EES-701: ADVANCED POWER SYSTEMS

UNIT-II
VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER CONTROL

Department of Electrical Engineering

Faculty of Engineering and Technology
Jamia Millia Islamia
 NECESSITY OF VOLTAGE CONTROL
¢ Practically all the equipment on the power systems are
designed to operate satisfactorily only when the voltage
levels on the system correspond to their rated voltages
or at the most the variations are within say 5%.
¢ If the voltage variation is more than a pre-specified
value, the performance of the equipment suffers and
the life of most of the equipment also is sacrificed.
¢ Some of the examples of effect of voltage variation are:
Ø The picture on a television set starts rolling if the
voltage is below a certain level,
Ø The fluorescent tube refuses to glow if the voltage is
below a certain level.
Ø The torque of an induction motor (which forms about
70% of the total load on the system) varies as square 2
of the terminal voltage and so on.
RELATION OF VOLTAGE WITH REACTIVE POWER

¢ When power is supplied to a load through a

transmission line keeping the sending end voltage
constant, the receiving end or load voltage undergoes
variations depending upon the magnitude of the load
and the power factor of the load.
¢ The higher the load with smaller power factor the
greater is the voltage variation.
¢ The voltage variation at a node is an indication of the
unbalance between the reactive power generated and
consumed by that node.
¢ If the reactive power generated is greater than
consumed, the voltage goes up and vice versa.
¢ Whenever the voltage level of a particular bus
undergoes variation this is due to the unbalance 3

between the two VARs at that bus.

¢ To understand this relation refer to Fig. 2.1 where node one is a
generator node with reference voltage V1 and node two is the
load node with voltage V2. The two bus bars are interconnected
through a short line.

Fig. 2.1 Load connected to

the source through a line.

¢ Assuming the interconnector to be lossless (R = 0) and the

voltage V1 constant (by adjusting the excitation of the
generator), the following relations hold good:
(2.1)
(2.2)

From equation (2.2),

4
Substituting for I in equation (2.1),

(2.3)

The vector diagram for this relation is given in Fig. 2.2.

5
Fig. 2.2 Phasor diagram for system in Fig. 2.1.
o From the fig 2.2, it is clear that the load voltage V2 is not affected much
due to the real component of the load P as it is normal to the vector V1
whereas the drop due to reactive component of load is directly
subtracted from the voltage V1.

o Assuming the voltage drop due to real power negligible, the voltage
drop is directly proportional to the reactive power Q. The relation is
given by

(2.4)
o In order to keep the receiving end voltage V2 fixed for a particular
sending end voltage V1, the drop (Q/V1)X must remain constant. Since,
in this the only variable quantity is Q, it is this reactive vars which must
be locally adjusted to keep this quantity fixed

o Referring again to equation (2.4), in order to keep V2 constant for

fixed V1, another possibility is that the product QX be kept constant.
This is achieved by introducing series capacitors which will reduce the 6
net reactance of the system.
 IMPORTANCE OF VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE
POWER CONTROL
¢ Voltage at terminals of all equipment are within
acceptable limits
— both utility and customer equipment designed to
operate at certain voltage rating
— prolonged operation outside allowable range could
cause them damage

¢ System stability is satisfactory

— voltage levels and reactive power control have
significant impact on stability

¢ The reactive power flow is minimized so as to

reduce I 2R and I 2X losses to a practical minimum 7
— ensures transmission system operates efficiently
 METHODS OF VOLTAGE CONTROL
¢ Control of voltage levels is accomplished by controlling
the production, absorption, and flow of reactive power at
all levels in the system

¢ Generating units provide the basic means of voltage

control

¢ Additional means are usually required to control voltage

throughout the system:

— Sources or sinks of reactive power, such as shunt

capacitors, shunt reactors, synchronous condensers, and
static var compensators (SVCs).

— Line reactance compensators, such as series

8
capacitors.Regulating transformers, such as tap-
changing transformers and boosters
¢ Shunt capacitors and reactors, and series capacitors
provide passive compensation and
— are either permanently connected to the transmission
and distribution system, or switched
— contribute to voltage control by modifying the network
characteristics

¢ Synchronous condensers and SVCs provide active

compensation; the reactive power absorbed/ supplied by
them are automatically adjusted so as to maintain
voltages of the buses to which they are connected
— Together with the generating units, they establish
voltages at specific points in the system
— Voltages at other locations in the system are
determined by active and reactive power flows through
various circuit elements, including the passive 9
compensating devices
 PRODUCTION/ ABSORPTION OF REACTIVE POWER (Q)
¢ Synchronous Generators
— Can generate or absorb Q depending on excitation
— Capability limited by field current, armature current, and end-
region heating limits
— Automatic voltage regulator continuously adjusts excitation to
control armature voltage
— Primary source of voltage support!

¢ Overhead lines
— at loads below natural or surge impedance load (SIL), produce Q
— at loads above SIL, absorb Q

¢ Underground cables
— have high SIL due to high capacitance 10
— always loaded below SIL, and hence generate Q
¢ Transformers
— Absorb Q due to shunt magnetizing reactance and series
leakage inductance
¢ Loads
— A typical "load bus" is composed of a large number of
devices
— Composite characteristics are normally such that a load
bus absorbs Q
— Industrial loads usually have shunt capacitors to improve
power factor

— As power flow conditions vary, reactive power requirements of

transmission network vary
— Since Q cannot be transmitted over long distances, voltage
control has to be effected using special devices dispersed
throughout the system
11
 TRANSMISSION LINES
¢ Let the transmission line be loaded such that the load
current is I amperes and load voltage V volts; assuming the
transmission line to be lossless, the reactive power absorbed
by the transmission line will be

where ω is the supply angular frequency and L the

inductance of the line.
¢ Due to the shunt capacitance of the line, the reactive VARs
supplied by the line are
where C is the shunt capacitance of the line.
¢ In case, the reactive VARs supplied by the line are equal to
the reactive VARs absorbed,

12
(2.5)
¢ Zn is called the natural impedance of the line and the loading
condition in which the VARs absorbed are equal to the vars
generated by the line is called the surge impedance loading
(SIL) and it is here where the voltage throughout the length of
the line is same i.e. if the transmission line is terminated by a
load corresponding to its surge impedance the voltage at the
load is constant.
o In case I 2ωL > V 2ωC the voltage will sag
and if I 2ωL < V 2ωC (light load condition)
the voltage will rise (see Fig. 2.3).
o Normally the loading is greater than SIL
and, therefore, the condition I 2ωL > V 2ωC
exists and the net effect of the line will be
to absorb (sink) the reactive VARs.
o Under light load conditions the effect of shunt
Fig. 2.3: Variation of
capacitors is predominating and the line will voltage as a function
work as VARs generator (source). of distance of line. 13
 TRANSFORMERS
¢ The equivalent circuit of a transformer for power frequency is
given in Fig. 2.4.

Fig. 2.4 Equivalent circuit

of a transformer

¢ The transformers always absorb reactive power.

¢ Let XT be the per unit reactance of a transformer with kVA
as volt ampere rating and kV as the voltage rating.
Since by definition

Actual reactance X = XT .(V/ I) 14

o The above expression gives the VARs consumed
by the transformer when it is loaded to its full
capacity.
15
 CABLES

¢ Cables have very small inductance and relatively

very large capacitance because of the nearness of
the conductors, larger size of the conductors and
the dielectric material used has a relative
permittivity greater than unity. They are,
therefore, generators of reactive power.

16
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

17
Case 1: If E cos δ > |V|
¢ then Q > 0 and the generator produces reactive power i.e., it
acts as a capacitor.
¢ This inequality is generally satisfied when the generator is
over excited. Since cos δ = cos (– δ) the inequality is true for
both as when machine is working as a generator or as a
motor.
¢ Therefore, it can be said that an over-excited synchronous
machine produces reactive power and acts as a shunt
capacitor.

Case 2: If E cos δ < |V|

¢ then Q < 0 i.e., negative and the machine consumes reactive
power from the system.
¢ Consequently an under-excited machine acts as a shunt coil.

18
o This characteristic of the
machine i.e. it draws
leading or lagging current
depending upon the
excitation is nicely shown
as a V curve in Fig. 2.5.
Fig. 2.5 V-curves of synchronous
machine.
¢ When the machine is used over-excited it is known as
synchronous capacitor and the special feature of the
machine is that then it is run under no load condition;
thereby δ = 0 in the inequality and |E| > |V| i.e., Q
can be continuously and simply controlled by
controlling |E| i.e., by varying the d.c. excitation.
¢ In case the inequality is satisfied both ways during
the operation of the machine, it is then known as 19
synchronous phase modifier.
¢ A synchronous phase modifier has a smaller shaft and
bearing and higher speeds as compared to a
synchronous motor used for mechanical loads.
¢ A synchronous phase modifier has a higher overall
efficiency as compared with a synchronous motor.
¢ Standard machines are designed for full load output
at leading power factor and can carry about 50% of
their rated capacity when the p.f. is lagging.
¢ A machine designed to operate at full load for lagging
p.f. is physically larger, is more expensive and has
greater losses.

20
 SHUNT REACTORS
¢ The shunt reactors are used across capacitive loads or lightly
loaded lines to absorb some of the leading vars to control the
voltage across the load to within certain desirable limits.
¢ Shunt compensation with reactors:
— increases effective ZC
— reduces the effective natural load , i.e., voltage at which flat
voltage profile is achieved
¢ Line reactors assist in limiting switching surges
¢ In very long lines, at least some reactors are required to be
connected to lines
¢ Usually required for EHV lines longer than 200 km.
¢ Similar in construction to transformers, but have a single
winding (per phase) on an iron core with air-gaps and
immersed in oil.
21
¢ Either single-phase or three-phase construction
 SHUNT REACTORS CONNECTIONS
¢ They are connected either:
— directly to the lines at the ends, or
— to transformer tertiary windings; conveniently switched
as var requirements vary

Fig. Line and Bus connected EHV Fig. Line and Transformer 22
reactors connected reactors
 SHUNT CAPACITORS
¢ The shunt capacitors are used across an inductive load so as to
supply part of the reactive VARs required by the load so that the
reactive VARs transmitted over the line are reduced, thereby the
voltage across the load is maintained within certain desirable limits.
¢ Used in transmission systems to compensate for I 2X losses
¢ Connected either directly to H.V. bus or to tertiary winding of
transformers
¢ Usually switched: a convenient means of controlling voltage
¢ Shunt capacitor compensation of transmission lines decreases ZC
and increases θ, i.e., electrical length
¢ Advantages: low cost and flexibility of installation and
operating.
¢ Disadvantages: Q output is proportional to square of the
voltage; hence Q output reduced at low voltage
¢ Application: Shunt capacitors are used extensively in
distribution systems for power factor correction and feeder 23
voltage control
 SHUNT CAPACITOR CONNECTIONS

(a) Tertiary connected

capacitor banks

(b) HV capacitor bank

24
Fig: Capacitor bank connections Fig: Power factor correction in industrial
plants
 SERIES CAPACITORS
¢ Connected in series with the line
¢ Used to reduce effective inductive reactance of line
— increases maximum power
— reduces I 2X loss
¢ Series capacitive compensation in effect reduces both:
— characteristic impedance ZC, and
— electrical length θ
¢ Reactive power produced increases with increasing power
transfer
— Self regulating !
¢ Typical applications
— Improve power transfer compatibility
— Improve system stability
— Alter load division among parallel lines 25
— Voltage regulation
 SERIES CAPACITORS (CONT’D)
¢ If a static capacitor is connected in series with the line, it
reduces the inductive reactance between the load and the
supply point and the voltage drop is approximately
IR cos φr + I(XL – Xc) sin φr (2.9)

o It is clear from the vector diagram

(Fig.2.6) that the voltage drop
produced by an inductive load can
be reduced particularly when the
line has a high X/R ratio.
o In practice Xc may be so chosen that
the factor (XL – Xc) sin φr becomes
negative and numerically equal to
R cosφr so that the voltage drop
becomes zero.
o The ratio Xc/XL expressed as a
26
percentage is usually referred to as Fig. 2.6
the percentage compensation.
 SERIES CAPACITORS (CONT’D)
¢ If I is the full load current and Xc is the capacitive
reactance of the series capacitor then the drop across
the capacitor is IXc and the Var rating is I 2Xc. The
voltage boost produced by the series capacitor
ΔV = I Xc sin φr (2.10)
¢ One drawback of series capacitors is the high
overvoltage produced across the capacitor terminals
under short circuit conditions. The drop across the
capacitor is IfXc, where If is the fault current which is
of the order of 20 times the full load current under
certain circuit condition.
¢ A spark gap with a high speed contactor is used to
protect the capacitor under these conditions.
27
 COMPARISON BETWEEN SERIES AND
SHUNT CAPACITORS
1. The voltage boost due to a shunt capacitor is evenly
distributed over the transmission line whereas the change
in voltage between the two ends of the series capacitor
where it is connected, is sudden. The voltage drop along the
line is unaffected.
2. Let Qc′ be the reactive power of the shunt capacitor, Er the
receiving end voltage and X the reactance of the line; the
current through the capacitor will be Qc′/Er and the drop due
to this current in the line will be (Qc′/Er)X. Similarly let Qc
be the rating of the series capacitor I, the line current and
sin φr the sine of the power factor angle of the load. The drop
across the series capacitor will be (Qc/I) sin φr since the
magnitude of the voltage across the capacitor is Qc/I. For a
typical load with p.f. 0.8 lag, sin φr = 0.6 and assume IX/Er
= 0.1.
28
For equality of voltage boost with the two applications

(2.11)

It is evident that for the same voltage boost the reactive

power capacity of a shunt capacitor is greater than that of a
series capacitor.
3. The shunt capacitor improves the p.f. of the load whereas
the series capacitor has little effect on the p.f.
4. For long transmission lines where the the total reactance
is high, serves capacitors are effective for improvement of
system stability.

29
 COMPARISON BETWEEN SYNCHRONOUS
AND STATIC CAPACITORS
¢ A great advantage of the synchronous capacitor is its flexibility for
use for all load conditions because it supplies VARs when over-
excited, i.e. during peak load conditions and it consumes vars when
under-excited during light load conditions.
¢ There is smooth variation of reactive VARs by synchronous
capacitors as compared with step by step variation by the static
capacitors.
¢ Synchronous machines can be overloaded for short periods whereas
static capacitors cannot.
¢ For large outputs the synchronous capacitors are much better than
the static capacitors from economic viewpoint because otherwise a
combination of shunt capacitors and reactors is required which
becomes costlier and also the control is not smooth as is achieved
with synchronous capacitors.
¢ The main disadvantage of the synchronous capacitor is the
possibility of its falling out of step which will thus produce a large
sudden change in voltage. Also these machines add to the short 30
circuit capacity of the system during fault condition.
 STATIC VAR COMPENSATORS (SVC)
¢ Shunt connected static VAR generators and/or absorbers whose
outputs are varied so as to control specific power system
quantities
¢ The term static is used to denote that there are no moving or
rotating components
¢ Basic types of SVCs:
— Thyristor-controlled reactor
— Thyristor-switched capacitor
— Saturated reactor
¢ A static VAR system (SVS) is an aggregation of SVCs and
mechanically switched capacitors or reactors whose outputs are
coordinated
¢ When operating at its capacitive limit, an SVC behaves like a31
simple capacitor
 SVC (CONT’D)

(a) Controllable reactor (b) Fixed capacitor (c) SVS

32
Fig: Composite characteristics of an SVS
 SVC (CONT’D)

Fig: Use of switched capacitors to extend

continuous control range

33
 SVC (CONT’D)

Fig: A typical static var system 34

 SVC (CONT’D)

(a) Voltage-current (b) Voltage-reactive power

characteristic characteristic

35
Fig: SVS steady-state characteristics
COMPARATIVE SUMMARY OF ALTERNATIVE
FORMS OF COMPENSATION
¢ Switched shunt capacitor compensation generally provides the
most economical reactive power source for voltage control
— ideally suited for compensation transmission lines if reduction
of ZC, rather than reduction of line length θ is the primary
consideration
— however, heavy use of shunt capacitor compensation could
result in poor voltage regulation and may have an adverse
effect on system stability

¢ Series capacitor is self-regulating, i.e., its reactive power output

increases with line loading
— ideally suited for applications where reduction of line length
(θ) is the primary consideration
— improves voltage regulation and system stability
36
¢ A combination of series and shunt capacitors may provide the
ideal form of compensation in some cases
 COMPARATIVE SUMMARY (CONT’D)

¢ A static var compensator (SVC) is ideally suited for applications

requiring direct and rapid control of voltage
— has advantage over series capacitors where compensation is
required to prevent voltage sag at a bus involving multiple
lines; total cost may be less than that for series compensation
of each of the lines

¢ When an SVC is used to permit a high power transfer over a long

distance, the possibility of instability when the SVC is pushed to
its reactive limit must be recognized
— when operating at its capacitive limit, the SVC becomes a
simple capacitor

¢ An SVC has limited overload capability and has higher losses

than series capacitor compensation

37
 TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMERS
¢ The main job of a transformer is to transform electric energy
from one voltage level to another.
¢ Almost all power transformers on transmission lines are
provided with taps for ratio control i.e., control of secondary
voltage.
¢ There are two types of tap changing transformers:
(i) Off-load tap changing transformers.
(ii) On-load (under-load) tap changing transformers.
¢ The tap changing transformers do not control the voltage by
regulating the flow of reactive vars but by changing the
transformation ratio, the voltage in the secondary circuit is
varied and voltage control is obtained. This method is the
most popular as it can be used for controlling voltages at all
levels.
38
 TAP-CHANGING TRANSFORMERS
¢ Transformer with tap-changing facilities constitute an important
means of controlling voltages throughout the power system

¢ Control of a single transformer will cause changes in voltages at

its terminals
— in turn this influences reactive power flow
— resulting effect on the voltages at other buses will depend on
network configuration and load/generation distribution

¢ Coordinated control of the tap changers of all transformers

interconnecting the subsystems required to achieve overall
desired effect

¢ During high system load conditions, network voltages are kept at

highest practical level to
— minimize reactive power requirements
— increase effectiveness of shunt capacitors and line charging 39
TAP-CHANGING TRANSFORMERS (CONT’D)

¢ The highest allowable operating voltage of the transmission

network is governed by
— requirement that insulation levels of equipment not be
exceeded
— need to take into consideration possible switching operations
and outage conditions

¢ During light load conditions, it is usually required to lower

network voltages
— reduce line charging
— avoid underexcited operation of generators

¢ Transformers with under-load tap-changers (ULTC) are used to

take care of daily, hourly, and minute-by-minute variations in
system conditions

¢ Off-load tap-changing transformers used to take care of long-term 40

variations due to system expansion, load growth, or seasonal
changes
TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMERS (CONT’D)
¢ Figure 2.7 refers to the off-load tap changing transformer
which requires the disconnection of the transformer when
the tap setting is to be changed.
¢ The modern practice is to use on-load tap changing
transformer which is shown in Fig. 2.8.
¢ In the position shown in Fig. 2.8 the voltage is a maximum
and since the currents divide equally and flow in opposition
through the coil between Q1 and Q2, the resultant flux is
zero and hence minimum impedance.
¢ To reduce the voltage, the following operations are required
in sequence :
i. open Q1;
ii. move selector switch S1 to the next contact;
iii. close Q1;
iv. open Q2; 41
v. move selector switch S2 to the next contact; and
vi. close Q2.
 TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMERS (CONT’D)

Fig. 2.7 Off-load tap changing transformer. Fig. 2.8 On-load tap changing transformer.
o Thus six operations are required for one change in tap position.
o The voltage change between taps is often 1.25 per cent of the nominal
voltage where nominal voltages are the voltages at the ends of the
transmission line and the actual voltages are tsV1 and trV2 where ts and tr
are the fractions of the nominal transformation ratios, i.e., the tap 42
ratio/nominal ratio.
OPERATION OF A TRANSMISSION LINE WITH TAP
CHANGING TRANSFORMERS
¢ Consider the operation of a radial transmission line with
tap changing transformers at both the ends as shown in
Fig. 2.9.
¢ It is desired to find out the tap changing ratios required to
completely compensate for the voltage drop in the line.
¢ We assume here that the product of ts and tr is unity as this
ensures that the overall voltage level remains of the same
order and that the minimum range of taps on both
transformers is used.

43
Fig. 2.9 Radial transmission line with on-load tap changing transformer at
both the ends.
OPERATION OF A TRANSMISSION LINE WITH
TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMERS (CONT’D)
From Fig. 2.9, we have
(2.12)

We know that the approximate line drop is given as

(2.13)

(2.14)

44
OPERATION OF A TRANSMISSION LINE WITH TAP
CHANGING TRANSFORMERS (CONT’D)
(2.15)

(2.16)

(2.17)

(2.18)

o From the equation (2.18), for particular values of V2 and V1 and the
load requirements P and Q, the value of ts can be obtained.

o The tap changing operation is normally motor operated. A closed loop 45

control of the secondary voltage level is possible.
 BOOSTER TRANSFORMERS
¢ The two-winding load tap changing transformer performs two
functions, transforming the voltage and bucking or boosting the
voltage whereas the booster transformer performs the latter function
only.
¢ It can be installed at a sub-station as an additional equipment if
voltage regulation is further found to be necessary or it can be
installed as a separate piece of equipment at any intermediate point
in the line.
¢ The latter application may be desirable on economical or technical
grounds to increase the voltage at an intermediate point in a line
rather than at the ends as with tap changing transformer.
¢ For small outputs and voltages upto 2000 volts, the simplest booster
consists of an auto transformer with necessary tappings, whereas for
higher voltages and larger sizes it is necessary to utilize on-load tap
changing gear and also to perform the switching in an isolated circuit,
the voltage of which is only a fraction of the line voltage.
46
¢ One method is to energize the primaries of the boosting transformers
by means of a regulating transformer, the secondary of which is
provided with tappings along with tap changing gear as shown in Fig.
2.10.
 BOOSTER TRANSFORMERS (CONT’D)

¢ The voltage changes are made by means of a motor operated

controller and arrangements are made to reverse the connections
to the primaries of the regulating transformers so that both buck
and boost can be obtained.
¢ The sensing device for voltage variation should be sensitive to
current rather than voltage as the current varies 100% from no
load to full load whereas the voltage varies only by 10% or so.

47
Fig. 2.10 Booster transformer along with regulating transformer.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BOOSTER
TRANSFORMER
¢ ADVANTAGES:
1.The transformer can be used at any intermediate point in the
system.
2.When it is used along with a fixed ratio transformer it can be
taken out for inspection or overhaul without affecting much the
system.
3.The rating of the booster is the product of the current and the
injected voltage and is hence only about 10% of that of a main
transformer.
¢ DISADVANTAGES
1.The two are more expensive than a transformer with on-load
tap changing gear.
2.They are less efficient due to the losses in the booster.
3.They take more floor space.
¢ APPLICATION 48

The booster transformers are normally used in distribution

feeders where the cost of tap changing transformer is very high.
 EXAMPLE 2.1
o In the radial transmission system shown in Fig. E.2.1 all
per unit values are referred to the voltage bases shown and
100 MVA. Determine the total power, active and reactive,
supplied by the generator and the p.f. at which the
generator must operate.

49
Fig. E.2.1
 SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 2.1
Solution:
Nominal voltages are assumed and voltage drops in the circuits are
neglected.
To find out the total power active and reactive we add up all the
active powers connected to the system and reactive power
connected to the system plus the reactive power losses in the lines
and the transformers.
Taking voltage as 1.0 p.u. everywhere,
Power at bus A = Active power 0.5 p.u. and reactive power 0.375 p.u.
The total reactance between bus C and A = 0.075 + 0.04 = 0.115 p.u.

50
 SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 2.1 (CONT’D)
Active power tapped at bus C = 1.5 p.u. and reactive power 2.0 p.u.
Total active power between E & C = 0.5 + 1.5 = 2.0 p.u.
Reactive power between E & C = 0.375 + 0.0449 + 2.0 = 2.4199 p.u.
Total reactance between E & C = 0.05 + 0.025 = 0.075 p.u.

∴ Total active power supplied by the generator = 200 MW

and the reactive power supplied = 315.9 MW
and the p.f. of the generator = 0.5349. Ans.
51
 EXAMPLE 2.2
¢ A 230 kV line is fed through 33/230 kV transformer from a
constant 33 kV supply. A single line diagram of the 3-phase
system is shown in Fig. E.10.2. The impedance of the line
and transformers at 230 kV is (30 + j80) ohms. Both the
transformers are equipped with tap changing facilities
which are so arranged that the product of the two off
nominal settings is unity. If the load on the system is 150
MW at 0.9 p.f., determine the settings of the tap changers
required to maintain the voltage of the load bus bar at 33
kV.

Fig. E.2.2 52
 SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 2.2
Solution: It is desired to have Vs = Vr and tstr = 1.0.
The load is 150 MW and 72.65 MVAr

From equation (2.18) we have

Substituting the values we have

53