov state)

1
|ψi = √ (|012i − |021i + |120i − |102i + |201i − |210i)
6
where |012i = |0i ⊗ |1i ⊗ |2i etc and
 
1 0 0
S3 =  0 0 0 .
0 0 −1
Is |ψi an eigenstate of Sz ⊗ Sz ⊗ Sz ?

1
H= (σ1 ⊗ σ1 + σ2 ⊗ σ2 + σ3 ⊗ σ3 + I2 ⊗ I2 ).
2
(i) Is H hermitian? Find the trace of H.
(ii) Calculate H 2 and tr(H 2 ).
(iii) Using the result from (ii) calculate exp(iθH), exp(−iπH/4) and exp(−iπH/2).
(iv) Using the results from (i) and (ii) find the eigenvalues of H.
(v) Find the normalized eigenstates of H.

1
|ψi = √ (|0000i−|0011i−|0101i+|0110i+|1001i+|1010i+|1100i+|1111i)
2 2
where we used the notation |0000i ≡ |0i ⊗ |0i ⊗ |0i ⊗ |0i etc. and

1 0
|0i = , |1i = .
0 1
Calculate the states
(σ1 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ1 )|ψi, (σ1 ⊗ σ1 ⊗ I2 ⊗ σ3 )|ψi, (I2 ⊗ σ1 ⊗ σ1 ⊗ I2 )|ψi

and
(I2 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ2 )|ψi, (σ1 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ1 )|ψi, (I2 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ2 )|ψi.
Problem 13. The hyperdeterminant of a 2×2×2 hypermatrix C = (cijk )

(i, j, k ∈ { 0, 1 }) is defined by
1 1
1 X X
DetC := − ii0 jj 0 kk0 mm0 nn0 pp0 cijk ai0 j 0 m cnpk0 cn0 p0 m0
2
i,j,k,m,n,p=0 i0 ,j 0 ,k0 ,m0 ,n0 ,p0 =0
where 00 = 11 = 0, 01 = 1, 10 = −1.

(i) Calculate DetC.
(ii) Consider the three qubit state
1
X
|ψi = cijk |ii ⊗ |ji ⊗ |ki.
i,j,k=0
The three tangle τ3 is a measure of entanglement and is defined for the three
qubit state |ψi as
τ123 := 4|DetC|
where C = (cijk ). Find the three tangle for the GHZ-state
1
|GHZi = √ (|0i ⊗ |0i ⊗ |0i + |1i ⊗ |1i ⊗ |1i)
2
and the W -state
1
|W i = √ (|0i ⊗ |0i ⊗ |1i + |0i ⊗ |1i ⊗ |0i + |1i ⊗ |0i ⊗ |0i).
3
Problem 14. Calculate the product of the unitary matrices

exp(iπ(σ2 ⊗ I2 )/4) exp(−iπ(σ3 ⊗ σ3 )/4) exp(−iπ(σ1 ⊗ I2 )/4).
Problem 15. Let |0i, |1i be an orthonormal basis in C2 . Consider the

normalized state
X1
|ψi = cjk |ji ⊗ |ki
j,k=0
4
in the Hilbert space C and the 2 × 2 matrix C = (cjk ). Using the 4
coefficients cjk , j, k ∈ {0, 1}) we form a multilinear polynomial p in two
variables x1 , x2
p(x1 , x2 ) = c00 + c01 x1 + c10 x2 + c11 x1 x2 . (1)
Entanglement 117
Show that determinant det C = c00 c11 − c01 c10 is the unique irreducible
polynomial (up to sign) of content one in the 4 unkowns cjk that vanishes
whenever the system of equations
∂p ∂p
p= = =0 (2)
∂x1 ∂x2
has a solution (x∗1 , x∗2 ) in C2 .

normalized state
X1
|ψi = cjk` |ji ⊗ |ki ⊗ |`i
j,k,`=0
8
in the Hilbert space C and the 2 × 2 × 2 array C = (cjk` ) (j, k, ` ∈ {0, 1}.
Using the 8 coefficients cjk` we form a multilinear polynomial in three
variables x1 , x2 , x3
p(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = c000 +c001 x1 +c010 x2 +c100 x3 +c011 x1 x2 +c101 x1 x3 +c110 x2 x3 +c111 x1 x2 x3 .

(1)
Show that the hyperdeterminant
DetC = c2000 c2111 + c2001 c2110 + c2010 c2101 + c2100 c2011

−2(c000 c001 c110 c111 + c000 c010 c101 c111
+c000 c100 c011 c111 + c001 c010 c101 c110
+c001 c100 c011 c110 + c010 c100 c011 c101 )
+4(c000 c011 c101 c110 + c001 c010 c100 c111 )
is the unique irreducible polynomial (up to sign) of content one in the 8

unkowns cjk` that vanishes whenever the system of equations
∂p ∂p ∂p
p= = = =0 (2)
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
has a solution (x∗1 , x∗2 , x∗3 ) in C3 .

1
|ψi = √ (|Hi ⊗ |V i − |V i ⊗ |Hi).
2
We define a polarization state that is rotated by an angle α from the hori-
zontal axis as
|αi = cos(α)|Hi + sin(α)|V i
and analogously
|βi = cos(β)|Hi + sin(β)|V i.
Calculate the probability
2
p(α, β) = |(hα| ⊗ hβ|)|ψi| .

1
 
0
|ψi =  
0
0
and the unitary operator (4 × 4 matrix)
U = e−iπσ2 /4 ⊗ I2 .
Find the state U |ψi.

Hamilton operator
Ĥ = J(σ1 ⊗ σ1 + σ2 ⊗ σ2 + σ3 ⊗ σ3 ).
(i) Let = Jβ ≡ J/(kB T ), where kB is the Boltzmann constant and T the

absolute temperature and J > 0. Calculate
1 1
ρ() = exp(−β Ĥ) ≡ exp(−(σ1 ⊗ σ1 + σ2 ⊗ σ2 + σ3 ⊗ σ3 ))
Z() Z()
where Z() is the partition function
Z() = tr exp(−(σ1 ⊗ σ1 + σ2 ⊗ σ2 + σ3 ⊗ σ3 )).
(ii) The concurrence C(ρ()) is defined by
C(ρ()) = max(0, µ1 () − µ2 () − µ3 () − µ4 ())
where the µj ’s are the square roots of the eigenvalues of the 4 × 4 matrix
ρ(σ2 ⊗ σ2 )ρ∗ (σ2 ⊗ σ2 )
in decreasing order. Calculate C(ρ()) and discuss the result as function of

≡ Jβ.
Entanglement 119
Problem 20. Can we find 2 × 2 matrices S1 and S2 such that

1
 

1 1 1 0
(S1 ⊗ S2 ) ⊗ = √  . (1)
0 0 2 0
1
Problem 21. Let N be an integer larger than 5. Consider the following

state
N −1
1 X
|ψi = √ |j mod N i ⊗ |3j mod N i ⊗ |5j mod N i.
N j=0
Let U be the quantum Fourier transform. Calculate (U ⊗ U ⊗ U )|ψi. Write

the answer in the basis { |0i, |1i, . . . , |N − 1i}⊗3 . Show that it is the su-
perposition of equally probable states. Find the probability.
Ĥ = ~ωσ1 ⊗ σ3 ⊗ σ1
and the corresponding unitary operator
U (t) = e−iĤt/~ = e−iωtσ1 ⊗σ3 ⊗σ1 .
(i) Calculate Ĥ 2 and U (t).

(ii) Show that U (t) can be written as, i.e. we decompose U (t) into elemen-
tary gates of one qubit rotations and two qubits interactions,
U (t) = e−iπI⊗I⊗σ2 /4 eiπσ3 ⊗I⊗σ3 /4 eiπσ1 ⊗I⊗I/4 e−iωtσ3 ⊗σ3 ⊗I e−iπσ1 ⊗I⊗I/4 e−iπσ3 ⊗I⊗σ3 /4 eiπI⊗I⊗σ2 /4
where I is the 2 × 2 unit matrix.
Problem 23. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Find the 4 × 4

matrix
U = e−iπ(σ1 ⊗I2 )/4 e−iπ(σ3 ⊗σ3 )/4 e−iπ(σ2 ⊗I2 )/4 .
Is the matrix unitary?

1
H= (−~ω1 σ3 ⊗ I2 − ~ω2 I2 ⊗ σ3 + ~γσ3 ⊗ σ3 ) .
2
Find
U = e−iπ(σ1 ⊗I2 )/2 e−iHt/~ e−iπ(σ1 ⊗I2 )/2 e−iHt/~ .
Give an interpretation of the result.
|ψi = cos(α)|00i + sin(α)|11i, 0 < α < π/4
where α is called the Schmidt angle.

(i) Find the eigenvalues of the density matrix |ψihψ|.
(ii) Find the partically traced density matrix (we find when we trace over
one of the subsystems).
(iii) Show that the partically traced has two unequal and non-zero eigen-
values λ1 = cos2 (α) and λ2 = sin2 (α).
(iv) Calculate the von Neumann entropy for the corresponding density ma-
trix. Show that the entropy grows monotonically with the Schmidt angle.

1 1 1
UH = √ .
2 1 −1
Is UH ∈ SU (2)? Is iUH ∈ SU (2)?
Problem 27. Consider the finite-dimensional Hilbert space
HN := span{ |ni : n = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1 }
i.e. dim(H)N = N and hn|mi = δnm with m = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1. Let

N −1
1 X `
|φ` i := √ exp(inφ` )|ni, φ` := φ0 + 2π
N n=0 N
for ` ∈ ZN . We define a self-adjoint phase operator as

N
X −1
φ̂N := φ` |φ` ihφ` |.
`=0
Find the matrix elements of the phase operator φ̂N in the occupation num-
ber basis |ni with n = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1.
Problem 28. Calculate the three-tangle for the W -state

1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
|W i = √ ⊗ ⊗ + ⊗ ⊗ + ⊗ ⊗ .
3 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
Entanglement 121
Problem 29. Summarize the requirements for quantum computation.
Problem 30. Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of the

Hamilton operator
Ĥ = ~ω(σ3 ⊗ σ3 ) + ∆(σ1 ⊗ σ1 ).
Calculate exp(−iĤt/~).
Problem 31. Consider the XX-model described by the Hamilton oper-

ator
N
X
HXX = (J(σx,j σx,j+1 ) + Bσz,j )
j=1
with the periodic boundary conditions σ1,N +1 = σ1,1 , σ3,N +1 = σ3,1 . We

have
σ1,j = I2 ⊗ · · · ⊗ I2 ⊗ σ1 ⊗ I2 ⊗ · · · ⊗ I2
where σ1 is at the j-position with j = 1, 2, . . . , N . Let
N
X
Σ3 := σ3,j .
j=1
Calculate the commutator [HXX , Σ3 ]. Discuss.
Problem 32. Consider the Hamilton operator (so-called transverse XY -

model in one dimension)
L−1 L−1
X
X 1+γ x x 1−γ y y
Ĥ = −g σjz − σj σj+1 + σj σj+1
j=0 j=0
2 2
x y z
where σ , σ , σ are the Pauli spin matrices, 0 ≤ γ ≤ 1, g is a constant
y
x
and we impose cyclic boundary conditions. This means σL = σ0x , σL = σ0y ,
z z
σL = σ0 .
(i) Find the commutator [Ĥ, Ĉ], where
L−1
Y
Ĉ := σjz .
j=0
(ii) Calculate Ĉ 2 . Show that Ĉ and Ĉ 2 form a group under matrix mul-
tiplication. Give the character table. What are the eigenvalues of Ĉ? We
define
1
Q̂ := (I − Ĉ)
2
where I is the unit operator (2L × 2L identity matrix). Calculate the

eigenvalues of Q̂.
(iii) Let L = 4. Calculate the eigenvalues of Ĥ.
(iv) Let γ = 0. Calculate [Ẑ, Ĥ], where
L−1
X
Ẑ = σjz .
j=0
Discuss.

normalized state
X1
|ψi = cjk |ji ⊗ |ki.
j,k=0
Using the four coefficients cjk we form the polynomial p in the two variables
x1 , x2
p(x1 , x2 ) = c00 + c01 x1 + c10 x2 + c11 x1 x2 .
Consider the three equations p = 0, ∂p/∂x1 = 0, ∂p/∂x2 = 0, i.e.
p(x1 , x2 ) = c00 + c01 x1 + c10 x2 + c11 x1 x2 = 0
and
∂p
= c01 + c11 x2 = 0
∂x1
∂p
= c10 + c11 x1 = 0.
∂x2
Show that this system of three equations with two unkowns x1 , x2 only
admits solutions if
det(C) ≡ c00 c11 − c01 c10 = 0
where C is the 2 × 2 matrix

c00 c01
C= .
c10 c11
Problem 34. Consider the finite dimensional Hilbert space
HN := span{ |ni : n = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1 }
Entanglement 123
where hn0 |ni = δnn0 . Thus dimHN = N . We define the state

N −1
1 X `
|φ` i := √ exp(inφ` )|ni, φ` := φ0 + 2π
N n=0 N
for ` ∈ ZN . We define the linear operator

N
X −1
φ̂N := φ` |φ` ihφ` |.
n=0
Find the matrix elements of this linear operator in the occupation number
basis |ni.
n
Problem 35. We consider the finite-dimensional Hilbert space H = C2
and the normalized state
1
X
|ψi = cj1 ,j2 ,...,jn |j1 i ⊗ |j2 i ⊗ · · · ⊗ |jn i
j1 ,j2 ,...,jn =0
in this Hilbert space. Here |0i, |1i denotes the standard basis. Let jk
(j, k = 0, 1) be defined by 00 = 11 = 0, 01 = 1, 10 = −1. Let n be even
or n = 3. Then an n-tangle can be introduced by

1
X
τ1...n = 2 cα1 ...αn cβ1 ...βn cγ1 ...γn cδ1 ...δn

α1 ,...,α
...
n =0
δ ,...,δ
1 n =0

×α1 β1 α2 β2 · · · αn−1 βn−1 γ1 δ1 γ2 δ2 · · · γn−1 δn−1 αn γn βn δn .
√ √
(i) Consider the case n = 4 and a state |ψi with c0000 = 1/ 2, c1111 = 1/ 2
and all other coefficients are 0. Find τ1234 . √
(ii) Consider
√ the case n = 4 and a state |ψi with c0000 = 1/ 2, c1111 =
−1/ 2 and all other coefficients are 0. Find τ1234 . √
√ Consider the case n = 4 and a state |ψi with c0001 = 1/ 2, c1110 =
(iii)
1/ 2 and all other coefficients are 0. Find τ1234 . √
(iv) √ Consider the case n = 4 and a state |ψi with c0001 = 1/ 2, c1110 =
−1/ 2 and all other coefficients are 0. Find τ1234 .
Problem 36. The n-qubit Pauli group is defined by

Pn := { I2 , σ1 , σ2 , σ3 }⊗n ⊗ { ±1, ±i }
where σ1 , σ2 , σ3 are the 2 × 2 Pauli matrices and I2 is the 2 × 2 identity
matrix. The dimension of the Hilbert space under consideration is dim H =
2n . Thus each element of the Pauli group Pn is (up to an overall phase

±1, ±i) a Kronecker product of Pauli matrices and 2 × 2 identity matrices
acting on n qubits. What is the order of the n-qubit Pauli group?
Ĥ = ~ω(σ3 ⊗ σ3 ) + ∆1 σ1 ⊗ σ1 + ∆2 σ2 ⊗ σ2 .
(i) Find the eigenvalues. Discuss energy level crossing. Find the normalized
eigenvectors.
(ii) Calculate the commutators
[σ1 ⊗ σ1 , σ2 ⊗ σ2 ], [σ2 ⊗ σ2 , σ3 ⊗ σ3 ], [σ3 ⊗ σ3 , σ2 ⊗ σ2 ]
(iii) Use the result from (ii) to calculate exp(−iĤt/~).
Problem 38. Let σ1 = σ1 , σ2 = σ2 , σ3 = σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices.

We form the nine 4 × 4 matrices
Σjk := σj ⊗ σk , j, k = 1, 2, 3.
Note that [Σjk , Σmn ] = 0. The variance of an hermitian operator Ô and a

wave vector |φi is defined by
VÔ (|φi) := hφ|(Ô)2 |φi − (hφ|Ô|φi)2 .
The remoteness for a given normalized state |ψi in C4 is defined by

3 X
X 3
hψ|(Σjk )2 |ψi − (hψ|Σjk |ψi)2 .

R(|ψi) =
j=1 k=1
Find the remoteness for the Bell states

1 1
|φ+ i = √ (|0i ⊗ |0i + |1i ⊗ |1i), |φ− i = √ (|0i ⊗ |0i − |1i ⊗ |1i)
2 2
1 1
|ψ + i = √ (|0i ⊗ |1i + |1i ⊗ |0i), |ψ − i = √ (|0i ⊗ |1i − |1i ⊗ |0i).
2 2
Problem 39. Let e1 , e2 , e3 be the standard basis in the Hilbert space

C3 . Are the states in the Hilbert space C27 are entangled
1
√ (e1 ⊗e2 ⊗e3 +e2 ⊗e3 ⊗e1 +e3 ⊗e1 ⊗e2 +e1 ⊗e3 ⊗e2 +e3 ⊗e2 ⊗e1 +e2 ⊗e1 ⊗e3 )
6
Entanglement 125
1
√ (e1 ⊗e2 ⊗e3 +e2 ⊗e3 ⊗e1 +e3 ⊗e1 ⊗e2 −e1 ⊗e3 ⊗e2 −e3 ⊗e2 ⊗e1 −e2 ⊗e1 ⊗e3 )
6
1
√ ((e1 ⊗e2 ⊗e3 +e2 ⊗e1 ⊗e3 )+ε(e2 ⊗e3 ⊗e1 +e1 ⊗e3 ⊗e2 )+ε∗ (e3 ⊗e1 ⊗e2 +e3 ⊗e2 ⊗e1 ).
6
Problem 40. Find the entanglement (three tangle) as a function of θ of

the normalized state in C8
|ψi = cos(θ)e1 ⊗ e1 ⊗ e1 − i sin(θ)e2 ⊗ e2 ⊗ e2
where
1 0
e1 = , e2 =
0 1
and 0 < θ < π/4.
Problem 41. Given the eigenvalue equations Ax = λx, Ay = λy and

x∗ y = 0. Then A(x + y) = λ(x + y). Thus x + y is also an eigenvector
with eigenvalue λ. Consider the 4 × 4 matrix
0 0 0 1
 
0 0 1 0
σ1 ⊗ σ1 =  .
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
The eigenvalues are +1 (twice) and −1 (twice). The normalized eigenvec-

tors for +1 are
1 1
   

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1  −1 
√ ⊗√ =  , √ ⊗√ =  .
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 −1 2 −1 2 −1
1 1
These two states are orthonormal to each other and obviously not entangled.
The normalized eigenvectors for the eigenvalue −1 are
1 1
   

1 1 1 1 1  −1  1 1 1 1 1 1 
√ ⊗√ =  , √ ⊗√ =  .
2 1 2 −1 2 1 2 −1 2 1 2 −1
−1 −1
These two states are orthonormal to each other and obviously not entangled.
All four vectors form an orthonomal basis in C4 . Find linear combinations
of the two cases so that the eigenvectors are entangled and still form an
orthonormal basis in C4 .
Problem 42. Are the states in C4

1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
|±i = √ ⊗ ± ⊗ ± ⊗
2 0 0 2 1 0 2 0 1
entangled?
Problem 43. (i) Consider the two states in C4
1 cos(α) cos(β)
   

1 0 cos α cos β  cos(α) sin(β) 
|ψi = √   , |φi = ⊗ ≡ .
2 0 sin α sin β sin(α)cos(β)
1 sin(α) sin(β)
One defines
G(|ψi) = max |hφ|ψi|
α,β
as the maximum overlap between |ψi and the product state |φi. Find
G(|ψi).
(ii) Given the state
1
 
1 1
|χi =   .
2 1
1
Find G(|χi) with the product state given at (i). Discuss.
Problem 44. Consider a bipartite system and the product Hilbert space
H = H1 ⊗ H2 . Let |ψi ∈ H and normalized. Then a density matrix (pure
state)
ρ12 := |ψihψ|
is entangled when the density matrices
ρj = trk (ρ12 ), j, k = 1, 2, j 6= k
provided by partial tracing as non-zero von Neumann entropy, i.e.
S(ρj ) = −tr(ρj log(ρj )) 6= 0, j = 1, 2.
There is no entanglement if S(ρj ) = 0. Consider the Hilbert spaces H1 =

H2 = C3 and H = C9 . Is the normalized state in C9
1 T
|ψi = √ ( 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1)
3
entangled?
Entanglement 127
Problem 45. An entanglement measure is the relative entropy of entan-

glement. It is defined for a density matrix σ as
ER (σ) := min S(σkρ)

ρ∈D
where D is the set of density matrices with positive partial transpose (PPT
states) and
S(σkρ) := tr(σ log2 (σ) − σ log2 (ρ)).
Find S(σkρ) for the density matrix (one of the Werner states)
2 0 0 0
 
1 0 1 1 0
σ=  .
6 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 2
Problem 46. Let

1 0
|1i = , |0i = .
0 1
Show that the normalized state

1
(|0i⊗|0i⊗|0i⊗|0i+|1i⊗|0i⊗|0i⊗|1i+|0i⊗|0i⊗|1i⊗|0i+|1i⊗|0i⊗|1i⊗|1i)
2
in the Hilbert space C16 is three-separable and thus biseparable.
Problem 47. Are the vectors

1 0
   
 cos(π/4)   sin(π/4) 
v1 =  , v2 = 
cos(π/2) sin(π/2)

cos(3π/4) sin(3π/4)
entangled?
Problem 48. Can the normalized vector in C16

1
(|0i⊗|0i⊗|0i⊗|0i+|0i⊗|1i⊗|0i⊗|1i+|1i⊗|0i⊗|1i⊗|0i+|1i⊗|1i⊗|1i⊗|1i)
2
be written as Kronecker product of lower dimensional vectors?
Problem 49. Let H be the finite dimensional Hilbert space Cd . Let Id

be the d × d identity matrix and A an arbitrary d × d matrix over C. We
call a vector |Ψi ∈ H ⊗ H maximally entangled, if it normalized, and its

reduced density matrix is maximally mixed, i.e., a multiple of Id
1
hΨ(A ⊗ Id )|Ψi = tr(A).
d
(i) Let d = 2. Consider the normalized state
1
 
1 0
|Ψi = √   .
2 0
1
Calculate hΨ|(A ⊗ I2 )|Ψi and d1 tr(A).

(ii) Let d = 2. Consider the normalized state
1
 
1 1
|Ψi =   .
2 1
1
Calculate hΨ|(A ⊗ I2 )|Ψi and d1 tr(A).
Problem 50. (i) Is the state in C4
1
 
1 0
|ψi = √  
2 1
0
entangled?
(ii) Is the state in C4  
0
1 
|ψi = √ −i 
2 0 i
entangled?
Problem 51. We set

1 0
| ↑i = , | ↓i = .
0 1
Can the state in C16

1
(| ↑↑↑↑i + | ↑↓↓↑i + | ↓↑↑↓i + | ↓↓↓↓i)
2
Entanglement 129
be written as the Kronecker product of 2×8, 8×2, 4×4 normalized vectors?
Problem 52. Consider the three spin-1 matrices

     
0 1 0 0 −i 0 1 0 0
1 1
S1 = √  1 0 1  , S2 = √  i 0 −i  , S3 =  0 0 0 .
2 0 1 0 2 0 i 0 0 0 −1
Apply the vec-operator to these matrices and then normalize them. Can
the vectors be written as Kronecker products of vectors in C3 ?
Chapter 11
Bell Inequality
Problem 1. Consider four observers: Alice (A), Bob (B), Charlie (C)
and Dora (D) each having one of the qubits. Every observer is allowed
to choose between two dichotomic observables. Denote the outcome of
observer X’s measurement by Xi (X = A, B, C, D) with i = 1, 2. Under
the assumption of local realism, each outcome can either take the value
+1 or −1. The correlations between the measurement outcomes of all four
observers can be represented by the product Ai Bj Ck Dl , where i, j, k, l =
1, 2. In a local realistic theory, the correlation function of the measurement
performed by all four observers is the average of Ai Bj Ck Dl over many runs
of the experiment
Q(Ai Bj Ck Dl ) := hψ|Ai Bj Ck Dl |ψi
The Mermin-Ardehali-Belinskii-Klyshko inequality is given by
Q(A1 B1 C1 D1 ) − Q(A1 B1 C1 D2 ) − Q(A1 B1 C2 D1 ) − Q(A1 B2 C1 D1 )

−Q(A2 B1 C1 D1 ) − Q(A1 B1 C2 D2 ) − Q(A1 B2 C1 D2 ) − Q(A2 B1 C1 D2 )
−Q(A1 B2 C2 D1 ) − Q(A2 B1 C2 D1 ) − Q(A2 B2 C1 D1 ) + Q(A2 B2 C2 D2 )
+Q(A2 B2 C2 D1 ) + Q(A2 B2 C1 D2 ) + Q(A2 B1 C2 D2 ) + Q(A1 B2 C2 D2 ) ≤ 4 .
Each observer X measures the spin of each qubit by projecting it either

along nX X
1 or n2 . Every observer can independently choose between two
arbitrary directions. For a four qubit state |ψi, the correlation functions
are thus given by
Q(Ai Bj Ck Dl ) = hψ|(nA B C D
i · σ) ⊗ (nj · σ) ⊗ (nk · σ) ⊗ (nl · σ)|ψi .
130
Bell Inequality 131
where · denotes the scalar product, i.e. nX X X X

j · σ := nj1 σ1 + nj2 σ2 + nj3 σ3 .
Let
       
1 0 0 0
nA
1 =  0  , nA
2 =  0  , nB
1 =  1  , nB
2 =  0
0 1 0 1
       
0 0 −1 1
1 1
nC1 =  1  , nC
2 =  0  , nD
1 = √  0  , n D
2 = √  0 .
0 1 2 1 2 1
Show that the Mermin-Ardehali-Belinskii-Klyshko inequality is violated for
the state
1
|ψi = √ (|0000i−|0011i−|0101i+|0110i+|1001i+|1010i+|1100i+|1111i)
2 2
where
1 0
|0i = , |1i = .
0 1
and |0000i ≡ |0i ⊗ |0i ⊗ |0i ⊗ |0i etc..
Chapter 12
Quantum Channels
We consider the Hilbert space H of n × n matrices over C with the scalar

product (Frobenius inner product)
hA, Bi := tr(AB ∗ )
with A, B ∈ H. A state is described using n × n density matrices ρ, i.e.
tr(ρ) = 1 and ρ ≥ 0 (positive semidefinite). The space of trace-class oper-
ators acting in this Hilbert space is denoted by S(H). A quantum channel
from a Hilbert space HA to a Hilbert space HB is represented by a com-
pletely positive trace-preserving map Φ : S(HA ) → S(HB ). Such a posi-
tive trace-preserving map can be represented in Stinespring representation,
Kraus operator representation and Choi-Jamiolkowski representation.
Let Hn denote the vector space of n × n Hermitian matrices over the real
numbers. We say that ρ ∈ Hn is positive semi-definite (or ρ ≥ 0) if x∗ ρ x ≥
0 for all x ∈ Cn , or equivalently: all of the eigenvalues of ρ are non-negative.
A linear map ψ : Hn → Hp is TPCP (trace-preserving completely positive)
if
1. TP (trace-preserving): ∀ρ ∈ Hn , trρ = trψ(ρ)
2. CP (completely positive): ∀m ∈ N, ρ ∈ Hmn ,
ρ≥0 ⇒ (ψ ⊗ Im×m )(ρ) ≥ 0
where Im×m is the identity operator on m × m matrices.
132
Quantum Channels 133
Problem 1. Let Hn be the vector space of n × n hermitian matrices.

The adjoint (conjugate transpose) of a matrix A ∈ Cn×n is denoted by A∗ ,
Consider a family V1 , V2 , . . . , Vm of n × n matrices over C. We associate
with this family the completely positive map ψ : Hn → Hn defined by
m
X
ψ(X) = Vj XVj∗ .
j=1
The map ψ is said to be a Kraus map if ψ(In ) = In , i.e.

m
X
Vj Vj∗ = In
j=1
and the matrices V1 , V2 , . . . , Vm are called Kraus operators.
Let m = n = 2 and

0 1 0 0
V1 = , V2 = .
0 0 1 0
Show that V1 and V2 are Kraus operators and find the associated Kraus
map.
Problem 2. Let ψ : Hn → Hn be a Kraus map. Thus ψ is linear. Show

that there exists Ψ ∈ Cn×n such that for all X ∈ Hn
vec(ψ(X)) = Ψ vec(X)
where 1 is an eigenvalue of Ψ. What is a corresponding eigenvector?
Problem 3. Find all Kraus maps ψ : H2 → H2 , associated with families

of 2 Kraus operators (V1 and V2 ), which provide the transformation

1 0 0 0
ψ = .
0 0 0 1
Calculate
0 0
ψ .
0 1
Is there a Kraus map associated with a single Kraus operator which also
provides this transformation?
Problem 4. Let p ∈ [0, 1] and σ1 , σ2 , σ3 , σ0 = I2 be the Pauli spin

matrices.
(i) Show that the four 2 × 2 matrices

√ √ √ √
1 + 3p 1−p 1−p 1−p
K0 = σ0 , K1 = σ1 , K2 = σ2 , K3 = σ3
2 2 2 2
are Kraus operators.
(ii) Show that the sixteen 4 × 4 matrices
Kj ⊗ K` , j, ` = 0, 1, 2, 3
are Kraus operators, where ⊗ denotes the Kronecker product.

(iii) Show that the sixteen 4 × 4 matrices
Kj ? K ` , j, ` = 0, 1, 2, 3
are Kraus operators, where ? denotes the star product.
Problem 5. Let Kj (j = 1, . . . , m) be n × n matrices over C with

m
X
Kj Kj∗ = In .
j=1
Show that
m X
X m
(Kj ⊗ K` )(Kj∗ ⊗ K`∗ ) = In ⊗ In ≡ In2 .
j=1 `=1
Problem 6. Let Kj (j = 1, . . . , m) be 2 × 2 matrices over C with

m
X
Kj Kj∗ = I2 .
j=1
Show that
m X
X m
(Kj ? K` )(Kj∗ ? K`∗ ) = I2 ⊗ I2 = I4 .
j=1 `=1
Problem 7. (i) Let A be an n × n matrix over C. Let G be a finite group

given by n × n matrices over C and g ∈ G. Consider the linear map
1 X
A 7→ A
e= gAg −1
|G|
g∈G
where |G| denotes the number of elements in the finite group G. Show that
tr(A) = tr(A).
e
(ii) Is the determinant preserved under the linear map?
(iii) Let A be positive semi-definite. Is A
e positive semi-definite?
(iv) Apply it to the case of 4 × 4 matrices with
1 0 0 1
 
1 0 0 0 0
A=ρ= 
2 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1
and the group is given by the 4×4 permutation matrices with |G| = 4! = 24.
Problem 8. Let ρ1 , ρ2 ∈ Hn be positive semi-definite matrices.

(i) Is ρ3 = ρ1 + ρ2 positive semi-definite?
(ii) Is ρ4 = kρ1 (k ∈ C) positive semi-definite?
(iii) Let ρ5 ∈ Hn such that ρ1 + ρ5 is positive semi-definite. Is ρ5 positive
semi-definite?
Problem 9. Show that a linear map ψ : Hn → Hp is a TP map if

∗
and only if ψ ∗ (In ) = In where denotes the adjoint with respect to the
Frobenius inner product and In is the n × n identity matrix.

n
X
ρ0 := Eij ⊗ Eij ∈ Hn2
i,j=1
is positive semi-definite, where Eij is the n × n matrix with a 1 in row i

and column j and 0 elsewhere.
Problem 11. An orthonormal basis, with respect to the Frobenius inner

product, for Hn (n ≥ 2) is given by B = B1 ∪ B2 where

1
B1 = √ (Ejk + Ekj ) : j, k = 1, . . . , n, j ≤ k
2

i
B2 = √ (Ejk − Ekj ) : j, k = 1, . . . , n, j < k .
2
Express
n
X
ρ0 := Eij ⊗ Eij ∈ Hn2
i,j=1
in terms of this basis.
Problem 12. Show that a linear map ψ : Hn → Hp is a CP map if and

only if (ψ ⊗ In×n )(ρ0 ) is positive semi-definite where
n
X
ρ0 := Eij ⊗ Eij ∈ Hn2 .
i,j=1
Problem 13. Is the map ψ : Hn → Hp given by ψ(ρ) = ρT completely

positive?
Problem 14. Let ψ : Hn → Hp given by

2
n
X
ψ(ρ) := Vk ρVk∗
k=1
be a CP map. Find the condition on V1 , . . . , Vn2 such that ψ is TP (and

hence TPCP).
Problem 15. Let ψ : Hn → Hp given by

2
n
X
ψ(ρ) := Vk ρVk∗
k=1
be a CP map. Show that there exists a matrix V such that

ψ(ρ) = trm V (ρ ⊗ In2 )V ∗ .
Problem 16. A minimal Stinespring representation of a CP map ψ :

Hn → Hp is a represenatation
ψ(ρ) = trm V (ρ ⊗ Im )V ∗
where m is minimal. This corresponds to minimizing the number of non-
zero Kraus operators Vk in a Kraus representation
m
X
ψ(ρ) := Vk ρVk∗ .
k=1
Given a Kraus representation

2
n
X
ψ(ρ) := Vek ρVek∗ .
k=1
Consider Let
2
n
X
A= (vecVek )(vecVek )∗ .
k=1
The matrix A is positive definite and thus has a spectral decomposition

m
X
A= λk vk vk ∗
k=1
where m is the rank of A and λ1 , . . . , λm > 0. We √find the Kraus operators

Vk for the minimal representation from vecVk = λk vk . Find a minimal
representation for the completely map on H2 given by

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
Ve1 = , Ve2 = , Ve3 = , Ve4 = .
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
Problem 17. Consider the Kraus operators K1 and K2

0 1 ∗ 0 0 0 0 ∗ 0 1
K1 = ⇒ K1 = , K2 = ⇒ K2 =
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
and an arbitrary 2 × 2 matrix A = (ajk ). Then

∗ ∗ a22 0
K1 AK1 + K2 AK2 = .
0 a11
So the trace is preserved under this transformation. Let c†1 , c†2 , c1 , c2

be Fermi creation and annihilatin operators, respectively. Consider the
operators
0 1
†
K̂1 = c1 c2 †
= c†1 c2 K̂1† = c†2 c1
0 0

0 0
K̂2 = c†1 c†2 = c†2 c1 K̂2† = c†1 c2
1 0
and

c1
c†1 c†2 = a11 c†1 + a12 c†1 c2 + a21 c†2 c†2 c1 + a22 c†2 c2 .

Â = A
c2
Find the operator

K̂1 ÂK̂1† + K̂2 ÂK̂2† .
Chapter 13
Miscellaneous
Problem 1. Let H0 and V be n × n hermitian matrices and ∈ R.

Consider the hermitian matrix H = H0 + V . Let
U (β) = e−β(H0 +V )
with β ≥ 0. Then
dU (β)
= −(H0 + V )e−β(H0 +V ) = −(H0 + V )U (β)
dβ
where U (β = 0) = In . Let
U (β) = e−βH0 W (β).
(i) Show that W (β) is given by
X∞ Z β Z β1 Z βk−1
k k
W (β) = (−1) ··· dβ1 dβ2 · · · dβk Ve (β1 )Ve (β2 ) · · · Ve (βk ).
k=0 0 0 0
where Ve (β) := eβH0 V e−βH0 .

(ii) Apply (i) to

1 0 0 1
H0 = ~ω , V =∆ .
0 1 1 0
Problem 2. Let H, A, B be hermitian matrices. Let

A(t) := eiHt Ae−iHt , B(s) := eiHs Be−iHs
138
Miscellaneous 139
where s, t ∈ R. Show that
tr(A(t)B(s)e−βH ) = tr(eiH(t−s) Ae−iH(t−s) Be−βH ).
Problem 3. Let Ĥ(t) be a given time-dependent hermitian Hamilton

operator given as an n × n matrix. We assume that Ĥ(t) depends smoothly
on t. Find the solution of the initial value problem of the matrix differential
equation
dU (t) i
= − Ĥ(t)U (t), U (0) = In
dt ~
where In is the n×n identity matrix. Apply the ansatz (Magnus expansion)
U (t) = exp(Ω(t))
P∞
and Ω(t) = k=1 Ωk (t). Find the first two terms in the expansion, i.e. find
Ω1 (t) and Ω2 (t).
Ĥ = ~ωσ 1 · σ 2 ≡ ~ω(σ1 ⊗ σ1 + σ2 ⊗ σ2 + σ3 ⊗ σ3 ).
Find the eigenvalues and normalized eigenvectors of Ĥ.
Problem 5. Let A, H be n × n hermitian matrices, where H plays the

role of the Hamilton operator. The Heisenberg equations of motion is given
by
dA(t) i
= [H, A(t)].
dt ~
with A = A(t = 0) = A(0). Let Ej (j = 1, 2, . . . , n2 ) be an orthonormal
basis in the Hilbert space H of the n × n matrices with scalar product
hX, Y i := tr(XY ∗ ), X, Y ∈ H.
Now A(t) can be expanded using this orthonormal basis as

2
n
X
A(t) = cj (t)Ej
j=1
and H can be expanded as

2
n
X
H= hj Ej .
j=1
Find the time evolution for the coefficients cj (t), i.e. dcj /dt, where j =
1, 2, . . . , n2 .
Problem 6. Consider the standard basis in the Hilbert space C9
|00i, |01i, |02i, |10i, |11i, |11i, |12i, |20i, |21i, |22i
where |00i ≡ |0i ⊗ |0i, and |0i, |1i, |2i is the standard basis in C3 . Show
that the normalized states
2
1 X 2πijn/3
|ψinm = √ e |ji ⊗ |(j + m) mod 3i
3 j=0
i.e.
1
|ψi00 = √ (|00i + |11i + |22i)
3
1
|ψi10 = √ (|00i + e2πi/3 |11i + e4πi/3 |22i)
3
1
|ψi20 = √ (|00i + e4πi/3 |11i + e2πi/3 |22i)
3
1
|ψi01 = √ (|01i + |12i + |20i)
3
1
|ψi11 = √ (|01i + e2πi/3 |12i + e4πi/3 |20i)
3
1
|ψi21 = √ (|01i + e4πi/3 |12i + e2πi/3 |20i)
3
1
|ψi02 = √ (|02i + |10i + |21i)
3
1
|ψi12 = √ (|02i + e2πi/3 |10i + e4πi/3 |21i)
3
1
|ψi22 = √ (|02i + e4πi/3 |10i + e2πi/3 |21i)
3
form an orthonormal basis in the Hilbert space C9 .

0 0 0 0

|ψi = −E1 E2 ei(k1 ·r+k2 ·r )−i(ω1 t+ω2 t ) + ei(k2 ·r+k1 ·r )−i(ω2 t+ω1 t ) |0i ⊗ |0i.
Find
w ∝ hψ|ψi.
Miscellaneous 141
Problem 8. Let Â be a nonzero bounded linear operator in a Hilbert

space H. Let |ni, |mi be normalized states in the Hilbert space H. We
define
hm|ÂÂ† |ni
S(|mi, |ni, Â) := q q .
hm|ÂÂ† |mi hn|ÂÂ† |ni
Consider the Hilbert space C2 . Calculate S for Â = σ1 and the normalized

states
1 1 1
|ui = , |vi = √ .
0 2 −1
Problem 9. Consider the state |ψi

1
X
|ψi = cj0 ,j1 ,...,jN −1 |j0 i ⊗ |j1 i ⊗ · · · ⊗ |jN −1 i
j0 ,j1 ,...,jn =0
n
in the Hilbert space C2 . The bitstring j0 j1 . . . jN −1 can be mapped one-
to-one into a non-negative integer j
N
X −1
j= jk 2k
k=0
where jk ∈ {0, 1}. Thus we can write the state as

N −1
2X
|ψi = cj |ji.
j=0
We can associate a polynomial with the state |ψi via

N −1
2X
p(|ψi, x) = cj x j .
j=0
(i) Consider the Bell state (N = 2)

1
|ψi = √ (|0i ⊗ |0i + |1i ⊗ |1i).
2
Find the polynomial of |ψi and calculate the roots.
(ii) Consider the state (N = 2)
1
|φi = (|0i ⊗ |0i + |1i ⊗ |0i − |0i ⊗ |1i − |1i ⊗ |1i).
2
Find the polynomial of |φi and calculate the roots.
Problem 10. Let A, B be observable, i.e. hermitian matrices. Then the

uncertainty relation is given by
1
∆2 A · ∆2 B ≥ |h[A, B]i|2 + cov(A, B)
4
where [ , ] denotes the commutator,
1
cov(A, B) := (hABi + hBAi) − hAihBi
2
and
∆2 A := cov(A, A).
This inequality can generalized to 2n observable A1 , A2 , . . . , A2n . We have
det(Σ) ≥ det(C)
where
i
Σk` = cov(Ak , A` ), Ck` = − h[Ak , A` ]i.
2
Let
1 1
A = σ1 , B = σ2 , |ψi = √ .
2 −1
Find the left-hand side and right-hand side of the inequality.
Problem 11. The most general real three-qubit state can be written as
|ψi = −c3 cos2 θ|0i ⊗ |0i ⊗ |1i − c2 |0i ⊗ |1i ⊗ |0i + c3 sin(θ) cos(θ)|0i ⊗ |1i ⊗ |1i
−c1 |1i ⊗ |0i ⊗ |0i − c3 sin(θ) cos(θ)|1i ⊗ |0i ⊗ |1i + (c0 + c3 sin2 (θ))|1i ⊗ |1i ⊗ |1i
where c0 , c1 , c2 , c3 , θ are real parameters. Classify the state with respect to

entanglement.
Problem 12. Let A, B be n × n matrices acting in the Hilbert space Cn .

Then A, B can be considered as observable. The two overvable A and B
are called complementary if their eigenvalues are non-degenerate and any
two normalized eigenvectors aj of A and bj of B satisfy
1
|a∗j bk | = √
n
where ∗ means transpose and conjugate complex. Give an example for such
hermitian matrices in C2 .
Miscellaneous 143
Problem 13. Two orthonormal bases
{ uj : j = 1, 2, . . . , n }, { vk : k = 1, 2, . . . , n }
in the Hilbert space Cn are called mutually unbiased if

1
u∗j vk = √ for all j, k ∈ { 1, 2, . . . , n }.
n
(i) Give an example in C2 .

(ii) Give an example in C4 .
Problem 14. Solve the initial value problem of the optical Bloch equa-
tions.
dρ11 dρ22 b
=− = i (e−i(ω−α)t ρ12 − ei(ω−α)t ρ21 )
dt dt 2
dρ12 dρ∗ b
= 21 = i ei(ω−α)t (ρ11 − ρ22 )
dt dt 2
with the initial conditions
ρ11 (0) = ρ12 (0) = ρ21 (0) = 0, ρ22 (0) = 1.
Problem 15. Consider a finite dimensional Hilbert space. Let Ĥ be a

hermitian Hamilton operator. Let |ψi be the normalized ground state of
the system, i.e. Ĥ|ψi = E0 |ψi. Let |φi be another normalized state. Let
F̂ be a positive semidefinite operator and hφ|F̂ |φi > 0. Then we have the
inequality
(hφ|ψihφ|F̂ |φi − (∆F̂ )(1 − hφ|ψi2 )1/2 )2

hψ|F̂ |ψi ≥
hφ|F̂ |φi
where
(∆F )2 := hφ|F̂ 2 |φi − hφ|F̂ |φi2 .
The inequality follows from the non-negativity of the Gramian determinant
of the vectors |ψi, |φi, and F̂ |φi. Consider the Hilbert space C2 and the
Hamilton operator
0 1
Ĥ = ~ω
1 0
the positive semidefinite operator

1 1
F̂ =
1 1
and the normalized states

1 1 1
|ψi = √ , |φi =
2 −1 0
with Ĥ|ψi = E0 |ψi and E0 = −~ω. Apply the inequality to these operators
and states, i.e. calculate the left and right-hand side of the inequality.
Problem 16. Consider the normalized states in the Hilbert space C3

     
1 0 1
1   1
|ψ1 i = √ 0 , |ψ2 i =  1  , |ψ3 i = √  0  .
2 1 0 2 −1
Find the unitary matrices U12 , U23 , U31 such that
|ψ2 i = U12 |ψ1 i, |ψ3 i = U23 |ψ2 i, |ψ1 i = U31 |ψ3 i.

1 1 1
UH = √ .
2 1 −1
Is UH ∈ SU (2)? Is iUH ∈ SU (2)?
Problem 18. The available uncertainty relations in finite-dimensional

Hilbert spaces are those of Robertson and Schrödinger. Let ρ be the state
of the quantum system (density matrix), i.e. a positive semi-definite, self-
adjoint linear operator with tr(ρ) = 1. The mean value functional is
h · i := tr(ρ·).
Then for two self-adjoint operators, A and B, the variance is defined by
(∆A)2 := hA2 i − hAi2 , (∆B)2 := hB 2 i − hBi2 .
We have the inequalities

1
(∆A)(∆B) ≥ |hABi − hAihBi| ≥ |h[A, B]i|.
2
Note that we have the identity
1 1 1
|hABi|2 = |h[A, B]+ i + h[A, B]i|2 = |h[A, B]+ i|2 + |h[A, B]i|2 .
4 4 4
Miscellaneous 145
(i) Let
1/2 0
A = σ1 , B = σ2 , ρ= .
0 1/2
Calculate the left-hand side of the inequalty and the right-hand sides of the
inequality. Discuss.
(ii) Let
1/4 0 0 0
 
 0 1/4 0 0 
A = σ1 ⊗ σ1 , B = σ2 ⊗ σ2 , ρ= .
0 0 1/4 0
0 0 0 1/4
Calculate the left-hand side of the inequalty and the right-hand sides of the
inequality. Discuss.
Problem 19. A spin- 21 system in a time-dependent magnetic fields S(t)

is described by the Hamilton operator
1 1
Ĥ(t) = ~ωσ3 + ~γS(t)σ1
2 2
where σ1 and σ3 are the Pauli matrices

0 1 1 0
σ1 = , σ3 = .
1 0 0 −1
Then the Schrödinger equation

∂ψ
i~ = Ĥ(t)ψ
∂t
for the spinor ψ = (ψ1 , ψ2 )T takes the form
dψ1 1 1 dψ2 1 1
i = − ωψ1 + γS(t)ψ2 , i = ωψ2 + γS(t)ψ1 .
dt 2 2 dt 2 2
Rewrite this system in terms of the observable Bloch variables
A(t) := |ψ2 |2 − |ψ1 |2 , B(t) := i(ψ2 ψ1∗ − ψ1 ψ2∗ ), C(t) := ψ2 ψ1∗ + ψ1 ψ2∗ .
Problem 20. Consider the operators
∂2 ∂
H1 = 1, H2 = x, H3 = , H4 = i .
∂x2 ∂x
(i) Show that we have a nilpotent Lie algebra under the commutator.
(ii) Let
1 df
α1 (t) = cf (t), α2 (t) = c, α3 (t) = − , α4 (t) = .
2 dt
Consider the Hamilton operator
4
X
K= αj (t)Hj
j=1
and the Schrödinger equation

∂ψ
i = Kψ.
∂t
We write the solution of the Schrödinger equation in the form
ψ(x, t) = U (t, 0)ψ(x, 0)
where the unitary time evolution operator is give by
U (t, 0) = exp(β1 (t)H1 ) exp(β2 (t)H2 ) exp(β3 (t)H3 ) exp(β4 (t)H4 ).
Find the system of ordinary differential equations for βj (t) (j = 1, 2, 3, 4)

and solve them.
Problem 21. Consider the spin Hamilton operator
Ĥ = ∆1 σ1 ⊗ σ1 + ∆2 σ2 ⊗ σ2 + ∆3 σ3 ⊗ σ3 .
Let K̂ = β Ĥ. The partition function is
Z(β) = tr exp(−K).
The logarithm of the partition function is given by the cumulant expansion

1
ln(Z(β)) = ln tr(I) − hKi + (hK 2 i − hKi2 )
2!
1
− (hK 3 i − 3hK 2 ihKi + 2hKi3 )
3!
1
+ (hK 4 i − 4hK 3 ihKi − 3hK 2 i2 + 12hK 2 ihKi2 − 6hKi4 )
4!
−···
Here I is the identity operator given by In ⊗ In with n = 2 and

tr(· · ·)
h· · ·i := .
trI
Miscellaneous 147
Calculate the function ln(Z(β)) up to this order.
Problem 22. Let |ψi, |φi be normalized states in the Hilbert space Cn .
Let K be a positive semi-definite matrix in Cn . Show that
 
1 hφ|ψi hφ|K|ψi
G := det  hφ|ψi 1 hφ|K|φi  ≥ 0.
hφ|K|ψi hφ|K|φi hφ|K 2 |φi
G is called the Gramian. Apply it to the Hilbert space C2 and

1 1 1 1 1
|ψi = , |φi = √ , K= .
0 2 1 1 1
Problem 23. Let C = (cjk ) (j, k = 1, . . . , n) be an n × n matrix with

real entries. Then C is called a quantum correlation matrix if there are
self-adjoint operators Aj , Bk (j, k = 1, . . . , n) on a Hilbert space H with
kAj k ≤ 1, kBk k ≤ 1 and u in the unit sphere of H ⊗ H such that
cjk = h(Aj ⊗ Bk )u, ui
where h , i denotes the scalar product. If the self-adjoint operators Aj ,

Bk (j, k = 1, . . . , n) commute the matrix C is called a classical correlation
matrix. Consider the case with n = 3, the Hilbert space C2 , A1 = B1 = σ1 ,
A2 = B2 = σ2 , A3 = B3 = σ3 and the Bell state
1
uT = √ ( 1 0 0 1).
2
Find the correlation matrix C. What is the significance of this matrix?
Problem 24. Let
T̂ (X, P ) = exp(i(P x̂ − X p̂)/~)
be the phase space translation operator. Show that
T̂ (X1 , P1 )T̂ (X2 , P2 ) = exp(i(X2 P1 − X1 P2 )/(2~))T̂ (X1 + X2 , P1 + P2 ).
Problem 25. The group generator of the compact Lie group SU (2) can
be written as

1 ∂ ∂ i ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
J1 = z1 + z2 , J2 = z2 − z1 , J3 = z1 − z2 .
2 ∂z2 ∂z1 2 ∂z1 ∂z2 2 ∂z1 ∂z2
(i) Find
J+ = J1 + iJ2 , J− = J1 − iJ2 .
(ii) Let j = 0, 1, 2, . . . and m = −j, −j + 1, . . . , 0, . . . , j. We define
1
ejm (z1 , z2 ) = p z1j+m z2j−m .
(j + m)!(j − m)!
Find
J+ ejm (z1 , z2 ), J− ejm (z1 , z2 ), J3 ejm (z1 , z2 )
(iii) Let
1
J 2 = J12 + J22 + J32 ≡ (J+ J− + J− J+ ) + J32 .
2
Find
J 2 ejm (z1 , z2 ).
Problem 26. Show that the operators

∂ ∂
L+ = zz, L− = −
∂z ∂z

1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
L3 = − z +z +1 , L0 = − z −z +1 .
2 ∂z ∂z 2 ∂z ∂z
form a basis for the Lie algebra su(1, 1) under the commutator.
Miscellaneous 149
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Representation Theory
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Matrix Computations, Third Edition,
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Differential geometry, gauge theories, and gravity
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Problems and Solutions in Theoretical and Mathematical Physics,
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Problems and Solutions in Theoretical and Mathematical Physics,
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Index
W -state, 116 Magnus expansion, 139

π-meson, 59 Moller wave operators, 57
Mutually unbiased, 27
Aharonov state, 115 Mutually unbiased bases, 8
Bell matrix, 43, 50, 53, 54, 96, 101 Optical Bloch equations, 143
Bell states, 69
Bloch variables, 145 Partition function, 14, 146
Braid-like relation, 103 Pauli group, 97, 123
Pauli spin matrices, 52
Cayley transform, 74 Phase operator, 120
Clifford group, 98
Complementary, 142 Quantum correlation function, 42
Quantum correlation matrix, 147
Dicke states, 18
Remoteness, 124
Entropic uncertainty relation, 108 Schrödinger equation, 96
Exceptional points, 6 Shannon information entropy, 108
Spin coherent state, 35
Feynman gate, 89
Spin-1, 44, 51
Fredkin gate, 90–92
Stinespring representation, 136
Generalized Fredkin gate, 91 Three tangle, 116
Generalized Toffoli gate, 91 Three-tangle, 120
GHZ-state, 13, 116 Toffoli gate, 56, 90, 91
Gramian, 147 Translation operator, 147
Gramian determinant, 143
Uncertainty relation, 142
Hadamard basis, 21 Uncertainty relations, 144
Half-adder, 92
Hyperdeterminat, 116 Variance, 3, 124
Klein inequality, 85 W-state, 13

Kraus map, 133 Werner state, 77
Kraus operators, 133
155

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updated: August 4, 2017

The purpose of this book is to supply a collection of problems in quantum

Prescribed books for problems.

1) Problems and Solutions in Quantum Computing and Quantum Informa-

by Willi-Hans Steeb and Yorick Hardy

2) Classical and Quantum Computing with C++ and Java Simulations

by Yorick Hardy and Willi-Hans Steeb

3) Matrix Calculus and Kronecker Product

4) Problems and Solutions in Introductory and Advanced Matrix Calculus

5) Continous Symmetries, Lie Algebras, Differential Equations and Com-

e-mail addresses of the author:

2 Kronecker and Tensor Product 12

6 Reversible Logic Gates 89

7 Unitary Transformations and Quantum Gates 95

11 Bell Inequality 130

12 Quantum Channels 132

|Ψ+ (θ)i := cos(θ)|0i + sin(θ)|1i, |Ψ− (θ)i := cos(θ)|0i − sin(θ)|1i.

Problem 2. (i) Consider the normalized vector in the Hilbert space C3

Show that the vector is normalized.

where σ1 , σ2 , σ3 are the Pauli spin matrices.

Problem 3. Consider the states

in the Hilbert space C2 .

(ii) Find the states after the transformation φ → φ + 2π.

Problem 4. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices and I2 the 2 × 2

where ε0 > 0. Are the normalized eigenvectors orthonormal to each other?

Problem 5. Let Ĥ be a 2 × 2 hermitian matrix. Consider the normalized

hψ|Ĥ|ψi = ~ω cos(φ) sin(2θ), hψ|Ĥ 2 |ψi = ~2 ω 2 .

Reconstruct the hermitian matrix Ĥ from these three assumptions. Note

Problem 6. (i) Consider the symmetric matrix over R

and the state  

VH (|ψi) = hψ|H 2 |ψi − (hψ|H|ψi)2 .

(ii) Consider the Hadamard matrix

and the state  

VH (ψ) := hψ|H 2 |ψi − (hψ|H|ψi)2

and discuss the dependence on θ.

Problem 7. Let Â and B̂ be n × n hermitian matrices. Let |ψi be a

Let Â = s1 and B̂ = s2 . Find states |ψi such that

i.e. the inequality given above should be an equality.

Problem 8. Given the two normalized states

where σ0 = I2 and ak , b` ∈ R with a3 6= 0 and b1 = a1 b3 /a3 , b2 = a2 b3 /a3 .

Problem 10. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Show that

Problem 12. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices and α ∈ R.

Problem 13. Let |0i, |1i be an orthonormal basis in a two-dimensional

Problem 14. Consider the Hamilton operator

where a12 ∈ R. Let I2 be the 2 × 2 identity matrix and E a real parameter.

Problem 15. Consider the Hamilton operator

Consider the unitary matrix

Can one find φ, θ such that U ∗ ĤU is a diagonal matrix?

exp(iασ3 )σ1 exp(−iασ3 ) = σ2 ?

Problem 17. Let σ1 , σ2 , σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Let α1 , α2 , α3 ∈

Problem 18. Consider the map f : C2 → R3 defined by

Are the vectors in C2 and R3 normalized? Consider the four normalized

Find the vectors in R3 .

Problem 19. Let σ1 , σ2 and σ3 be the Pauli spin matrices. Calculate

U (α, β, γ) = e−iασ3 /2 e−iβσ2 /2 e−iγσ3 /2

Ĥ() := Ĥ0 + Ĥ1 . (1)

When  is real, Ĥ() is diagonalizable with eigenvalues E1 (), . . ., En ().

P (E, ) := det(Ĥ() − EIn ) = 0 (2)

where In is the n × n unit matrix. When  is complex, the eigenvalues

Find the exceptional points of Ĥ().

and the state

and the state

Ĥ() := Ĥ0 + Ĥ1 . (1)

When is real, Ĥ() is diagonalizable with eigenvalues E1 (), . . ., En ().

P (E, ) := det(Ĥ() − EIn ) = 0 (2)

where In is the n × n unit matrix. When is complex, the eigenvalues

Find the exceptional points of Ĥ().

Ĥ = 1 (σ1 ⊗ I2 ⊗ I2 ) + 2 (I2 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ I2 ) + 3 (I2 ⊗ I2 ⊗ σ3 ) + γ(σ1 ⊗ σ2 ⊗ σ3 )