RECENTIN SITU STRESSMEASUREMENTS

USING THE HYDROFRACTURING

TECHNIQUE

B.C. Haimson
Professor of Rock Mechanics
Department of Metallurgical and Mineral Engineering
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin 53706

ABSTRACT tional theoretical and laboratory studies have

been carried out during the present decade (Edl,
A recently-drilled ultra deep oil-well near the 1973; Haimsonand Avasthi 1.975; Roegiers, 1975).
center of the Michigan Basin has provided an excel- Initial field results based on oil-field hydro-
lent opportunity to determine the state of stress fracturing jobs (Scheidegger,-1962; Kehle, 1964;
and its variation with depth in formations ranging in Haimsonand Stahl, 1970), and small scale ex-
age from Precambrian to Devonian. Except for the periments (Von Schonfeldt, 1970) were very prom-
top test (1230mdeep), results in the other three ising. The opportunity to test the method as a
horizons (2806m, 3660m, 5110m) indicate a linear in- field stress measuring technique came at Rangely,
crease of OHminyielding a constant ratio of 0.7 Colorado. The in situ stresses as determined by
betweenOHminand oV. The shallowest test in the Haimson(1973} •ing the hydrofracturing tech-
Devonian Amherstburg Formation yielded a OHminap- nique in a 1900mdeep borehole were in accord
proximately equal to øV. Shallow measurements
else- with the nearby fault type and its slip directio•
where in the Midwest have shown similar trends of as well as with surface. stress measurements and
relatively high horizontal stresses. The value of other geological structures. More importantly•
OHmax while not too consistent, tends to be equal or the determined stress magnitudes together with
lower than oV at the three deepest levels tested. the slip criterion of the rock tested were used
to accurately predict the level of formation-
Hydrofracturing stress measurementshave been pore pressure that would induce slip, thereby
carried out to about 0.4 km in two boreholes in triggering local earthquakes(Raleighet al,
Reykjavik, Iceland, on the flank of the Mid-Atlantic 1976).
Ridge. The measurementsindicate a dominant orien-
tation of OHmaxapproximately perpendicular to the Since the Rangely tests hydrofracturing has
axial rift zone, in contrast to earthquake focal becomea familiar in situ stress measuring method
mechanism solutions from within the axial rift zone. and it is still toi)•t•-E•e only technique known
In one hole (H32) a depth-dependentchange in stress for depths larger than 50m. Sometwenty signifi-
orientation is indicated, with the maximumcompres- cant measurements have been carried out so far
sive stress horizontal above a depth of about 0.25 in the North AmericanPlate (e.g. Haimson,1974a,
km, and vertical below it; however the orientation 1975, 1976a; Haimson et al 1976; Zoback et al,
of oHmaxremains unchanged. The data thus suggest 1977}.
reconciliation of an apparent conflict between the
dominantly compressive indications of shallow over- In this paper I am reporting on two sets of
coring stress measurementsand dominant extension as hydrofracturing measurementsrecently conducted
required by focal mechanismssolutions. The mea- in areas of particular geologic interest: the
sured stresses are supported by the more reliable of Michigan Basin and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in
overcoring measurements from southeast Iceland. Iceland.

INTRODUCTION THE MICHIGAN ULTRA-DEEP TESTS

Hydrofracturing as a method of in-situ stress A recently drilled ultra-deep oil well in

measurementwas developed a decade ago based on the Michigan Basin which was madeavailable for
theoretical work (Scheidegger, 1962; Kehle 1964; scientific logging and testing has provided a
Haimsonand Fairhurst, 1967),and laboratory experi- unique opportunity to investigate continental in-
ments (Haimson, 1968; Von Schonfeldt, 1970). Addi- teriors. The Michigan Basin is not only very

4C2-1
important economically because of its fossil fuel, because of the compromisedboundary conditions due to
salt and oil-shale deposits, but also geologically perforated casing. The results, however,showa
since through its subsidence it has preserved a most clear trend despite a significantly more erratic dis-
complete geologic record of the continental interior tribution than that of OHminwhenplotted with respect
history. However, little is understood about the to depth (Fig. 2).
mechanics of the basin formation and no adequate
models exist that relate it to global tectonic theory.
A concentrated effort on the part of several research STRESS
(XlOebarm)
groups has resulted in a numberof geophysical well 5 I0
loggingsand tests and amongthem a series of hydro-
fracturing stress measurements.

................................

'LA•PRECA• •
I I

Fig. 2. Michigan deep-well hydrofracturing strem

results plotted against depth. Linear regression
curves are also shown.

Table 1 summarizes the results obtained. The

.................. T(X) (• ?T•NT•N
Fig. 1. Mapof the Michigan Basin showingthe ele-
vation contours of the Trenton limestone.
tion of the deep-well is indicated.
vertical stress (oV) gradient wasestimatedfromden-
sity logs at 0.25 õars/m. Calculations indicate a
• steady increase with depth in all principal stresses
(Fig. 2). Linear regressionyields OHmin = 1.4+0.18d
and OHmax = 46+0.25 d, and oV = 0.26 d, where
stresses are in bars and d is depth in meters (limited
to 1000-5000m). These linear approximations(Fig.2),
which have very high correlation coefficients (•0.95),
show a marked departure of the stress regime from
The loca- that encountered in shallower zones in the Midwest.
The average horizontal stress, which near surface is
consistently higher than the vertical (Haimson, 1977b)

I conductedfour successful hydrofracturing tests

in the 5325 m ultra-deep well near Ithaca, Michigan,
close to the axis of the basin {Fig. 1). These were
probably the deepest stress measurementsever under-
taken (Haimson,lg76b, lg77a). The deepestsuccess-
ful measurement, at $110 m, was in a late Precambrian
red shale and was carried out in the open hole por-
tion of the well using conventional testing procedures
(Haimson,1974b). The shallower tests at depths of
3660 m, 2806 m and 1230 m were in the Cambrian Mt.
Simon sandstone, Ordovician Prairie du Chien dolomite,
and DevonianAmherstburglimestone, respectively. All
three tests were conducted through perforatiens in the
cementedcasing, so as to gain access to the rock.
The slow and controlled pressurization of the per-
forated zones ensured that the pressure against the
rock was uniform and that the same stress-pressure
relationships as for the open-hole case could be used
without drastic loss of accuracy.

The repeatability of the shut-in pressures in

repressurizations conducted for each test is evidence
to the reliability of the least horizontal compres-
sive stress {OHmin)magnitude. There is no way to
reproduce the values of the breakdownpressure on Fiq. 3. Directions of OHmaxin the Midwestand
which the magnitude of the largest horizontal com- Ontario as obtained by hydrofracturing (blocked
pressire stress (OHmax) depends. It is also diffi- squares) and overcoring (opencircles).
ßcult to ascertain the extent of {OHmax)reliability
4C2-2
 Table 1 Principal Stress Magnitudes and Directions Based
on Hydrofracturing Testing in Ithaca, Michigan

Test Depth Rock øHmin •Hmax •H ave* øV

No m age bars oars oars bars

5 1230 Devonian 295 505 400 320

4 2806 Ordovician 400 560 480 730

3 3660 Cambrian 645 885 765 950

2 5105 Precambrian 960 1470 1215 1325

*OHave= 1/2 (OHmax

+ OHmin)
is now equal or lower than the vertical. The vertical of the active zone of rifting and volcanism {Fig. 5}.
stress appears to vary from the least stress at depths These holes are relatively small diameter observation
of 0-200 m, to intermediate stress between 50 m and wells drilled 15-20 years ago near the periphery of
4500 m, to largest stress below that. The directions the Laugarnes hydrothermal system.
of the horizontal principal stresses could not be
determined in the Michigan deep well. However, based
on an increasing numberof results obtained elsewhere
in the Midwest{Fig. 3), I suggestthat OHmax
is
oriented at N60øF.

It should be noted that the shallowest test in

the Devonian limestone yielded relatively high hor-
izontal stresseswith oli n • ov and a øH ave: 1.25
oV (whereOHave = 1/2 (OHmin+ OHmax).Theseresults
are in accord with other measurements inthe Midwest.
Taking the three deeper tests only, approximate
relationships of OHmin= 0.7 oV and OHave = 0.85 oV
are obtained.

The Michigan measurementsprovided a first look

at stresses below 3000 m. The results strongly indi-
cate that while at shallow depths Hast's (1973) model -- mHF
of high horizontal stresses in many areas of the / Os•
world may be correct, at deeper levels a readjustment
appears to occur with the horizontal stresses in-
creasing with depth at a lower rate than the vertical
stress. Fig. 4. Mapof Iceland showingthe location of the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge boundaries{dashedarea). Also
THE ICELAND TESTS shown are the more reliable of Hast's overcoring
locations {B), and the hydrofracturing sites {A).
Iceland occupies a unique position in plate Straight lines at A and B indicate direction of
tectonictheory because of its position at the bound- OHmax. Focal mechanismsolutions are shownby
ary of the North American Plate on the axis of a mid- circles. Dark quadrants indicate direction of OHmin.
ocean ridge underlain by shallow asthenosphere. The
rift structure in Iceland and earthquake focal mech-
anism solutions along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge support
a crustal extension condition perpendicular to the The axial zones of rifting and volcanism in the
ridge (Klein et al, 1973). However, in situ over- Reykjanes Peninsula contain a great variety of vol-
coring stress measurements by Hast (lg--73•--•nducted canic and intrusive forms, cut by numerousfaults and
in shallow boreholes around Iceland indicate open fissures running mainly NE-SW, and en-echelon to
relatively high horizontal compressive stresses.These the local N70øEtrend of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The
results did not appear compatible with ocean floor axial rift and volcanic zones are flanked symnetri-
spreading processes, nor were they in accord with cally by Quaternary volcanics which in turn are bor-
focal mechanism. solutions for Icelandic earthquakes dered by Tertiary volcanics, with the strata dipping
(Fig. 4• also see Klein et al, 1973). Since his data toward the active zone. The two testholes are
vere probably affected to some extent by near surface located in a geothermal field in Qua")rnary basalt
topographic and thermal perturbations rather than by associated with an ancient central volcano.
deep seated tectonic forces it was considered
essential that a set of deep measurementsby a Testing procedures followed those described by
different technique be undertaken. Haimson(1974b). The major problemwas preexisting
joints in the testholes. In successful tests these
During the sumner of 1976 I conducted seven joints appeared to be sufficiently tight or healed so
successful hydrofracturing experiments in two bore- as not to interfere with pressurization. In such
holes ( H18 and H32) in Quaternary igneous rocks in cases a vertical hydrofracture was induced. To veri•
Reykjavik, Iceland, on the flank of the Reykjanes that hydrofractures were actually obtained two packer
Peninsula continuation of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The impressions were taken in tests H32-3 and H18-2, one
holes are located about 20-25 km..northwest of the axis before and one after pressurization. In each test ß

4C2-3
 STRESS (bars)
i,o 4o •o •o
! ! !

HYDROFRACTURING

$W ICELAND

x c•.H
ffdl
t
o O'Nm•x
0 20 Km
I , i ,

Fig. 5. Map of the Reykjanes Peninsula, SW Iceland, Fig. 6. Iceland hydrofracturing stress results plot-
showingindividual rift zones (shaded areas), the ted against depth for both testholes (H32 and H18).
continuation of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge dividing the Linear regression curves are also shown.
North American Plate (NAP) from the Eurasian Plate
(EP), average hydrofracturing stress ellipses at H32
and H18, and some focal mechanism solutions.

both impressions showedpreexisting inclined cracks and for H18: (5)

in the rock but only the secondimpressionshowed
also the existence of a vertical fracture traversing ov = 0.29 d
the length of the interval. More details on test
procedures and calculations are given by Haimsonand OHmin
= -13 + 0.29 d
Voight (1977). OHmax
= -23 + 0.47 d,
The calculated stresses are given in Table 2 where stresses {o) are in bars and depths (d) are in
and plotted with respect to depth in Fig. 6. The meters. The quality of fit achieved by linear re-
data suggests that each borehole site represents a gressions lS
ß excellent for o•(,-• in both instances
distinct stress population. Linear regressions yield (cf. Fig. 6); thefit is goo•'"wlth
respect
to OHmax
'
the following (good for 200-400m):
The results for H32 are very consistent. Both
for H32: (4)
OHminand OHmax
increase steadily with depth at about
the same rates, which are substantially less than the
oV .= 0.27 d rate of increase of overburden pressure. The rela-
øHmin= 20 + O.11 d tive orientation of OHmn•and oHminremain virtually
constantwith depth {¾•B)e2), i.e., O•a• direction
OHmax
= 47 + 0.07 d is N23o (+_3)W;OHmax/OHmin
ratios are •6 •he range

Table 2 Principal Stress Magnitudes and Directions Based

on Hydrofracturing Testing in Reykjavik, Iceland

Hole- Depth oHmin OHmax oH ave* oV

Test No. m bars direct. bars direct. bars bars

H32-1 203 41 N65øE 63 N25øW 52 54

H32-4 285 49 N65øE 64 N25øW 57 76
H32-2 350 58 - 81 - 70 93

H32-3 375 58 N70øE 70 N20øW 64 lO0

H18-2 180 39 S70øE 58 N20øE 49 51
H18-7 290 73 N45øE 129 N45øW lO1 83
H18-6 324 80 - ll8 - 99 92

* OHave 1/2 (OHmax

+ OHmin)

ß 4C2-4
1.2-1.5 . vanished, for the following reasons:
On the other hand, because of the difference
stress gradient, a reorientation of principal stresses
can be expected as a function of depth. Within the
range of data (200 m - 400 m) a transition occurs at
about 250 m; abovethis depth the vertical stress
appears to be the intermediate principal stress;
below it, the vertical stress ts the greatest prin-
cipal stress. For sufficiently hfgh shear stresses,
such stress orientations tmply strike-slip and normal
fault regimes, respectively; the maximum observed
shear stresses are only 21 bar, however, although the
regressions indicate that shear stresses increase
with depth.
Another principal stress transition 1s suggested
at 100 m; above this depth the vertical stress 1s the
least principal stress (correspondingto a thrust
fault regime), with near-surface horizontal compres-
sion estimated in the approximate range 20-40 bar.
The data also suggest the possibility of another tra•
sition on the order of 1 km depth, with OHminand
OHmaxexchanging orientations. More measurements
would be necessary to test this hypothesis.
The results of H18 are also relatively consis-
tent: OHminand oV seemto increase steadily with
depth at about the samerate; OHmax
also increases
with depth, but perhaps at a higher rate. Throughout
the range of observations the vertical stress is
the intermediate principal stress, thus corresponding
to a potential strike-slip fault.
The data from each site displays internal con-
sistency, although different'states of stress are
suggestive for boreholes H32 and H18'which are only
2 km apart. On the whole the data indicate a domi-
nant NNWor NWorientation for OHmax;at H18 the
stress state favors strike-slip faulting (for d >
150m}, whereas this regime seemsrestricted (say
lO0 m < d < 250 m) at H32. A normal fault regime
seemsdominantat H32 {for d > 250 m}.
The following interpretations of results are
summarizedfrom Haimsonand Voight (1977).
Although the small scale effects of local struc-
tural and thermal heterogeneity have yet to be
thoroughly investigated, the hydrofracturing stress
measurementsat Reykjavik suggest a dominant regional
orientation of OHmax.approx•mately
perpendicularto
the axial rift zone (Fig. 5}. This orientation is
furthermore supported by shallow overcoring measure-
mentsin southeast Iceland (Fig. 4). This state of
stress is fundamentally different from that in the
axial rift zones themselves (see focal mechanism
solutions, Figs. 4 and5). In the rift zones,OHmin
is consistently aligned perpendicular to individual
rift zonesjfissures and faults.
The observed directions of maximum horizontal
compression only a few km from the active rift zone
could be in part due to the glacio-isostatic plate
flexure and the unflexing during post-glacial uplift
in Iceland. The true post-glacial uplift of near-
shore areas in Iceland during the past ll,000 yr is
about 80-160 m. Lateral stress changes associated
with such glacial-induced deflections must have been
substantial, resulting in radial and tangential
(flexural) compressionwithin the hinge line, at the
surface of the subglacial lithosphere. With the un-
flexing associated with post-glacial uplift, all
glacially-induced flexural stresses could ideally
disappear; however, perhaps they have not completely
in (1) At the same time that compressionoccurred
at the top of the lithosphere, extension
occurred at its base. This stress field
could have encouraged formation of brittle
fracturing and igneous intrusions; many of
these intrusions extended fully to the sur-
face, resulting in sub-glacial volcanism.
Zones of extension were thus "filled" by
intrusions or dilatational volume changes,
and the associated strains were possibly not
fully relieved when the glacial load was
removed. Compressionalstrains could thus
have been locked into the lithosphere.
Because the crust is weaker along the axial
rift zones, the zone of intrusions and frac-
turing would on the whole have been pref-
erentially aligned with this trend. The
associated remnant OHmax
direction should
therefore be about perpendicular to the axial
rift zone, just as seems indicated by much
of available data.
(2) During the 3 m.y. interval in which glacial
depregsion of the lithosphere was active,
accretion of mantle to the base of the
lithosphere might have been significant.
The newly accreted portion of lithosphere
could have prevented full release of flexur•
strains.
This hypothesis perhaps can account at least in part
for the magnitudesand orientations of the measured
stresses, despite the continuing spreading-related
deformation in the axial rift zone.
The existing data and especially the implica-
tion that OHmax orientation is potentially regional
in scope, seemespecially consistent with the hy-
pothesis that thermal stress componentsare intro-
duced as a function of spreading, due to both axial
zone lithospheric accretion and cooling, and basal
lithospheric accretion and cooling. According to
this view, progressive cooling of the lithospheric
plates as a function of spreading from the axial
zone of accretion results in thermal contraction in
a direction parallel to the trend of the axial zone
(Turcotte, lg74; Collete, lg74), and basal accretion
and subsequent cooling of the newly accreted, hot
material, results in contraction perpendicular to
the axial zone {Sykes and Sbar, 1974). These two
mechanismsboth favor alignment of principal stresses
with axial rift zones or associated isochrons. The
basal accretion and cooling mechanismmainly induces
a systematic increase in the oH component
normal to
the rift zone as a function of distance from the
rift zone whereas axial accretion and cooling tends
to causeregional alignmentof OHmin
parallel to the
axial rift zone. The existing stress data seem to
correspond well with the predicted patterns asso-
ciated with accretion-cooling models.
The above interpretations are speculative in
nature since the stress data are still too scarce.
More hydrofracturing deep-hole measurementsin other
areas near the Mid-Atlantic Ridge will be req.uired
in order that the apparent contradiction between
Plate Tectonics theory and in situ stresses be
solved.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Michigan deep-well tests were supported by
4C2-5 '
NSF Grant EAR7602952. The Iceland measurements were Haimson, B.C., and E. J. Stahl, 1970, Hy-
sponsoredby NSFGrant EAR7603821.Graduate students draulic Fracturing and the Extraction of min-
J. Avasthi, L. Cheung, S. Erbstoesser assisted with erals ThroughWells. Proc. 3rd Sjanp.on Salt,
field details. The Icelantic National Energy N. Ohio Geological Soc., pp. 421-432.
Authority and in particular Dr. G. P•lmason and Mr. Haimson, B.C., and B. Voight, 1977, Crustal
T. Thorsteinsson provided invaluable technical and Stress in Iceland, Pure and Applied Geophysics,
logistic assistance. Dr. B. Voight, Pennsylvania v. 115, pp. 1-38.
State University, first proposed hydrofracturing Hast, N., 1973, Global measurements of absolute
measurements in Iceland, and was instrumental in stress, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London, v. 274,
selecting test sites and interpreting the results. pp.409-419.
Kehle, R. 0., 1964, Determination of Tectonic
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4C2-6