COLUMN  ENGINEER’S NOTEBOOK

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Stephen W. Duda

Selecting and Specifying

Pipe Flow Meters
BY STEPHEN W. DUDA, P.E., BEAP, HBDP, HFDP, FELLOW ASHRAE

In my most recent “Engineer’s Notebook” column (May 2019), I discussed how

measuring airflow rates is an important part of most HVAC controls systems and
reviewed pros and cons of several types of duct-mounted airflow measurement
devices in various HVAC applications. This month’s column is intended to help
designers and engineers select and specify fluid flow measurement devices for
mounting in HVAC piping systems, which I will call “flow meters” hereinafter.
In my experience, measuring chilled water, heating
hot water, condenser water, or steam flow in HVAC sys-
tems is less common than measuring ducted airflow.
Most sequences of operation for hydronic systems con-
trol are based on water temperature, static pressure,
valve position, and the like. Other control sequences
merely need to know whether water is flowing or not,
such as with sail switches. But there are certainly cases
where continuous flow rate measurement is specified
or desired, including medical or educational campus
applications where an owner wishes to track and/or
internally bill individual campus buildings for their
HVAC hydronic water use. Many green building evalu-
ation criteria include flow metering as a recommended
step for comparing or trending building energy use
under the philosophy “you can’t analyze what you don’t
measure.”
Therefore, this column reviews multiple distinct non-
proprietary types of pipe system flow measurement
devices that are commonly applied in HVAC systems and
are commercially available from multiple manufactur-
ers. Subchapter 7 within Chapter 37 of the 2017 ASHRAE
Handbook—Fundamentals1 includes such a discussion of
various flow meter types but seems to lack a list of pros
and cons and recommended applications for each. So
this column hopes to expand upon the Handbook chap-
ter and assist the reader in understanding the pros and
cons of each type and ultimately in making an applica-
tion-based selection.
Electromagnetic Flow Meters
Permanent in-line electromagnetic-type flow meters
(Figure 1) are available for measuring flow both locally and
via a transmitter to send signals to a building automation
system (BAS). These are mounted in the line of pipe, usu-
ally joined to the pipe via bolted flanges as if they were
a valve, strainer, or pipe fitting. They feature no moving
parts and are suitable for bidirectional flow measure-
ment. Wetted parts (those parts in contact with the fluid
whose flow is being measured) are typically constructed
of stainless steel or synthetic materials (for good corrosion
resistance in a wide variety of fluid types).
The operating principle for an electromagnetic flow
Stephen W. Duda, P.E., is senior mechanical engineer at Ross & Baruzzini, Inc.,
in St. Louis. He is a member and former chair of TC 9.1, Large Building Air-
Conditioning Systems.

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FIGURE 1  In-line electromagnetic flow meter.
Electronics Enclosure
Piping
In-Line Flow Meter
meter comes from Faraday’s Law. We know that a volt-
age will be induced in a conductive fluid when it passes
through a magnetic field. Furthermore, that voltage
will be directly proportional to the velocity of the con-
ductive fluid. So, this flow meter works by generating a
magnetic field (meaning it needs an external source of
electric power) then measuring the induced voltage via
electrodes in the flow tube. Fluids to be measured must
have an electrical conductivity of at least 5 μS/cm, which
covers most HVAC fluids. It would not work with, for
example, deionized water.
In-line electromagnetic flow meters tend to be both very
expensive (especially in larger pipe diameters) and very
accurate—usually much more expensive and more accu-
rate than we typically need in the HVAC world. Accuracy
for the brands I’ve reviewed are about ±0.2% of reading
from 1.6 to 33 fps (0.5 to 10 m/s) fluid velocity, and repeat-
ability is ±0.5% of reading. They can even be used at low
flow rates, below 1 fps (0.3 m/s), with reasonable accuracy.
In addition to excellent accuracy, another advantage is
that you only need three diameters of upstream straight
pipe and two diameters downstream in order to achieve
that accuracy. Pressure loss in the conveyed fluid is usu-
ally negligible because there are no restrictive devices,
and no parts of the flow meter protrude into the flow
area. And since these types of meters have no moving
parts, they offer long-term reliability with little mainte-
nance and minimal recalibration. Potential applications
include chilled water, hydronic hot water, condenser
water, water/glycol/brine solutions, and bidirectional
flow detection for primary/secondary decouplers, and
domestic water. They are not appropriate for steam
systems, as they are rated for fluids up to 212°F [100°C]
only. Because of the high cost, I typically specify these
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COLUMN  ENGINEER’S NOTEBOOK
FIGURE 2  Insertion turbine flow meter.
Electronics Enclosure
Insertion Rod (Inside Assembly)
Ball Valve
Branch Outlet Fitting
Turbines
Piping
only for very critical measurement applications.
Incidentally, there are a few manufacturers of inser-
tion electromagnetic flow meters, which offer a signifi-
cant improvement on cost while sacrificing just a little of
the accuracy of the in-line type. It may be worth keeping
an eye on this technology as more vendors begin to offer
such a product.
Insertion Turbine Liquid Flow Meters
Another type of permanent flow meter in HVAC sys-
tems is the turbine flow meter, which is more common.
These are not mounted in-line as valve or fitting would
be, but instead are inserted into a standard length of
pipe via an orifice designed for that purpose (Figure 2).
Some are even designed to permit installation in an
active pipeline via “hot tap” and are therefore good for
retrofit installations without pipeline shutdown. As
with the previous meter, wetted parts are typically con-
structed of stainless steel or synthetic materials for good
corrosion resistance.
The operating principle for the turbine flow meter is
fairly simple. The device includes one or two small tur-
bines inserted directly into the flowing fluid. The flow of
passing liquid spins the turbine, and a small magnetic
counter mounted on the turbine’s shaft counts the num-
ber of revolutions in a minute (rpm). Simple calibration
converts the rpm to a fluid flow rate (ft/min or m/s) and
then to a volumetric flow rate (gpm or L/s) based on a
known pipe diameter. A single turbine may be used in
small-diameter piping (NPS 2 or DN 50 and smaller) and
dual independent turbines with an averaging feature
are recommended in larger pipes.
Turbine flow meters are a good compromise between
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COLUMN  ENGINEER’S NOTEBOOK
lower cost and respectable accuracy and reliability, mak-
ing them probably the most common choice for HVAC
hydronics purposes. Accuracy is typically about ±2% of
reading from 0.4 to 30 fps (0.1 to 9 m/s) fluid velocity. The
cost of these devices is significantly lower than electro-
magnetic flow meters, especially in larger pipe sizes, as
the cost of an insertion turbine device does not increase
nearly as rapidly (it grows in physical size in only one
dimension) compared to the in-line pipe device, which
grows in three dimensions as pipe size increases.
In addition to somewhat less accuracy, another disad-
vantage of this type of flow meter is a longer straight run
requirement. You will need 10 diameters of upstream
straight pipe and five diameters downstream to achieve
the quoted accuracy. There is some pressure loss in the
conveyed fluid because of the protruding turbine and
shaft, but it is typically less than 1 psig [7 kPa]. Turbine
flow meters provide unidirectional flow measurement.
Since these types of meters have moving parts, they can-
not be expected to last as long between recalibrations
and/or maintenance attention as those devices with no
moving parts.
Typical uses for this type of flow meter include chilled
water, hydronic hot water, condenser water, domes-
tic water, process cooling, and brine. This is the type I
typically recommend and specify most often in HVAC
hydronic applications where extreme accuracy is usu-
ally not necessary, because I find that it offers a good
combination of low initial cost, an acceptable degree of
accuracy, and reasonable longevity. If you specify high-
temperature construction materials, a variation on the
turbine flow meter can also be used in steam systems,
pressurized high-temperature hot water systems, and
pumped steam condensate lines that always run full. It
is not suitable for measuring flow in pipes that operate
less than completely full, such as with gravity conden-
sate return systems, because at lower flow rates, the
fluid could miss the turbines completely.
Vortex Shedding Flow Meters
The operating principle for the vortex shedding flow
meter (in-line, similar to Figure 1) involves immersing a
blunt-shaped object in a stream of fluid flow. The fluid
separates and generates small low-pressure vortices that
alternate from side to side and are shed along the length
of, and downstream from, the blunt object. Sensors
located downstream from the blunt object can detect
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the lateral pressure changes, first on one side and then
on the other. The frequency at which another vortex is
shed is proportional to the velocity of the flowing liquid.
A microprocessor can be used to display totalizer flow,
flow rate, temperature, pressure, time, and date; micro-
processors can also be used as alarms for high and low
flow rate and temperature.
This type of flow meter includes stainless steel wetted
parts and flange pipe connections for permanent in-line
service. Performance is published at 10:1 turndown with
±1.5% accuracy over full-flow range, including all errors
associated with velocity measurement, temperature and/
or pressure measurement, and density compensation.
One important advantage of the vortex shedding flow
meter is that it can be used for steam and gases in addi-
tion to typical HVAC hydronic applications. If specifiable
options are included, it can withstand temperatures as
high as 500°F [260°C] and pressures as high as 1,500 psi
[10 MPa], making it a good choice for process applications.
A key disadvantage is a very long straight pipe length
requirement, ranging from 10 to 50 straight pipe diame-
ters upstream of the device and another five straight pipe
diameters downstream. The inlet-side straight length can
be shortened by installing an insertion flow straightener,
but at added cost and pressure drop. This is the type of
flow meter I typically recommend and specify most often
in HVAC steam applications.
Clamp-On Ultrasonic Flow Meters
The operating principle for the ultrasonic flow meter
involves the transit-time technique. The flow meter uses
a pair of transducers, with each transducer sending and
receiving ultrasonic signals through the fluid (Figure 3).
When the fluid is flowing, signal transit time in the
downstream direction is shorter than in the upstream
direction; the difference between these transit times is
proportional to the flow velocity.
One key advantage of this type of meter is that it can
be used on existing piping that is in service without cut-
ting into the pipe itself, making it the meter of choice in
many retrofit applications, or in troubleshooting during
commissioning or test-and-balance. Since the meter
clamps onto the outside of the pipe, it causes no pres-
sure drop in the fluid being measured, other than the
pressure drop in the piping itself. Because the meter is
never in contact with the fluid being measured, it is use-
ful for metering corrosive, toxic, high-purity or sterile
COLUMN  ENGINEER’S NOTEBOOK
fluids. Ultrasonic flow meters can also be used on large
diameter piping (up to NPS 24 or DN 600), whereas
a full-body in-line type meter may be prohibitively
expensive in those large sizes.
Since no tapping or cutting of the pipe is required, the
cost of labor to install is lower. Materials of construction
do not need to be compatible with the fluid being mea-
sured. Performance is published at ±1% accuracy for liq-
uids and ±2% for gases over a very wide range of velocities.
A disadvantage of the ultrasonic meter it that it must
be individually configured and programmed for each
specific application. The customer must specify data,
including pipe material and pipe wall thickness, and
the exact fluid being metered. Once it is configured for
a given application (for example, natural gas in a Type L
copper pipe), it cannot be easily installed for a different
service (e.g., steam in a Schedule 40 steel pipe) without
somewhat complex field reprogramming. The cost of the
electronics and clamp-on transducers is comparatively
high when used on small-diameter piping, versus the
insertion turbine type, but the relative cost differential
is more favorable on larger piping.
Straight pipe length requirement is typically 10 straight
pipe diameters upstream of the device and another five
straight pipe diameters downstream. This may defeat the
previously mentioned advantage of installation in a retro-
fit if suitable straight lengths of piping cannot be found in
the run where flow measurement is desired.
I typically apply the permanent version of this meter
on natural gas piping for non-custody transfer conve-
nience metering, not for utility company billing, but
for purposes internal to a building, such as metering
natural gas to each laboratory in a university research
building. It is also the meter I choose for gravity steam
condensate return lines where flow may be less than
full pipe volume. And, it is sometimes the only practical
option in existing systems operating 24/7/365 when it is
not allowable for system shutdown to install in-line or
insertion style flow meters.
Thermal Energy Meters
Finally, I want to mention thermal energy meters
(often known as “Btu meters” in the United States).
Thermal energy meters are found in some multi-tenant
buildings that have a central heating and/or central
chilled water plant, or at each building in a campus
environment with a central heating/chilled water plant.
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FIGURE 3  Clamp-on ultrasonic flow meter.
Electronics Enclosure
Clamp-On Transducers
Piping, Any Size
Mounting Hardware
It gives the building or campus owner a way to track
individual building use or even to bill individual tenants
for their chilled water and heating water usage based on
energy used.
This meter combines any of the flow meter technolo-
gies discussed herein with a pair of temperature sen-
sors in the supply and return piping. In my experience,
the insertion turbine flow meter is the most common
choice for routine hydronic system thermal energy
metering. By measuring flow rate of either chilled
water or hydronic heating water, in combination with
temperature sensors measuring the rise (or drop) in
temperature entering and leaving a building, a Btu
(kW) measurement is an easy calculation. Advantages
and disadvantages match those of the flow meter itself,
plus the additional inaccuracy of temperature measure-
ment—now flow rate inaccuracy and temperature mea-
surement inaccuracy could compound each other. To
minimize that inaccuracy, the two temperature sensors
are usually bath-calibrated and matched for the specific
temperature range for each application. The calculated
differential temperature used in the energy calculation
is typically accurate to within 0.15°F (0.08°C), including
the error from individual temperature sensors, sensor
matching, input offsets, and calculations.
Conclusion
This column offers an overview of several available
technologies for selecting and specifying pipe flow
metering in building HVAC systems, in an attempt to
add to and expand upon the information provided in
the ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals.1 While there is not
one correct answer for all flow measurement applica-
tions, I most often choose the following:
COLUMN  ENGINEER’S NOTEBOOK

1. For new HVAC hydronic ap- TABLE 1  Summary of common HVAC flow meter types.
plications, including chilled water, FLOW METER PIPE COMPARATIVE COST* MID-RANGE REQUIRED PIPE DIAMETERS
hot water, and condenser water, I TECHNOLOGY MOUNTING NPS 2/DN 50 NPS 8/DN 200 ACCURACY UPSTREAM DOWNSTREAM
choose insertion turbine flow me- Electromagnetic In-Line $1,900 $5,800 0.2% 3 2
ters; for sizes larger than NPS 2 [DN Turbine Insertion $700 $700 2.0% 10 5
50], I specify them to be dual-inde- Vortex Shedding In-Line $3,800 $9,200 1.5% 10 to 50 5
pendent turbines with an averaging
Ultrasonic Clamp-On $8,200 $8,200 2.0% 10 5
feature. *Costs are in U.S. dollars and should be used for comparison only, not for estimating or purchase.
2. For steam flow measurement, I
usually apply vortex-shedding flow meters. 6. For very critical measurement applications (exclud-
3. For pumped steam condensate flow measurement, I ing steam) where very high accuracy is necessary, I sug-
suggest using the insertion turbine flow meters specified gest specifying the electromagnetic flow meter, in spite
for higher-temperature components. of its high cost.
4. For gravity steam condensate return lines where 7. See Table 1 for additional guidance.
flow may be less than full pipe volume, I typically apply Ask the flow meter manufacturer for recommenda-
clamp-on ultrasonic flow meters. tions when metering cooling tower water, which may
5. For retrofit applications and for troubleshooting vary slightly in viscosity and in particulate concentra-
applications in existing systems where pipe service shut- tion, as to how these variations may affect the accuracy
down is inconvenient or worse, I suggest specifying the of each of these types of measuring devices.
clamp-on ultrasonic flow meters. I also specify these for References
non-custody transfer natural gas flow measurement. 1.  2017 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals, Chap. 37, pp. 37.20-37.24.

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